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Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79
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Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79
Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum.jpg
Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum by John Martin

Volcano
Mount Vesuvius
Date
August 24, AD 79
Type
Plinian
Location
Campanian volcanic arc, Italy
40°49′N 14°26′ECoordinates: 40°49′N 14°26′E
VEI
5
Impact
Buried the Roman settlements of Pompeii and Herculaneum, 16,000 people killed
In AD 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted in one of the most catastrophic and infamous eruptions in European history. Historians have learned about the eruption from the eyewitness account of Pliny the Younger, a Roman administrator and poet.[1]
Mount Vesuvius spewed a deadly cloud of volcanic gas, stones, ash and fumes to a height of 33 km (20.5 miles), ejecting molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 1.5 million tons per second, ultimately releasing a hundred thousand times the thermal energy of the Hiroshima bombing.[2] The towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum were obliterated and buried underneath massive pyroclastic surges and lava.[1][2] An estimated 16,000 people died in the eruption.


Contents  [hide]
1 Precursors and foreshocks
2 Nature of the eruption 2.1 Stratigraphic studies
2.2 Magnetic studies
3 The two Plinys 3.1 Pliny the Younger
3.2 Pliny the Elder
4 Casualties from the eruption
5 Date of the eruption
6 Notes
7 References

Precursors and foreshocks[edit]



The Last Day of Pompeii. Painting by Karl Brullov, 1830–1833
The AD 79 eruption was preceded by a powerful earthquake seventeen years beforehand on February 5, AD 62, which caused widespread destruction around the Bay of Naples, and particularly to Pompeii.[3] Some of the damage had still not been repaired when the volcano erupted.[4] The deaths of 600 sheep from "tainted air" in the vicinity of Pompeii reported by Seneca the Younger leads Haraldur Sigurdsson to compare them to similar deaths of sheep in Iceland from pools of volcanic carbon dioxide and to speculate that the earthquake of 62 was related to new activity by Mount Vesuvius.[5]
Another smaller earthquake took place in AD 64; it was recorded by Suetonius in his biography of Nero,[6] and by Tacitus in Annales because it took place while Nero was in Naples performing for the first time in a public theatre.[7] Suetonius recorded that the emperor continued singing through the earthquake until he had finished his song, while Tacitus wrote that the theatre collapsed shortly after being evacuated.
The Romans grew accustomed to minor earth tremors in the region; the writer Pliny the Younger wrote that they "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania". Small earthquakes started taking place on 20 August 79,[4] becoming more frequent over the next four days, but the warnings were not recognized.[8]
Nature of the eruption[edit]



Vesuvius erupting. Painting by Norwegian painter J.C. Dahl, 1826
Reconstructions of the eruption and its effects vary considerably in the details but have the same overall features. The eruption lasted for two days. The morning of the first day, August 24, was perceived as normal by the only eyewitness to leave a surviving document, Pliny the Younger, who at that point was staying at Misenum, on the other side of the Bay of Naples about twenty miles from the volcano, which may have prevented him from noticing the early signs of the eruption. He was not to have any opportunity, during the next two days, to talk to people who had witnessed the eruption from Pompeii or Herculaneum (indeed he never mentions Pompeii in his letter) so he would not have noticed early, smaller fissures and releases of ash and smoke on the mountain, if such had occurred earlier in the morning. Around 1:00 p.m., Mount Vesuvius violently exploded, throwing up a high-altitude column from which ash began to fall, blanketing the area. Rescues and escapes occurred during this time. At some time in the night or early the next day, August 25, pyroclastic flows in the close vicinity of the volcano began. Lights were seen on the mountain interpreted as fires. People as far away as Misenum fled for their lives. The flows were rapid-moving, dense, and very hot, knocking down wholly or partly all structures in their path, incinerating or suffocating all population remaining there and altering the landscape, including the coastline. These were accompanied by additional light tremors and a mild tsunami in the Bay of Naples. By evening the second day the eruption was over, leaving only haze in the atmosphere through which the sun shone weakly.
Pliny the Younger wrote an account of the eruption:

Broad sheets of flame were lighting up many parts of Vesuvius; their light and brightness were the more vivid for the darkness of the night... it was daylight now elsewhere in the world, but there the darkness was darker and thicker than any night.[9]
Stratigraphic studies[edit]



 Herculaneum and other cities affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown; Pliny the Younger was at Misenum.
According to a stratigraphic study (a study of the layers of ash) by Sigurdsson, Cashdollar, and Sparks, published in 1982, and now a standard reference, the eruption of Vesuvius of AD 79 unfolded in two phases:[10] a Plinian eruption that lasted eighteen to twenty hours and produced a rain of pumice southward of the cone that built up to depths of 2.8 metres (9 ft 2 in) at Pompeii, followed by a pyroclastic flow or nuée ardente in the second, Peléan phase that reached as far as Misenum but was concentrated to the west and northwest. Two pyroclastic flows engulfed Pompeii, burning and asphyxiating the stragglers who had remained behind. Oplontis and Herculaneum received the brunt of the flows and were buried in fine ash, lava and pyroclastic deposits.
In an article published in 2002 Sigurdsson and Casey elaborate on the stratigraphic evidence based on excavations and surveys up until then. In this interpretation, the quasi-initial explosion (not quite initial) produced a column of ash and pumice ranging between 15 kilometres (49,000 ft) and 30 kilometres (98,000 ft) high, which, due to northwest winds, rained on Pompeii to the southeast but not on Herculaneum upwind. The eruption is viewed as primarily phreatomagmatic; that is, the chief energy supporting the column came from the escape of steam superheated by the magma, created from seawater seeping over time into the deep faults of the region, that came into interaction with magma and heat.
Subsequently the cloud collapsed as the gases densified and lost their capability to support their solid contents, releasing it as a pyroclastic surge, which reached Herculaneum but not Pompeii. Additional explosions reinstituted the column. The eruption alternated between Plinian and Peléan six times. Surges 4 and 5 are believed by the authors to have destroyed Pompeii.[11] Surges are identified in the deposits by dune and cross-bedding formations, which are not produced by fallout.
The authors suggest that the first ash falls are to be interpreted as early-morning, low-volume explosions not seen from Misenum, causing Rectina to send her messenger on a ride of several hours around the Bay of Naples, then passable, providing an answer to the paradox of how the messenger might miraculously appear at Pliny's villa so shortly after a distant eruption that would have prevented him.
Magnetic studies[edit]



 Inside the crater of Vesuvius
A 2006 study by Zanella, Gurioli, Pareschi, and Lanza used the magnetic characteristics of over 200 samples of lithic, roof-tile, and plaster fragments collected from pyroclastic deposits in and around Pompeii to estimate the equilibrium temperatures of the deposits.[12] The deposits were placed by pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) resulting from the collapses of the Plinian column. The authors argue that fragments over 2–5 cm (0.79–1.97 in) were not in the current long enough to acquire its temperature, which would have been much higher, and therefore they distinguish between the depositional temperatures, which they estimated, and the emplacement temperatures, which in some cases based on the cooling characteristics of some types and fragment sizes of rocks they believed they also could estimate. Final figures are considered to be those of the rocks in the current just before deposition.[13]
All crustal rock contains some iron or iron compounds, rendering it ferromagnetic, as do Roman roof tiles and plaster. These materials may acquire a residual field from a number of sources. When individual molecules, which are magnetic dipoles, are held in alignment by being bound in a crystalline structure, the small fields reinforce each other to form the rock's residual field.[14] Heating the material adds internal energy to it. At the Curie temperature, the vibration of the molecules is sufficient to disrupt the alignment; the material loses its residual magnetism and assumes whatever magnetic field might be applied to it only for the duration of the application. The authors term this phenomenon unblocking. Residual magnetism is considered to "block out" non-residual fields.
A rock is a mixture of minerals, each with its own Curie temperature; the authors therefore looked for a spectrum of temperatures rather than a single temperature. In the ideal sample, the PDC did not raise the temperature of the fragment beyond the highest blocking temperature. Some constituent material retained the magnetism imposed by the Earth's field when the item was formed. The temperature was raised above the lowest blocking temperature and therefore some minerals on recooling acquired the magnetism of the Earth as it was in AD 79. The overall field of the sample was the vector sum of the fields of the high-blocking material and the low-blocking material.
This type of sample made possible estimation of the low unblocking temperature. Using special equipment that measured field direction and strength at various temperatures, the experimenters raised the temperature of the sample in increments of 40 °C (72 °F) from 100 °C (180 °F) until it reached the low unblocking temperature.[15] Deprived of one of its components, the overall field changed direction. A plot of direction at each increment identified the increment at which the sample's resultant magnetism had formed.[16] That was considered to be the equilibrium temperature of the deposit. Considering the data for all the deposits of the surge arrived at a surge deposit estimate. The authors discovered that the city, Pompeii, was a relatively cool spot within a much hotter field, which they attributed to interaction of the surge with the "fabric" of the city.[17]
The investigators reconstruct the sequence of volcanic events as follows. On the first day of the eruption a fall of white pumice containing clastic fragments of up to 3 centimetres (1.2 in) fell for several hours.[18] It heated the roof tiles to 120–140 °C (248–284 °F).[19] This period would have been the last opportunity to escape. Subsequently a second column deposited a grey pumice with clastics up to 10 cm (3.9 in), temperature unsampled, but presumed to be higher, for 18 hours. These two falls were the Plinian phase. The collapse of the edges of these clouds generated the first dilute PDCs, which must have been devastating to Herculaneum, but did not enter Pompeii.
Early in the morning of the second day the grey cloud began to collapse to a greater degree. Two major surges struck and destroyed Pompeii. Herculaneum and all its population no longer existed. The emplacement temperature range of the first surge was 180–220 °C (356–428 °F), minimum temperatures; of the second, 220–260 °C (428–500 °F). The depositional temperature of the first was 140–300 °C (284–572 °F). Upstream and downstream of the flow it was 300–360 °C (572–680 °F).[20]
The variable temperature of the first surge was due to interaction with the buildings. Any population remaining in structural refuges could not have escaped, as the city was surrounded by gases of incinerating temperatures. The lowest temperatures were in rooms under collapsed roofs. These were as low as 100 °C (212 °F), the boiling point of water.[21] The authors suggest that elements of the bottom of the flow were decoupled from the main flow by topographic irregularities and were made cooler by the introduction of ambient turbulent air. In the second surge the irregularities were gone and the city was as hot as the surrounding environment.
During the last surge, which was very dilute, one meter more of deposits fell over the region.[22]
The two Plinys[edit]



 Pompeii, with Vesuvius towering above
The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger, who was 17 at the time of the eruption,[23] to the historian, Tacitus.[24] Observing the first volcanic activity from Misenum across the Bay of Naples from the volcano, approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi), the elder Pliny launched a rescue fleet and went himself to the rescue of a personal friend. His nephew declined to join the party. One of the nephew's letters relates what he could discover from witnesses of his uncle's experiences.[25] In a second letter the younger Pliny details his own observations after the departure of his uncle.[26]
Pliny the Younger[edit]
The two men saw an extraordinarily dense cloud rising rapidly above the mountain:[25]

I cannot give you a more exact description of its appearance than by comparing to a pine tree; for it shot up to a great height in the form of a tall trunk, which spread out at the top as though into branches. ... Occasionally it was brighter, occasionally darker and spotted, as it was either more or less filled with earth and cinders.
These events and a request by messenger for an evacuation by sea prompted the elder Pliny to order rescue operations in which he sailed away to participate. His nephew attempted to resume a normal life, continuing to study, and bathing, but that night a tremor awoke him and his mother, prompting them to abandon the house for the courtyard. At another tremor near dawn the population abandoned the village. After still a third "the sea seemed to roll back upon itself, and to be driven from its banks", which is evidence for a tsunami. There is, however, no evidence of extensive damage from wave action.
The early light was obscured by a black cloud through which shone flashes, which Pliny likens to sheet lightning, but more extensive. The cloud obscured Point Misenum near at hand and the island of Capraia (Capri) across the bay. Fearing for their lives the population began to call to each other and move back from the coast along the road. Pliny's mother requested him to abandon her and save his own life, as she was too corpulent and aged to go further, but seizing her hand he led her away as best he could. A rain of ash fell. Pliny found it necessary to shake off the ash periodically to avoid being buried. Later that same day the ash stopped falling and the sun shone weakly through the cloud, encouraging Pliny and his mother to return to their home and wait for news of Pliny the Elder. The letter compares the ash to a blanket of snow. Evidently the earthquake and tsunami damage at that location were not severe enough to prevent continued use of the home.
Pliny the Elder[edit]
Further information: Pliny the Elder
Pliny's uncle Pliny the Elder was in command of the Roman fleet at Misenum, and had meanwhile decided to investigate the phenomenon at close hand in a light vessel. As the ship was preparing to leave the area, a messenger came from his friend Rectina (wife of Bassus) living on the coast near the foot of the volcano, explaining that her party could only get away by sea and asking for rescue. How the messenger escaped remains unexplained. Suddenly grasping the full significance of events, Pliny ordered the immediate launching of the fleet galleys to the evacuation of the coast. He continued in his light ship to the rescue of Rectina's party.
He set off across the bay but in the shallows on the other side encountered thick showers of hot cinders, lumps of pumice, and pieces of rock. Advised by the helmsman to turn back he stated "Fortune favors the brave" and ordered him to continue on to Stabiae (about 4.5 km/2.8 mi from Pompeii), where Pomponianus was. It is not clear whether he was abandoning the effort to reach Rectina's villa or believed Pomponianus was a member of Rectina's party. Pliny does not mention her again. Pomponianus had already loaded a ship with possessions and was preparing to leave, but the same onshore wind that brought Pliny's ship to the location had prevented anyone from leaving.
Pliny and his party saw flames coming from several parts of the mountain, which Pliny and his friends attributed to burning villages. After staying overnight, the party was driven from the building by an accumulation of material, presumably tephra, which threatened to block all egress. They woke Pliny, who had been napping and emitting loud snoring. They elected to take to the fields with pillows tied to their heads to protect them from rockfall. They approached the beach again but the wind had not changed. Pliny sat down on a sail that had been spread for him and could not rise even with assistance when his friends departed, escaping ultimately by land.[27] Very likely, he had collapsed and died, which is the most popular explanation of why his friends abandoned him, although Suetonius offers an alternative story of his ordering a slave to kill him to avoid the pain of incineration. How the slave would have escaped to tell the tale remains a mystery. There is no mention of such an event in his nephew's letters.
In the first letter to Tacitus his nephew suggested that his death was due to the reaction of his weak lungs to a cloud of poisonous, sulphurous gas that wafted over the group. However, Stabiae was 16 km (9.9 mi) from the vent (roughly where the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia is situated) and his companions were apparently unaffected by the fumes, and so it is more likely that the corpulent Pliny died from some other cause, such as a stroke or heart attack.[28] An asthmatic attack is also not out of the question. His body was found with no apparent injuries on the next day, after dispersal of the plume.
Casualties from the eruption[edit]



 The skeleton called the "Ring Lady" unearthed in Herculaneum
Along with Pliny the Elder, the only other noble casualties of the eruption to be known by name were Agrippa (a son of the Jewish princess Drusilla and the procurator Antonius Felix) and his wife.[29]
An estimated 16,000 citizens in the Roman vicinities of Pompeii and Herculaneum perished due to geothermal pyroclastic flows.[30][31] By 2003 around 1,044 casts made from impressions of bodies in the ash deposits had been recovered in and around Pompeii, with the scattered bones of another 100.[32] The remains of about 332 bodies have been found at Herculaneum (300 in arched vaults discovered in 1980).[33] What percentage these numbers are of the total dead or the percentage of the dead to the total number at risk remain completely unknown.
Thirty-eight percent of the 1044 were found in the ash fall deposits, the majority inside buildings. These are thought to have been killed mainly by roof collapses, with the smaller number of victims found outside of buildings probably being killed by falling roof slates or by larger rocks thrown out by the volcano. This differs from modern experience, since over the last four hundred years only around 4% of victims have been killed by ash falls during explosive eruptions. The remaining 62% of remains found at Pompeii were in the pyroclastic surge deposits,[32] and thus were probably killed by them. It was initially believed that due to the state of the bodies found at Pompeii and the outline of clothes on the bodies it was unlikely that high temperatures were a significant cause. But in 2010, studies indicated that during the fourth pyroclastic surge – the first surge to reach Pompeii – temperatures reached 300 °C (572 °F). Volcanologist Giuseppe Mastrolorenzo, who led the study noted that "(It was) enough to kill hundreds of people in a fraction of a second". In reference as to why the bodies were frozen in suspended action, "The contorted postures are not the effects of a long agony, but of the cadaveric spasm, a consequence of heat shock on corpses."[34]
Herculaneum, which was much closer to the crater, was saved from tephra falls by the wind direction, but was buried under 23 metres (75 ft) of material deposited by pyroclastic surges. It is likely that most, or all, of the known victims in this town were killed by the surges, particularly given evidence of high temperatures found on the skeletons of the victims found in the arched vaults, and the existence of carbonised wood in many of the buildings.
These people were all caught on the former seashore by the first surge and died of thermal shock but not of carbonization, although some were partly carbonized by later and hotter surges. The arched vaults were most likely boathouses, as the crossbeams in the overhead were probably for the suspension of boats. No boats have been found, indicating they may have been used for the earlier escape of some of the population. The rest were concentrated in the chambers at a density of as high as 3 persons per square meter. As only 85 metres (279 ft) of the coast have been excavated, the casualties waiting to be excavated may well be as high as the thousands.[35]
Date of the eruption[edit]
The year of the eruption is pinned to AD 79 (that is, the corresponding year of the Roman ab urbe condita calendar era) by references in contemporary Roman writers, a number of them apart from Pliny the Younger, and has never been seriously questioned. It is determined by the well-known events of the reign of Titus. Vespasian died that year. When Titus visited Pompeii to give orders for the relief of the displaced population, he was the sole ruler. In the year after the eruption, AD 80, he faced another disaster, a great fire at Rome.
The time of year is stated once in one historical document, the first letter of Pliny the Younger to Tacitus,[25] as "nonum kal. Septembres", which is not a regular syntactic unit and has no syntax (the grammarians say, indeclinable), but would seem to be an abbreviation of a standard date. By 79 the Julian Calendar was in use. The inscribing of dates was abbreviational and formulaic. Whether anyone knew exactly what the abbreviation stood for is questionable (compare English Mr. and Mrs.); certainly, literary representations such as Pliny's left out or misinterpreted key elements that would be required for the understanding of a produced meaning. Pliny's date (supposing that the date we now find in the text is the same one given by Pliny) would have been a.d. IX kal. sept., to be interpreted as "the ninth day before the Kalends of September", which would have been eight days before September 1, or August 24 (the Romans counted September 1 as one of the nine).
August 24 is not necessarily the date given by Pliny. It represents an editorial collusion to use the text of Codex Laurentianus Mediceus (a manuscript), which also appears in the 1508 printed edition of Aldus Manutius, in all recensions since then, even though the numerous Pliny manuscripts as well as the works of other authors offer many alternatives.[36] Unfortunately, the portion of Tacitus' Histories in which he most likely made specific use of the letter – requested for that purpose from his friend Pliny – and where he would have mentioned the date, does not survive; although Tacitus would have made use of Pliny's letter, the textual traditions of the two works, with their likely references to the date, would have been completely separate and not contaminated by each other. Since the textual tradition of any of Tacitus works through the Middle Ages, up to the first printed editions, is much slimmer than that of Pliny's letters,[37] and rests directly on relatively early textual witnesses (although the direct parent codices of these have been lost) the risk of multiple scribal errors and variants of the date creeping in would have been much smaller for this lost Tacitus text.
Archaeological dissent from this view began with the work of Carlo Maria Rosini in 1797, to be followed by a succession of archaeologists putting forward evidence to the contrary, though mainstream scholarly opinion has long been in favour of August 24. Discussion on the subject has increased somewhat in recent years. Some of the archaeological evidence from Pompeii does suggest that the town may likely have been buried about two or three months later. For example, people interred in the ashes appear to be wearing warmer clothing than the light summer clothes that would be expected in August. The fresh fruit, olives, and vegetables in the shops are typical of October, and conversely the summer fruit that would have been typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed over, and this would have happened around the end of October. The coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include a commemorative coin that should have been minted at the end of September.[38]
A 2007 study by Rolandi, De Lascio, and Stefani of 20 years of data concerning wind direction at meteorological stations in Rome and Brindisi established wind patterns in the Vesuvius area above 14 kilometres (46,000 ft) with more precision than was previously known.[39] From June through August the winds blow strongly from the west, for the rest of the time, from the east. This fact was known, but the easterly winds of the eruption were considered anomalous in August, caused (conjecturally) by the weak and shifting winds of the transition. The authors argued that the winds of 79 produced long depositional patterns and therefore would not have been this weak, and that the transition occurs in September, not August (their reference data, though, is from modern weather observations and might not match the patterns of those same months in antiquity with precision). The authors therefore reject the August date as being inconsistent with the patterns of nature.
The rejection is not of Pliny's eyewitness account or of Pliny's date, as transmitted in the text read in modern times. The rejection focuses on manuscript variants looking for possible sources of copyist alteration of Pliny's date. In some ancient and medieval manuscripts of other authors, the month has been omitted. If some original had no month, then the copyists may have felt obliged to provide one, but chose wrongly. Rolandi et al. suggest an original date of a.d. IX kal dec (November 23) or a.d. ix kal nov (October 24) more in line with the evidence of weather observations and wind patterns. The question remains an open one, and different reliable scholarly sources (modern secondary sources and discussions) continue to propose different dates.[citation needed]
Notes[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b Andrew Wallace-Hadrill (October 15, 2010). "Pompeii: Portents of Disaster". BBC History. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
2.^ Jump up to: a b "Science: Man of Pompeii". Time. October 15, 1956. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
3.Jump up ^ Martini, Kirk (September 1998). "Chapter 2: Identifying Potential Damage Events". Patterns of Reconstruction at Pompeii. Pompeii Forum Project, Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH), University of Virginia. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
4.^ Jump up to: a b Jones, Rick (2004–2010). "Visiting Pompeii – AD 79 – Vesuvius explodes". Current Archeology.co.uk. London: Current Publishing. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
5.Jump up ^ Sigurdsson 2002, p. 35 on Seneca the Younger, Natural Questions, 6.1, 6.27.
6.Jump up ^ Suetonius, C. Tranquillus (1914) [121]. "20". The Life of Nero. The Lives of the Caesars. Loeb Classical Library, William P. Thayer.
7.Jump up ^ Tacitus, Publius Cornelius (1864–1877) [117]. "Book 15.22". The Annals. Modern Library, The Internet Sacred Text Archive.
8.Jump up ^ The dates of the earthquakes and of the eruption are contingent on a final determination of the time of year, but there is no reason to change the relative sequence.
9.Jump up ^ "Pliny the Younger, Epistulae VI.16 & VI.20". Ancient Literature. Retrieved 2012-07-07.
10.Jump up ^ Sigurdsson, Haraldur; Cashdollar, Stanford; Sparks, Stephen R. J. (January 1982). "The Eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79: Reconstruction from Historical and Volcanological Evidence". American Journal of Archaeology (American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 86, No. 1) 86 (1): pp. 39–51. doi:10.2307/504292. JSTOR 504292.
11.Jump up ^ Sigurdsson 2002, pp. 42–43
12.Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 5
13.Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 6
14.Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 10
15.Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 8
16.Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, pp. 9–10
17.Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 1
18.Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 3
19.Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 12
20.Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 13
21.Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 14
22.Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 15
23.Jump up ^ His 18th year by Roman reckoning, as they counted the first 12 months as the first year.
24.Jump up ^ C. Plinii Caecilii Secundi. "Liber Sextus; 16 & 20". Epistularum. The Latin Library.
25.^ Jump up to: a b c Pliny the Younger; Charles W. Eliot (Editor) (1909–14). "LXV. To Tacitus". Letters. The Harvard Classics. IX Part 4. New York: Bartelby.com.
26.Jump up ^ Pliny the Younger; Charles W. Eliot (Editor) (1909–14). "LXVI. To Cornelius Tacitus". Letters. The Harvard Classics. IX Part 4. New York: Bartelby.com.
27.Jump up ^ Richard V. Fisher and volunteers. "Derivation of the name "Plinian"". The Volcano Information Center, Department of Geological Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved May 15, 2010.
28.Jump up ^ Janick, Jules (2002). "Lecture 19: Greek, Carthaginian, and Roman Agricultural Writers". History of Horticulture. Purdue University. Retrieved May 15, 2010.
29.Jump up ^ Josephus, Flavius (94). "xx.7.2". Jewish Antiquities.  Also known to have been mentioned in a section now lost.
30.Jump up ^ Lindsey Doermann (December 27, 2010). "Top 10 worst eruptions of all time". Cosmos. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
31.Jump up ^ Raphael Kadushin (September 13, 2003). "Pompeii and circumstance: what was hiding in the ruins". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved February 3, 2011.
32.^ Jump up to: a b Giacomelli, Lisetta; Perrotta, Annamaria; Scandone, Roberto; Scarpati, Claudio (September 2003). "The eruption of Vesuvius of 79 AD and its impact on human environment in Pompei" (PDF). Episodes 26. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
33.Jump up ^ Soprintendenza archeologica di Pompei (2007). "Pompeii, Stories from an eruption: Herculaneum". Chicago: The Field Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on March 18, 2009. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
34.Jump up ^ Valsecchi, Maria Cristina (November 2, 2010). "Pompeiians Flash-Heated to Death—'No Time to Suffocate'". National Geographic News.
35.Jump up ^ Sigurdsson & Carey 2002, pp. 55–57
36.Jump up ^ Rolandi 2008, p. 94.
37.Jump up ^ Grant, Michael, ed. (1958). Latin Literature, an Anthology. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books. p. 378.
38.Jump up ^ Rolandi 2008, p. 95.
39.Jump up ^ Rolandi 2008, p. 96.
References[edit]
Rolandi, G.; Paone, A.; De Lascio, M.; Stefani, G. (2008). "The 79 AD eruption of Somma: the relationship between the date of the eruption and the southeast tephra dispersion". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 169: 87–98. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.08.020.
Sigurdsson, Haraldur (2002). "Mount Vesuvius before the Disaster". In Jashemski, Wilhelmina Mary Feemster; Meyer, Frederick Gustav. The natural history of Pompeii. Cambridge UK: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 29–36.
Sigurdsson, Haraldur; Carey, Steven (2002). "The Eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79". In Jashemski, Wilhelmina Mary Feemster; Meyer, Frederick Gustav. The natural history of Pompeii. Cambridge UK: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 37–64.
Zanella, E.; Gurioli, L.; Pareschi, M.T.; Lanza, R. (2007). "Influences of urban fabric on pyroclastic density currents at Pompeii (Italy): Part II: temperature of the deposits and hazard implications". Journal of Geophysical Research 112 (112). doi:10.1029/2006JB004775.


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1906 San Francisco earthquake
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from San Francisco earthquake)
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"San Francisco Earthquake" redirects here. For the 1989 earthquake, see 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.
1906 San Francisco earthquake
Post-and-Grant-Avenue.-Look.jpg
Date
April 18, 1906
Magnitude
7.8 Mw[1]
Depth
8 kilometers (5.0 mi)[2]
Epicenter
37.75°N 122.55°WCoordinates: 37.75°N 122.55°W[2]
Areas affected
United States
 (San Francisco Bay Area)
Max. intensity
X - Intense
Casualties
3,000+



 Stockton Street from Union Square, looking toward Market Street


 Arnold Genthe's famous photograph, looking toward the fire on Sacramento Street


 USGS ShakeMap showing the earthquake's intensity throughout the region.
The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 struck San Francisco and the coast of Northern California at 5:12 a.m. on Wednesday, April 18, 1906.[3] Devastating fires broke out in the city that lasted for several days. As a result of the quake and fires, about 3,000 people died and over 80% of San Francisco was destroyed.[4]
The earthquake and resulting fire are remembered as one of the worst natural disasters in the history of the United States[5] alongside the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005.[6] The death toll from the earthquake and resulting fire is the greatest loss of life from a natural disaster in California's history.


Contents  [hide]
1 Impact
2 Magnitude and geology
3 Subsequent fires
4 U.S. Army
5 Relocation and housing
6 Aftermath and reconstruction
7 International assistance and insurance payments
8 Centennial commemorations
9 Analysis
10 Documentary film
11 See also
12 Panoramas
13 Notes
14 References
15 External links

Impact[edit]
At the time, 375 deaths were reported.[7] Partly because hundreds of fatalities in Chinatown went ignored and unrecorded, the total number of deaths is still uncertain today, and is estimated to be roughly 3,000 at minimum.[8] Most of the deaths occurred in San Francisco itself, but 189 were reported elsewhere in the Bay Area;[3] nearby cities, such as Santa Rosa and San Jose, also suffered severe damage. In Monterey County, the earthquake permanently shifted the course of the Salinas River near its mouth. Where previously the river emptied into Monterey Bay between Moss Landing and Watsonville, it was diverted 6 miles south to a new outlet just north of Marina.



 Howard Street
Between 227,000 and 300,000 people were left homeless out of a population of about 410,000; half of those who evacuated fled across the bay to Oakland and Berkeley. Newspapers described Golden Gate Park, the Presidio, the Panhandle and the beaches between Ingleside and North Beach as covered with makeshift tents. More than two years later, many of these refugee camps were still in operation.[9]



 The coastal liner Columbia on her side at the Union Iron Works dry dock
The earthquake and fire left long-standing and significant pressures on the development of California. At the time of the disaster, San Francisco had been the ninth-largest city in the United States and the largest on the West Coast, with a population of about 410,000. Over a period of 60 years, the city had become the financial, trade and cultural center of the West; operated the busiest port on the West Coast; and was the "gateway to the Pacific", through which growing U.S. economic and military power was projected into the Pacific and Asia. Over 80% of the city was destroyed by the earthquake and fire. Though San Francisco rebuilt quickly, the disaster diverted trade, industry and population growth south to Los Angeles, which during the 20th century became the largest and most important urban area in the West. Many of the city's leading poets and writers retreated to Carmel-by-the-Sea where, as "The Barness", they established the arts colony reputation that continues today.
The 1908 Lawson Report, a study of the 1906 quake led and edited by Professor Andrew Lawson of the University of California, showed that the same San Andreas Fault which had caused the disaster in San Francisco ran close to Los Angeles as well. The earthquake was the first natural disaster of its magnitude to be documented by photography and motion picture footage and occurred at a time when the science of seismology was blossoming. The overall cost of the damage from the earthquake was estimated at the time to be around US$400 million ($8.2 billion in 2009 dollars).






 Panoramic view of earthquake and fire damage from Stanford Mansion site, April 18–21, 1906[10]Damage to other towns
Although the impact of the earthquake on San Francisco was the most famous, the earthquake also inflicted considerable damage on several other cities. These include San Jose and Santa Rosa, the entire downtown of which was essentially destroyed.[11][12][13]
Magnitude and geology[edit]



 The San Andreas Fault.
The most widely accepted estimate for the magnitude of the earthquake is a moment magnitude (Mw) of 7.8;[1] however, other values have been proposed, from 7.7 to as high as 8.25.[14] The main shock epicenter occurred offshore about 2 miles (3.2 km) from the city, near Mussel Rock. Shaking was felt from Oregon to Los Angeles, and inland as far as central Nevada.[15]
The earthquake was caused by a rupture on the San Andreas Fault, a continental transform fault that forms part of the tectonic boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. The fault is characterized by mainly lateral motion in a dextral sense, where the western (Pacific) plate moves northward relative to the eastern (North American) plate. The 1906 rupture propagated both northward and southward for a total of 296 miles (476 km).[16] This fault runs the length of California from the Salton Sea in the south to Cape Mendocino to the north, a distance of about 810 miles (1,300 km). The earthquake ruptured the northern third of the fault for a distance of 296 miles (476 km). The maximum observed surface displacement was about 20 feet (6 m); however, geodetic measurements show displacements of up to 28 feet (8.5 m).[17]
A strong foreshock preceded the mainshock by about 20 to 25 seconds. The strong shaking of the main shock lasted about 42 seconds. The shaking intensity as described on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale reached VIII in San Francisco and up to IX in areas to the north like Santa Rosa where destruction was devastating. There were decades of minor earthquakes – more than at any other time in the historical record for northern California – before the 1906 quake. Widely interpreted previously as precursory activity to the 1906 earthquake, they have been found to have a strong seasonal pattern and have been postulated to be due to large seasonal sediment loads in coastal bays that overlie faults as a result of the erosion caused by hydraulic mining in the later years of the California Gold Rush.[18]
Subsequent fires[edit]



 Burning of the Mission District
As damaging as the earthquake and its aftershocks were, the fires that burned out of control afterward were even more destructive.[19] It has been estimated that up to 90% of the total destruction was the result of the subsequent fires.[20] Within three days,[21] over 30 fires, caused by ruptured gas mains, destroyed approximately 25,000 buildings on 490 city blocks. One of the largest of these fires was accidentally started in a house on Hayes Street by a woman making breakfast for her family. This came to be known as the "Ham and Eggs Fire". Some were started when firefighters, untrained in the use of dynamite, attempted to demolish buildings to create firebreaks. The dynamited buildings themselves often caught fire. The city's fire chief, Dennis T. Sullivan, who would have been responsible, had died from injuries sustained in the initial quake.[22] In all, the fires burned for four days and nights.
Due to a widespread practice by insurers to indemnify San Francisco properties from fire, but not earthquake damage, most of the destruction in the city was blamed on the fires. Some property owners deliberately set fire to damaged properties, in order to claim them on their insurance. Capt. Leonard D. Wildman of the U.S. Army Signal Corps[23] reported that he "was stopped by a fireman who told me that people in that neighborhood were firing their houses…they were told that they would not get their insurance on buildings damaged by the earthquake unless they were damaged by fire".[24]
As water mains were also broken, the city fire department had few resources with which to fight the fires. Several fires in the downtown area merged to become one giant inferno. Brigadier General Frederick Funston, commander of the Presidio of San Francisco and a resident of San Francisco, tried to bring the fire under control by detonating blocks of buildings around the fire to create firebreaks with all sorts of means, ranging from black powder and dynamite to even artillery barrages. Often the explosions set the ruins on fire or helped spread it.
One landmark building lost in the fire was the Palace Hotel, subsequently rebuilt, which had many famous visitors, including royalty and celebrated performers. It was constructed in 1875 primarily financed by Bank of California co-founder William Ralston, the "man who built San Francisco". In April 1906, the tenor Enrico Caruso and members of the Metropolitan Opera Company came to San Francisco to give a series of performances at the Grand Opera House. The night after Caruso's performance in Carmen, the tenor was awakened in the early morning in his Palace Hotel suite by a strong jolt. Clutching an autographed photo of President Theodore Roosevelt, Caruso made an effort to get out of the city, first by boat and then by train, and vowed never to return to San Francisco. Caruso died in 1921, having remained true to his word. The Metropolitan Opera Company lost all of its traveling sets and costumes in the earthquake and ensuing fires.[25]
Some of the greatest losses from fire were in scientific laboratories. Alice Eastwood, the curator of botany at the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, is credited with saving nearly 1,500 specimens, including the entire type specimen collection for a newly discovered and extremely rare species, before the remainder of the largest botanical collection in the western United States was consumed by fire.[26][27] The entire laboratory and all the records of Benjamin R. Jacobs, a biochemist who was researching the nutrition of everyday foods, was lost.[28] Another treasure lost in the fires was the original California flag used in the 1846 Bear Flag Revolt at Sonoma, which at the time was being stored in a state building in San Francisco.[29]
U.S. Army[edit]



Thank God for the Soldiers, a period piece depicting U.S. Army soldiers bringing food and supplies


 Soldiers of the 22nd Infantry Regiment looting during the fire


 Refugees before a tent. Other tents can be seen in the background at right.


 One of the eleven housing camps
The city's fire chief, Dennis T. Sullivan, was seriously injured when the earthquake first struck and later died from his injuries. The interim fire chief sent an urgent request to the Presidio, an army post on the edge of the stricken city, for dynamite. General Funston had already decided the situation required the use of troops. Collaring a policeman, he sent word to Mayor Eugene Schmitz of his decision to assist, and then ordered army troops from nearby Angel Island to mobilize and come into the city. Explosives were ferried across the bay from the California Powder Works in what is now Hercules.
During the first few days, soldiers provided valuable services like patrolling streets to discourage looting and guarding buildings such as the U.S. Mint, post office, and county jail. They aided the fire department in dynamiting to demolish buildings in the path of the fires. The army also became responsible for feeding, sheltering, and clothing the tens of thousands of displaced residents of the city. Under the command of Funston's superior, Major General Adolphus Greely, Commanding Officer, Pacific Division, over 4,000 troops saw service during the emergency. On July 1, 1906, civil authorities assumed responsibility for relief efforts, and the army withdrew from the city.
On April 18, in response to riots among evacuees and looting, Mayor Schmitz issued and ordered posted a proclamation that "The Federal Troops, the members of the Regular Police Force and all Special Police Officers have been authorized by me to kill any and all persons found engaged in Looting or in the Commission of Any Other Crime".[30] In addition, accusations of soldiers themselves engaging in looting also surfaced.[31]
Early on April 18, 1906, recently retired Captain Edward Ord of the 22nd Infantry Regiment was appointed a Special Police Officer by Mayor Eugene Schmitz and liasioned with Major General Adolphus Greely for relief work with the 22nd Infantry and other military units involved in the emergency. Ord later wrote a long letter[32] to his mother on the April 20 regarding Schmitz' "Shoot-to-Kill" Order and some "despicable" behavior of certain soldiers of the 22nd Infantry who were looting. He also made it clear that the majority of soldiers served the community well.[31]
Relocation and housing[edit]
The army built 5,610 redwood and fir "relief houses" to accommodate 20,000 displaced people. The houses were designed by John McLaren, and were grouped in eleven camps, packed close to each other and rented to people for two dollars per month until rebuilding was completed. They were painted olive drab, partly to blend in with the site, and partly because the military had large quantities of olive drab paint on hand. The camps had a peak population of 16,448 people, but by 1907 most people had moved out. The camps were then re-used as garages, storage spaces or shops. The cottages cost on average $100 to put up. The $2 monthly rents went towards the full purchase price of $50. Most of the shacks have been destroyed, but a small number survived. One of the modest 720 sq ft (67 m2) homes was recently purchased for more than $600,000.[33] The last official refugee camp was closed on June 30, 1908.[34]
Aftermath and reconstruction[edit]
Property losses from the disaster have been estimated to be more than $400 million.[35] An insurance industry source tallies insured losses at $235 million, the equivalent to $6.17 billion in 2013 dollars.[36][citation needed]



 Refugees leaving the city
Political and business leaders strongly downplayed the effects of the earthquake, fearing loss of outside investment in the city which was badly needed to rebuild.[citation needed] In his first public statement, California governor George C. Pardee emphasized the need to rebuild quickly: "This is not the first time that San Francisco has been destroyed by fire, I have not the slightest doubt that the City by the Golden Gate will be speedily rebuilt, and will, almost before we know it, resume her former great activity".[37] The earthquake itself is not even mentioned in the statement. Fatality and monetary damage estimates were manipulated.[38]
Almost immediately after the quake (and even during the disaster), planning and reconstruction plans were hatched to quickly rebuild the city. Rebuilding funds were immediately tied up by the fact that virtually all the major banks had been sites of the conflagration, requiring a lengthy wait of seven-to-ten days before their fire-proof vaults could cool sufficiently to be safely opened. The Bank of Italy, however, had evacuated its funds and was able to provide liquidity in the immediate aftermath. Its president also immediately chartered and financed the sending of two ships to return with shiploads of lumber from Washington and Oregon mills which provided the initial reconstruction materials and surge. In 1929, Bank of Italy was renamed and is now known as Bank of America.[citation needed]
William James, the pioneering American psychologist, was teaching at Stanford at the time of the earthquake and traveled into San Francisco to observe first-hand its aftermath. He was most impressed by the positive attitude of the survivors and the speed with which they improvised services and created order out of chaos.[39] This formed the basis of the chapter "On some Mental Effects of the Earthquake" in his book Memories and Studies.[40]
H. G. Wells had just arrived in New York on his first visit to America when he learned, at lunch, of the San Francisco earthquake. What struck him about the reaction of those around him was that "it does not seem to have affected any one with a sense of final destruction, with any foreboding of irreparable disaster. Every one is talking of it this afternoon, and no one is in the least degree dismayed. I have talked and listened in two clubs, watched people in cars and in the street, and one man is glad that Chinatown will be cleared out for good; another's chief solicitude is for Millet's 'Man with the Hoe.' 'They'll cut it out of the frame,' he says, a little anxiously. 'Sure.' But there is no doubt anywhere that San Francisco can be rebuilt, larger, better, and soon. Just as there would be none at all if all this New York that has so obsessed me with its limitless bigness was itself a blazing ruin. I believe these people would more than half like the situation."[41]
The grander of citywide reconstruction schemes required investment from Eastern monetary sources, hence the spin and de-emphasis of the earthquake, the promulgation of the tough new building codes, and subsequent reputation sensitive actions such as the official low death toll.[citation needed] One of the more famous and ambitious plans came from famed urban planner Daniel Burnham. His bold plan called for, among other proposals, Haussmann-style avenues, boulevards, arterial thoroughfares that radiated across the city, a massive civic center complex with classical structures, and what would have been the largest urban park in the world, stretching from Twin Peaks to Lake Merced with a large atheneum at its peak. But this plan was dismissed at the time as impractical and unrealistic.
For example, real estate investors and other land owners were against the idea due to the large amount of land the city would have to purchase to realize such proposals.[citation needed] City fathers likewise attempted at the time to eliminate the Chinese population and export Chinatown (and other poor populations) to the edge of the county where the Chinese could still contribute to the local taxbase.[citation needed] The Chinese occupants had other ideas and prevailed instead. Chinatown was rebuilt in the newer, modern, Western form that exists today. The destruction of City Hall and the Hall of Records enabled thousands of Chinese immigrants to claim residency and citizenship, creating a backdoor to the Chinese Exclusion Act, and bring in their relatives from China.[42][43][44]



 View from the Ferry Building tower, southwest down on Market Street.
While the original street grid was restored, many of Burnham's proposals inadvertently saw the light of day, such as a neoclassical civic center complex, wider streets, a preference of arterial thoroughfares, a subway under Market Street, a more people-friendly Fisherman's Wharf, and a monument to the city on Telegraph Hill, Coit Tower.
The earthquake was also responsible for the development of the Pacific Heights neighborhood. The immense power of the earthquake had destroyed almost all of the mansions on Nob Hill except for the Flood Mansion. Others that hadn't been destroyed were dynamited by the Army forces aiding the firefighting efforts in attempts to create firebreaks. As one indirect result, the wealthy looked westward where the land was cheap and relatively undeveloped, and where there were better views and a consistently warmer climate. Constructing new mansions without reclaiming and clearing old rubble simply sped attaining new homes in the tent city during the reconstruction.[citation needed] In the years after the first world war, the "money" on Nob Hill migrated to Pacific Heights, where it has remained to this day.
Reconstruction was swift, and largely completed by 1915, in time for the Panama-Pacific Exposition which celebrated the reconstruction of the city and its "rise from the ashes".
Since 1915, the city has officially commemorated the disaster each year by gathering the remaining survivors at Lotta's Fountain, a fountain in the city's financial district that served as a meeting point during the disaster for people to look for loved ones and exchange information.






 "San Francisco in ruins from Lawrence Captive Airship – 2000 feet [660 m] above San Francisco Bay – Overlooking waterfront. – Sunset over Golden Gate." Market Street leads directly away from Ferry Building tower, center foreground.
International assistance and insurance payments[edit]
During the first few days after news of the disaster reached the rest of the world, relief efforts reached over $5,000,000.[citation needed] London raised hundreds of thousands of dollars. Individual citizens and businesses donated large sums of money for the relief effort: Standard Oil gave $100,000; Andrew Carnegie gave $100,000; the Dominion of Canada made a special appropriation of $100,000 and even the Bank of Canada in Toronto gave $25,000.[citation needed] The U.S. government quickly voted for one million dollars in relief supplies which were immediately rushed to the area, including supplies for food kitchens and many thousands of tents that city dwellers would occupy the next several years.[citation needed] These relief efforts, however, were not nearly enough to get families on their feet again, and consequently the burden was placed on wealthier members of the city, who were reluctant to assist in the rebuilding of homes they were not responsible for. All residents were eligible for daily meals served from a number of communal soup kitchens and citizens as far away as Idaho and Utah were known to send daily loaves of bread to San Francisco as relief supplies were coordinated by the railroads.[citation needed]
Insurance companies, faced with staggering claims of $250 million,[45] paid out between $235 million and $265 million on policyholders' claims, often for fire damage only, since shake damage from earthquakes was excluded from coverage under most policies.[46][47] At least 137 insurance companies were directly involved and another 17 as reinsurers.[48] Twenty companies went bankrupt, and most excluded shake damage claims.[47] However, Lloyds of London reports having paid all claims in full, more than $50 million[49] and the insurance companies in Hartford, Connecticut report also paying every claim in full, with the Hartford Fire Insurance Company paying over $11 million and Aetna Insurance Company almost $3 million.[47]
The earthquake was the worst single incident for the insurance industry before the September 11, 2001 attacks, and the largest U.S. relief effort ever, to this day, including even Hurricane Katrina.[citation needed] After the 1906 earthquake, a global discussion arose concerning a legally flawless exclusion of the earthquake hazard from fire insurance contracts. It was pressed ahead mainly by re-insurers. Their aim was the globally uniform solution of the problem of earthquake hazard in fire insurance contracts. Until 1910, a few countries, especially in Europe, followed the call for an exclusion of the earthquake hazard from all fire insurance contracts. In the U.S., however, the question was discussed differently. But the traumatized public reacted with fierce opposition. On August 1, 1909, the California Senate enacted the California Standard Form of Fire Insurance Policy, which did not contain any earthquake clause. Thus the state decided that insurers would have to pay again if another earthquake was followed by fires. Other earthquake-endangered countries followed the California example.[50] The insurance payments heavily affected the international financial system. Gold transfers from European insurance companies to policyholders in San Francisco led to a rise in interest rates, subsequently to a lack of available loans and finally to the Knickerbocker Trust Company crisis of October 1907 which led to the Panic of 1907.[51]
Centennial commemorations[edit]



 Thirty miles south of San Francisco, a statue of geologist Louis Agassiz was toppled from a Stanford University facade. Stanford President David Starr Jordan later wrote, "Somebody – Dr. Angell, perhaps – remarked that 'Agassiz was great in the abstract but not in the concrete.'" [52]
The 1906 Centennial Alliance[53] was set up as a clearing-house for various centennial events commemorating the earthquake. Award presentations, religious services, a National Geographic TV movie,[54] a projection of fire onto the Coit Tower,[55] memorials, and lectures were part of the commemorations. The USGS Earthquake Hazards Program issued a series of Internet documents,[56] and the tourism industry promoted the 100th anniversary as well.[57]
Eleven survivors of the 1906 earthquake attended the centennial commemorations in 2006, including Irma Mae Weule (May 11, 1899 – August 8, 2008),[58] who was the oldest survivor of the quake at the time of her death in August 2008, aged 109.[59] Vivian Illing (December 25, 1900 – January 22, 2009) was believed to be the second-oldest survivor at the time of her death, aged 108, leaving Herbert Hamrol (January 10, 1903 – February 4, 2009) as the last known remaining survivor at the time of his death, aged 106.
Shortly after Hamrol's death, however, two additional survivors were discovered. William Del Monte, 103, and Jeanette Scola Trapani (April 21, 1902 – December 28, 2009),[60] 106, stated that they stopped attending events commemorating the earthquake when it became too much trouble for them. The discovery has opened up the possibility that there may still be more living survivors left that have not become public knowledge.[61] Del Monte and another survivor, Rose Cliver, then 106, attended the earthquake reunion celebration on April 18, 2009, the 103rd anniversary of the earthquake.[62] Cliver (October 9, 1902 – February 18, 2012)[63] died in February 2012, aged 109. Nancy Stoner Sage (February 19, 1905 – April 15, 2010) died, aged 105, in Colorado just three days short of the 104th anniversary of the earthquake on April 18, 2010. Del Monte attended the event at Lotta's Fountain on April 18, 2010 and the dinner at John's Restaurant the night before.[64]
Pebble Beach, California resident Ruth Newman, 112, is thought to be the oldest survivor[65] and Bill Del Monte, 108, is thought to be the last male survivor following the death of 107-year-old George Quilici (April 26, 1905 – May 31, 2012) in May 2012.[66] Another survivor, Libera Armstrong (September 28, 1902 – November 27, 2007), attended the 2006 anniversary, but died in 2007, aged 105.[67]
The death of Winnie Hook (February 14, 1906 – June 11, 2013)[68] at the age of 107 leaves only two survivors of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake: Ruth Newman, 112, and William del Monte, 108.
Analysis[edit]



 The San Andreas Fault runs in northwest-southeast along the coast. Numbers give the ground surface slippage (in feet) at various points.
For years, the epicenter of the quake was assumed to be near the town of Olema, in the Point Reyes area of Marin County, because of evidence of the degree of local earth displacement. In the 1960s, a seismologist at UC Berkeley proposed that the epicenter was more likely offshore of San Francisco, to the northwest of the Golden Gate. However, the most recent analysis by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) shows that the most likely epicenter was very near Mussel Rock on the coast of Daly City, an adjacent suburb just south of San Francisco.[69] An offshore epicenter is supported by the occurrence of a local tsunami recorded by a tide gauge at the San Francisco Presidio; the wave had an amplitude of approximately 3 in (8 cm) and an approximate period of 40–45 minutes.[70]
The most important characteristic of the shaking intensity noted in Lawson's (1908) report was the clear correlation of intensity with underlying geologic conditions. Areas situated in sediment-filled valleys sustained stronger shaking than nearby bedrock sites, and the strongest shaking occurred in areas of former bay where earthquake liquefaction had occurred. Modern seismic-zonation practice accounts for the differences in seismic hazard posed by varying geologic conditions.[71]
The USGS estimates that the earthquake measured a powerful 7.9 on the moment magnitude scale.[1] The earthquake caused ruptures visible on the surface for a length of 470 kilometers (290 mi). Modified Mercalli Intensities of VII to IX paralleled the length of the rupture, extending as far as 80 kilometers inland from the fault trace.[72]
Documentary film[edit]
External video
 San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, April 18, 1906
In 2005 the National Film Registry added San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, April 18, 1906, a newsreel documentary made soon after the earthquake, to its list of American films worthy of preservation.[73]
See also[edit]

Portal icon San Francisco Bay Area portal
Portal icon Disasters portal
1989 Loma Prieta earthquake
Andrew Lawson, editor of the 1908 report on the earthquake
Arnold Genthe and George R. Lawrence, photographers of the earthquake
Committee of Fifty (1906)
Earthquake engineering
Earthquakes in California
List of earthquakes in the United States



Panoramas[edit]






 San Francisco burning in 1906.





 San Francisco fire 1906

A 360 degree panoramic view of damage across the city after the disaster in 1906. In the distance large buildings remain but local structures are reduced to piles of rubble, with some chimney stacks remaining.


 San Francisco 360° panorama showing damage, 1906
Notes[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b c Where can I learn more about the 1906 Earthquake?, Berkeley Seismological Laboratory.
2.^ Jump up to: a b Location of the Focal Region and Hypocenter of the California Earthquake of April 18, 1906
3.^ Jump up to: a b USGS – The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake
4.Jump up ^ Timeline of the San Francisco Earthquake April 18 – 23, 1906, The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco
5.Jump up ^ John Dvorak "San Francisco Then and Now," American Heritage, April/May 2006.
6.Jump up ^ John A. Kilpatrick and Sofia Dermisi, Aftermath of Katrina: Recommendations for Real Estate Research, Journal of Real Estate Literature, Spring, 2007
7.Jump up ^ William Bronson, The Earth Shook, The Sky Burned (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1996)
8.Jump up ^ Casualties and Damage after the 1906 earthquake USGS Earthquake Hazards Program – Northern California, Accessed September 4, 2006
9.Jump up ^ Displays at the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Museum in Sausalito, California
10.Jump up ^ Library of Congress P&P Online Catalog — Panoramic Photographs <http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/panabt.html>
11.Jump up ^ A dreadful catastrophe visits Santa Rosa. Press Democrat, Santa Rosa, Calif
12.Jump up ^ Sta. Rosa [i.e. Santa Rosa] Courthouse
13.Jump up ^ The 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and Fire
14.Jump up ^ 1906 Earthquake: What was the magnitude? USGS Earthquake Hazards Program – Northern California, Accessed September 19, 2006
15.Jump up ^ Christine Gibson "Our 10 Greatest Natural Disasters," American Heritage, Aug./Sept. 2006.
16.Jump up ^ 1906 Earthquake: How long was the 1906 Crack? USGS Earthquake Hazards Program – Northern California, Accessed September 3, 2006
17.Jump up ^ 1906 San Francisco Quake: How large was the offset? USGS Earthquake Hazards Program — Northern California. Accessed September 3, 2006
18.Jump up ^ Seasonal Seismicity of Northern California Before the Great 1906 Earthquake, (Journal) Pure and Applied Geophysics, ISSN 0033-4553 (Print) 1420-9136 (Online), volume 159, Numbers 1–3 / January, 2002, Pages 7–62.
19.Jump up ^ "Over 500 Dead, $200,000,000 Lost in San Francisco Earthquake.". The New York Times. April 18, 1906. Retrieved April 19, 2008. "Earthquake and fire today have put nearly half of San Francisco in ruins. About 500 persons have been killed, a thousand injured, and the property loss will exceed $200,000,000."
20.Jump up ^ Stephen Sobriner, What really happened in San Francisco in the earthquake of 1906. 100th Anniversary 1906 San Francisco Earthquake Conference, 2006
21.Jump up ^ "The Great 1906 Earthquake & Fires of San Francisco".
22.Jump up ^ Charles Scawthorn, John Eidinger, Anshel Schiff, ed. (2005). Fire Following Earthquake. Reston, VA: ASCE, NFPA. ISBN 9780784407394.
23.Jump up ^ NPS Signal Corps History
24.Jump up ^ San Francisco Museum
25.Jump up ^ NY Times Obituary for Heinrich Conrad, April 27, 1909
26.Jump up ^ Alice Eastwood, The Coniferae of the Santa Lucia Mountains
27.Jump up ^ Double Cone Quarterly, Fall Equinox, volume VII, Number 3 (2004)
28.Jump up ^ The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
29.Jump up ^ The Bear Flag, The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco
30.Jump up ^ "Mayor Eugene Schmitz' Famed "Shoot-to-Kill" Order". Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco. Archived from the original on August 23, 2006. Retrieved September 3, 2006.
31.^ Jump up to: a b "Looting Claims Against the U.S. Army Following the 1906 Earthquake". Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco. Archived from the original on March 28, 2008. Retrieved March 26, 2008.
32.Jump up ^ Various (2006). "Ord Family Papers". Georgetown University Libraries Special Collections. Georgetown University Library, 37th and N Streets, N.W., Washington, D.C., 20057. Retrieved October 7, 2009.
33.Jump up ^ Reality Times: 1906 San Francisco Earthquake Housing Is Valuable Piece Of History by Blanche Evans
34.Jump up ^ Fradkin, Philip L. The Great Earthquake and Firestorms of 1906: How San Francisco Nearly Destroyed Itself. Berkeley: University of California, 2005. Print. p.225
35.Jump up ^ Casualties and damage after the 1906 Earthquake. United States Geological Survey. Accessed December 6, 2006
36.Jump up ^ Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–2014. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved February 27, 2014.
37.Jump up ^ San Francisco History The New San Francisco Magazine May 1906
38.Jump up ^ The Great Earthquake and Firestorms of 1906 Philip L. Fradkin
39.Jump up ^ Johann Hari (March 18, 2011). "The Myth of the Panicking Disaster Victim". Huffington Post. Retrieved April 3, 2011.
40.Jump up ^ William James (1911). Memories and studies. Longmans, Green. pp. 209–. Retrieved April 3, 2011.
41.Jump up ^ H.G. Wells, The Future in America: A Search after Realities (New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1906), pp. 41-42.
42.Jump up ^ Christoph Strupp, Dealing with Disaster: The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906, http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1066&context=ies.
43.Jump up ^ Great Earthquake and Fire of 1906: Its Effects on Chinatown Chinese Historical Society of America, Accessed December 2, 2006
44.Jump up ^ The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and Fire Niderost, Eric, American History, April 2006, Accessed December 2, 2006
45.Jump up ^ The New York Herald (European Edition) of April 21, 1906, p. 2.
46.Jump up ^ R. K. Mackenzie, The San Francisco earthquake & conflagration. Typoscript, Bancroft Library, Berkeley, 1907.
47.^ Jump up to: a b c "Aetna At-A-Glance: Aetna History", Aetna company information
48.Jump up ^ For a list of these companies see Tilmann Röder, From Industrial to Legal Standardization, 1871–1914: Transnational Insurance Law and the Great San Francisco Earthquake (Brill Academic Publishers, 2011).
49.Jump up ^ The role of Lloyd's in the reconstruction Lloyd's of London, Accessed December 6, 2006
50.Jump up ^ See T. Röder, From Industrial to Legal Standardization, 1871–1914: Transnational Insurance Law and the Great San Francisco Earthquake (Brill Academic Publishers, 2011) and The Roots of the "New Law Merchant": How the international standardization of contracts and clauses changed business law, http://www.rewi.hu-berlin.de/FHI/articles/0610roeder.htm.
51.Jump up ^ Kerry A. Odell and Marc D. Weidenmier, Real Shock, Monetary Aftershock: The 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and the Panic of 1907, The Journal of Economic History, 2005, vol. 64, issue 04, p. 1002–1027.
52.Jump up ^ "Earthquake impacts on prestige". Stanford University and the 1906 earthquake. Stanford University. Retrieved June 22, 2012.
53.Jump up ^ 1906 Centennial Alliance
54.Jump up ^ National Geographic TV movie
55.Jump up ^ projection of fire onto the Coit Tower
56.Jump up ^ series of Internet documents
57.Jump up ^ 100th anniversary
58.Jump up ^ "Security Alert:". genealogy.about.com. Retrieved July 6, 2014.
59.Jump up ^ Nolte (August 16, 2008). "1906 earthquake survivor Irma Mae Weule dies". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on September 20, 2008. Retrieved August 17, 2008.
60.Jump up ^ "Jeanette Trapani obituary". December 31, 2009. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
61.Jump up ^ San Francisco Chronicle, 2009-02-07, Calling any '06 San Francisco quake survivors
62.Jump up ^ "SF remembers great quake on 103rd anniversary". The San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on July 20, 2009. Retrieved June 24, 2009.
63.Jump up ^ "Rose Cliver Obituary: View Rose Cliver's Obituary by San Francisco Chronicle". legacy.com. Retrieved July 6, 2014.
64.Jump up ^ Carl Nolte, Hundreds gather to honor victims of '06 quake, San Francisco Chronicle (April 18, 2010)
65.Jump up ^ 'Quake Survivor Dies Three Days Short of Anniversary', San Francisco Chronicle (April 16, 2010)
66.Jump up ^ "Obituaries: George Quilici". Register-Pajaronian. June 4, 2012. Retrieved February 22, 2014.
67.Jump up ^ "Libera Era Armstrong (1902 - 2007) - Hayward, California". ancientfaces.com. Retrieved July 6, 2014.
68.Jump up ^ "Noreen Fern (Winnie) Hook Obituary: View Noreen Hook's Obituary by San Jose Mercury News". legacy.com. Retrieved July 6, 2014.
69.Jump up ^ Officials unmoved by quake notoriety Daly City
70.Jump up ^ Tsunami Record from the Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake, United States Geological Survey, 2008
71.Jump up ^ California Geological Survey – Seismic Hazards Zonation Program – Seismic Hazards Mapping regulations
72.Jump up ^ MMI ShakeMap of California for the 1906 San Francisco earthquake inferred from Lawson (1908) by Boatwright and Bundock (2005)
73.Jump up ^ "Librarian of Congress Adds 25 Films to National Film Registry". Library of Congress. December 20, 2005. Archived from the original on August 9, 2009. Retrieved July 22, 2009.
References[edit]
Double Cone Quarterly, Fall Equinox, volume VII, Number 3 (2004).
American Society of Civil Engineers (1907). Transactions. Paper No. 1056. The Effects Of The San Francisco Earthquake of April 18th, 1906, on Engineering Constructions: Reports Of A General Committee And Of Six Special Committees Of The San Francisco Association Of Members Of The American Society Of Civil Engineers. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
Greely, Adolphus W. (1906). Earthquake In California, April 18, 1906. Special Report On The Relief Operations Conducted By The Military Authorities. Washington: Government Printing Office. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
Gilbert, Grove Karl; Richard Lewis Humphrey, John Stephen Sewell and Frank Soule (1907). The San Francisco Earthquake And Fire of April 18th, 1906 And Their Effects On Structures And Structural Materials. Washington: Government Printing Office. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
The San Francisco Earthquake And Fire: A Presentation of Facts And Resulting. New York: The Roebling Construction Company. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
Jordan, David Starr; John Casper Branner, Charles Derleth, Jr., Stephen Taber, F. Omari, Harold W. Fairbanks, Mary Hunter Austin (1907). The California Earthquake of 1906. San Francisco: A. M. Robertson. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
Mining And Scientific Press; T. A. Rickard, G. K. Gilbert, S. B. Christy (and others) (1907). After Earthquake And Fire: A Reprint Of The Articles And Editorial Comment Appearing In The Mining And Scientific Press. San Francisco: Mining And Scientific Press. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
Russell Sage Foundation; Charles J. O'Connor, Francis H. McLean, Helen Swett Artieda, James Marvin Motley, Jessica Peixotto, Mary Roberts Coolidge (1907). San Francisco Relief Survey: The Organization And Methods Of Relief Used After The Earthquake And Fire Of April 18, 1906. Survey Associates, Inc. (New York), Wm. F. Fell Co. (Philadelphia). Retrieved August 15, 2009.
Schussler, Hermann (1907). The Water Supply Of San Francisco, California Before, During And After The Earthquake of April 18, 1906 And The Subsequent Conflagration. New York: Martin B. Brown Press. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
Tyler, Sydney; Harry Fielding Reid (1908, 1910). The California Earthquake of April 18, 1906: Report Of The State Earthquake Investigation Commission, Volumes I and II. Washington, D.C.: The Carnegie Institution of Washington. 
Wald, David J.; Kanamori, Hiroo; Helmberger, Donald V.; Heaton, Thomas H. (1993), "Source study of the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America (Seismological Society of America) 83 (4): 981–1019
Winchester, Simon, A Crack in the Edge of the World: America and the Great California Earthquake of 1906. HarperCollins Publishers, New York, 2005. ISBN 0-06-057199-3
Bronson, William (1959). The Earth Shook, the Sky Burned. Doubleday.
Contemporary disaster accountsAitken, Frank W.; Edward Hilton (1906). A History Of The Earthquake And Fire In San Francisco. San Francisco: The Edward Hilton Co. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
Banks, Charles Eugene; Opie Percival Read (1906). The History Of The San Francisco Disaster And Mount Vesuvius Horror. C. E. Thomas. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
Givens, John David; Opie Percival Read (1906). San Francisco In Ruins: A Pictorial History. San Francisco: Leon C. Osteyee. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
Keeler, Charles (1906). San Francisco Through Earthquake And Fire. San Francisco: Paul Elder And Company. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
London, Jack. "The Story of An Eyewitness". London's report from the scene. Originally published in Collier's Magazine, May 5, 1906.
Morris, Charles (1906). The San Francisco Calamity By Earthquake And Fire. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
Tyler, Sydney; Ralph Stockman Tarr (1908). San Francisco's Great Disaster. Philadelphia: P. W. Ziegler Co. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
White, Trumbull; Richard Linthicum (1906). Complete Story of the San Francisco Horror. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to San Francisco earthquake of 1906.
1906 San Francisco earthquake at DMOZ
The 1906 Earthquake and Fire from the National Archives
Before and After the Great Earthquake and Fire: Early Films of San Francisco, 1897–1916 From American Memory at the Library of Congress. Retrieved on August 25, 2009.
A geologic tour of the San Francisco earthquake, 100 years later from American Geological Institute
The Great 1906 Earthquake and Fire from the Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco website
The Great 1906 Earthquake and Fire from the Bancroft Library, includes interactive maps and panoramas
Mark Twain and the San Francisco Earthquake Shapell Manuscript Foundation
1906 San Francisco Quake and Intensity Maps for that earthquake, from the U.S. Geological Survey site
Several videos of the aftermath, from the Internet Archive website
San Francisco in Ruins, Aerial Photographs of George R. Lawrence, reprinted from Landscape, Vol. 30, No. 2


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Significant California earthquakes


Very Large
 (7.0 or greater)
1857 Fort Tejon (7.9) ·
 1872 Lone Pine (7.8) ·
 1892 Laguna Salada (7.1 – 7.2) ·
 1906 San Francisco (7.8) ·
 1952 Kern County (7.3) ·
 1992 Cape Mendocino (7.2) ·
 1992 Landers (7.3) ·
 1999 Hector Mine (7.1) ·
 2010 Baja California (7.2)
 

Large
 (6.0-6.9)
1812 Wrightwood (6.9) ·
 1868 Hayward (6.8) ·
 1925 Santa Barbara (6.8) ·
 1933 Long Beach (6.4) ·
 1940 El Centro (6.9) ·
 1948 Desert Hot Springs (6.0) ·
 1971 San Fernando (6.6) ·
 1979 Imperial Valley (6.4) ·
 1983 Coalinga (6.2) ·
 1984 Morgan Hill (6.2) ·
 1986 Chalfant Valley (6.4) ·
 1989 Loma Prieta (6.9) ·
 1992 Big Bear (6.5) ·
 1994 Northridge (6.7) ·
 2003 San Simeon (6.5) ·
 2004 Parkfield (6.0) ·
 2010 Eureka (6.5)
 

Moderate
 (less than 6.0)
1969 Santa Rosa (5.6, 5.7) ·
 1987 Whittier Narrows (5.9) ·
 2007 Alum Rock (5.6) ·
 2008 Chino Hills (5.5)
 

 


Categories: 1906 San Francisco earthquake
History of the San Francisco Bay Area
Earthquakes in California
Urban fires in the United States
Fires in California
1906 in California
Barbary Coast, San Francisco
20th century in San Francisco, California













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Mount St. Helens
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the volcano in Washington State. For the 1980 eruption, see 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. For the mountain in California, see Mount Saint Helena.
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Mount St. Helens
MSH82 st helens plume from harrys ridge 05-19-82.jpg
3,000 ft (1 km) steam plume on May 19, 1982, two years after its major eruption

Elevation
8,365 ft (2,550 m)
Prominence
4,605 ft (1,404 m)
Location

Location
Skamania County, Washington, U.S.
Range
Cascade Range
Coordinates
46°11′28″N 122°11′40″WCoordinates: 46°11′28″N 122°11′40″W[1]
Topo map
USGS Mount St. Helens
Geology

Type
Active stratovolcano
Age of rock
< 40,000 yrs
Volcanic arc
Cascade Volcanic Arc
Last eruption
2004 to 2008
Climbing

First ascent
1853 by Thomas J. Dryer
Easiest route
Hike via south slope of volcano (closest area near eruption site)

A large conical volcano.

 Mount St. Helens the day before the 1980 eruption, which removed much of the northern face of the mountain, leaving a large crater
Mount St. Helens (known as Lawetlat'la to the indigenous Cowlitz people, and Loowit to the Klickitat) is an active stratovolcano located in Skamania County, Washington, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is 96 miles (154 km) south of Seattle, Washington, and 50 miles (80 km) northeast of Portland, Oregon. Mount St. Helens takes its English name from the British diplomat Lord St Helens, a friend of explorer George Vancouver who made a survey of the area in the late 18th century.[1] The volcano is located in the Cascade Range and is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc, a segment of the Pacific Ring of Fire that includes over 160 active volcanoes. This volcano is well known for its ash explosions and pyroclastic flows.
Mount St. Helens is most notorious for its catastrophic eruption on May 18, 1980, at 8:32 a.m. PDT,[2] the deadliest and most economically destructive volcanic event in the history of the United States. Fifty-seven people were killed; 250 homes, 47 bridges, 15 miles (24 km) of railways, and 185 miles (298 km) of highway were destroyed. A massive debris avalanche triggered by an earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale caused an eruption that reduced the elevation of the mountain's summit from 9,677 ft (2,950 m) to 8,365 ft (2,550 m), replacing it with a 1 mile (1.6 km) wide horseshoe-shaped crater.[3] The debris avalanche was up to 0.7 cubic miles (2.9 km3) in volume. The Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument was created to preserve the volcano and allow for its aftermath to be scientifically studied.
As with most other volcanoes in the Cascade Range, Mount St. Helens is a large eruptive cone consisting of lava rock interlayered with ash, pumice, and other deposits. The mountain includes layers of basalt and andesite through which several domes of dacite lava have erupted. The largest of the dacite domes formed the previous summit, and off its northern flank sat the smaller Goat Rocks dome. Both were destroyed in the 1980 eruption.


Contents  [hide]
1 Geographic setting and description 1.1 General
1.2 Crater Glacier and other new rock glaciers
2 Geologic history 2.1 Ancestral stages of eruptive activity
2.2 Smith Creek and Pine Creek eruptive periods
2.3 Castle Creek and Sugar Bowl eruptive periods
2.4 Kalama and Goat Rocks eruptive periods
2.5 Modern eruptive period 2.5.1 1980 to 2001 activity
2.5.2 2004 to 2008 activity

3 Human history 3.1 Importance to Native Americans
3.2 Exploration by Europeans
3.3 European settlement and use of the area
3.4 Human impact from the 1980 eruption
3.5 Protection and later history
4 Climbing and recreation
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links

Geographic setting and description
General

Landscape with a large open volcano

 A view of St. Helens and the nearby area from space
Mount St. Helens is 45 miles (72 km) west of Mount Adams, in the western part of the Cascade Range. These "sister and brother" volcanic mountains are approximately 50 miles (80 km) from Mount Rainier, the highest of Cascade volcanoes. Mount Hood, the nearest major volcanic peak in Oregon, is 60 miles (100 km) southeast of Mount St. Helens.
Mount St. Helens is geologically young compared with the other major Cascade volcanoes. It formed only within the past 40,000 years, and the pre-1980 summit cone began rising about 2,200 years ago.[4] The volcano is considered the most active in the Cascades within the Holocene epoch (the last 10,000 or so years).[5]
Prior to the 1980 eruption, Mount St. Helens was the fifth-highest peak in Washington. It stood out prominently from surrounding hills because of the symmetry and extensive snow and ice cover of the pre-1980 summit cone, earning it the nickname "Fuji-san of America".[6] The peak rose more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m) above its base, where the lower flanks merge with adjacent ridges. The mountain is 6 miles (9.7 km) across at its base, which is at an altitude of 4,400 feet (1,300 m) on the northeastern side and 4,000 feet (1,200 m) elsewhere. At the pre-eruption tree line, the width of the cone was 4 miles (6.4 km).

Snow covered mountain

 Aerial view
Streams that originate on the volcano enter three main river systems: the Toutle River on the north and northwest, the Kalama River on the west, and the Lewis River on the south and east. The streams are fed by abundant rain and snow. The average annual rainfall is 140 inches (3,600 mm), and the snow pack on the mountain's upper slopes can reach 16 feet (4.9 m).[7] The Lewis River is impounded by three dams for hydroelectric power generation. The southern and eastern sides of the volcano drain into an upstream impoundment, the Swift Reservoir, which is directly south of the volcano's peak.
Although Mount St. Helens is in Skamania County, Washington, access routes to the mountain run through Cowlitz County to the west. State Route 504, locally known as the Spirit Lake Memorial Highway, connects with Interstate 5 at Exit 49, 34 miles (55 km) to the west of the mountain. That north–south highway skirts the low-lying cities of Castle Rock, Longview and Kelso along the Cowlitz River, and passes through the Vancouver, Washington–Portland, Oregon metropolitan area less than 50 miles (80 km) to the southwest. The community nearest the volcano is Cougar, Washington, in the Lewis River valley 11 miles (18 km) south-southwest of the peak. Gifford Pinchot National Forest surrounds Mount St. Helens.
Crater Glacier and other new rock glaciers


File:Summit rim of Mount St. Helens.ogv
Play media


 Summit rim of Mount St. Helens
Main article: Crater Glacier
During the winter of 1980–1981, a new glacier appeared. Now officially named Crater Glacier, it was formerly known as the Tulutson Glacier. Shadowed by the crater walls and fed by heavy snowfall and repeated snow avalanches, it grew rapidly (14 feet (4.3 m) per year in thickness). By 2004, it covered about 0.36 square miles (0.93 km2), and was divided by the dome into a western and eastern lobe. Typically, by late summer, the glacier looks dark from rockfall from the crater walls and ash from eruptions. As of 2006, the ice had an average thickness of 300 feet (100 m) and a maximum of 650 feet (200 m), nearly as deep as the much older and larger Carbon Glacier of Mount Rainier. The ice is all post–1980, making the glacier very young geologically. However, the volume of the new glacier is about the same as all the pre–1980 glaciers combined.[8][9][10][11][12]
With the recent volcanic activity starting in 2004, the glacier lobes were pushed aside and upward by the growth of new volcanic domes. The surface of the glacier, once mostly without crevasses, turned into a chaotic jumble of icefalls heavily criss-crossed with crevasses and seracs caused by movement of the crater floor.[13] The new domes have almost separated the Crater Glacier into an eastern and western lobe. Despite the volcanic activity, the termini of the glacier have still advanced, with a slight advance on the western lobe and a more considerable advance on the more shaded eastern lobe. Due to the advance, two lobes of the glacier joined together in late May 2008 and thus the glacier completely surrounds the lava domes.[13][14][15] In addition, since 2004, new glaciers have formed on the crater wall above Crater Glacier feeding rock and ice onto its surface below; there are two rock glaciers to the north of the eastern lobe of Crater Glacier.[16]
Geologic history
Ancestral stages of eruptive activity

Map of the west coast of United States with dark lines in the ocean and location of Cascade Volcanoes.

Plate tectonics of the Cascade Range
The early eruptive stages of Mount St. Helens are known as the "Ape Canyon Stage" (around 40,000–35,000 years ago), the "Cougar Stage" (ca. 20,000–18,000 years ago), and the "Swift Creek Stage" (roughly 13,000–8,000 years ago).[17] The modern period, since about 2500 BCE, is called the "Spirit Lake Stage". Collectively, the pre–Spirit Lake stages are known as the "ancestral stages". The ancestral and modern stages differ primarily in the composition of the erupted lavas; ancestral lavas consisted of a characteristic mixture of dacite and andesite, while modern lava is very diverse (ranging from olivine basalt to andesite and dacite).[18]
St. Helens started its growth in the Pleistocene 37,600 years ago, during the Ape Canyon stage, with dacite and andesite eruptions of hot pumice and ash.[18] 36,000 years ago a large mudflow cascaded down the volcano;[18] mudflows were significant forces in all of St. Helens' eruptive cycles. The Ape Canyon eruptive period ended around 35,000 years ago and was followed by 17,000 years of relative quiet. Parts of this ancestral cone were fragmented and transported by glaciers 14,000 to 18,000 years ago during the last glacial period of the current ice age.[18]
The second eruptive period, the Cougar Stage, started 20,000 years ago and lasted for 2,000 years.[18] Pyroclastic flows of hot pumice and ash along with dome growth occurred during this period. Another 5,000 years of dormancy followed, only to be upset by the beginning of the Swift Creek eruptive period, typified by pyroclastic flows, dome growth and blanketing of the countryside with tephra. Swift Creek ended 8,000 years ago.
Smith Creek and Pine Creek eruptive periods
A dormancy of about 4,000 years was broken around 2500 BCE with the start of the Smith Creek eruptive period, when eruptions of large amounts of ash and yellowish-brown pumice covered thousands of square miles. An eruption in 1900 BCE was the largest known eruption from St. Helens during the Holocene epoch, judged by the volume of one of the tephra layers from that period. This eruptive period lasted until about 1600 BCE and left 18 inches (46 cm) deep deposits of material 50 miles (80 km) distant in what is now Mt. Rainier National Park. Trace deposits have been found as far northeast as Banff National Park in Alberta, and as far southeast as eastern Oregon.[19] All told there may have been up to 2.5 cubic miles (10 km3) of material ejected in this cycle.[19] Some 400 years of dormancy followed.
St. Helens came alive again around 1200 BCE — the Pine Creek eruptive period.[19] This lasted until about 800 BCE and was characterized by smaller-volume eruptions. Numerous dense, nearly red hot pyroclastic flows sped down St. Helens' flanks and came to rest in nearby valleys. A large mudflow partly filled 40 miles (64 km) of the Lewis River valley sometime between 1000 BCE and 500 BCE.
Castle Creek and Sugar Bowl eruptive periods
The next eruptive period, the Castle Creek period, began about 400 BCE, and is characterized by a change in composition of St. Helens' lava, with the addition of olivine and basalt.[20] The pre-1980 summit cone started to form during the Castle Creek period. Significant lava flows in addition to the previously much more common fragmented and pulverized lavas and rocks (tephra) distinguished this period. Large lava flows of andesite and basalt covered parts of the mountain, including one around the year 100 BCE that traveled all the way into the Lewis and Kalama river valleys.[20] Others, such as Cave Basalt (known for its system of lava tubes), flowed up to 9 miles (14 km) from their vents.[20] During the first century, mudflows moved 30 miles (50 km) down the Toutle and Kalama river valleys and may have reached the Columbia River. Another 400 years of dormancy ensued.
The Sugar Bowl eruptive period was short and markedly different from other periods in Mount St. Helens history. It produced the only unequivocal laterally directed blast known from Mount St. Helens before the 1980 eruptions.[21] During Sugar Bowl time, the volcano first erupted quietly to produce a dome, then erupted violently at least twice producing a small volume of tephra, directed-blast deposits, pyroclastic flows, and lahars.[21]
Kalama and Goat Rocks eruptive periods

Painting of a rolling landscape with a conical mountain in background.

 The symmetrical appearance of St. Helens prior to the 1980 eruption earned it the nickname "Mount Fuji of America". The once familiar shape was formed out of the Kalama and Goat Rocks eruptive periods.
Roughly 700 years of dormancy were broken in about 1480, when large amounts of pale gray dacite pumice and ash started to erupt, beginning the Kalama period. The eruption in 1480 was several times larger than the May 18, 1980, eruption.[21] In 1482, another large eruption rivaling the 1980 eruption in volume is known to have occurred.[21] Ash and pumice piled 6 miles (9.7 km) northeast of the volcano to a thickness of 3 feet (0.9 m); 50 miles (80 km) away, the ash was 2 inches (5 cm) deep. Large pyroclastic flows and mudflows subsequently rushed down St. Helens' west flanks and into the Kalama River drainage system.
This 150-year period next saw the eruption of less silica-rich lava in the form of andesitic ash that formed at least eight alternating light- and dark-colored layers.[20] Blocky andesite lava then flowed from St. Helens' summit crater down the volcano's southeast flank.[20] Later, pyroclastic flows raced down over the andesite lava and into the Kalama River valley. It ended with the emplacement of a dacite dome several hundred feet (~200 m) high at the volcano's summit, which filled and overtopped an explosion crater already at the summit.[22] Large parts of the dome's sides broke away and mantled parts of the volcano's cone with talus. Lateral explosions excavated a notch in the southeast crater wall. St. Helens reached its greatest height and achieved its highly symmetrical form by the time the Kalama eruptive cycle ended, about 1647.[22] The volcano remained quiet for the next 150 years.
The 57-year eruptive period that started in 1800 was named after the Goat Rocks dome, and is the first time that both oral and written records exist.[22] Like the Kalama period, the Goat Rocks period started with an explosion of dacite tephra, followed by an andesite lava flow, and culminated with the emplacement of a dacite dome. The 1800 eruption probably rivalled the 1980 eruption in size, although it did not result in massive destruction of the cone. The ash drifted northeast over central and eastern Washington, northern Idaho, and western Montana. There were at least a dozen reported small eruptions of ash from 1831 to 1857, including a fairly large one in 1842. The vent was apparently at or near Goat Rocks on the northeast flank.[22] Goat Rocks dome was the site of the bulge in the 1980 eruption, and it was obliterated in the major eruption event on May 18, 1980 that destroyed the entire north face and top 1,300 feet (400 m) of the mountain.
Modern eruptive period
1980 to 2001 activity
Main article: 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens



 The May 18 eruption. Composite photograph from 35 miles (60 km) west in Toledo, Washington. The ash-cloud stem is 10 miles (16 km) wide, and the mushroom top is 40 miles (64 km) wide and 15 miles (24 km) high. The footprint of the cloud stem is roughly the same as the devastated area north of the mountain where the forest was knocked down and which three decades later is still relatively barren.
On March 20, 1980, Mount St. Helens experienced a magnitude 4.2 earthquake;[2] and, on March 27, steam venting started.[23] By the end of April, the north side of the mountain had started to bulge.[24] On May 18, with little warning, a second earthquake, of magnitude 5.1, triggered a massive collapse of the north face of the mountain. It was the largest known debris avalanche in recorded history. The magma in St. Helens burst forth into a large-scale pyroclastic flow that flattened vegetation and buildings over 230 square miles (600 km2). More than 1.5 million metric tons of sulfur dioxide were released into the atmosphere.[25] On the Volcanic Explosivity Index scale, the eruption was rated a five (a Plinian eruption).



 Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980, at 08:32 Pacific Daylight Time
The collapse of the northern flank of St. Helens mixed with ice, snow, and water to create lahars (volcanic mudflows). The lahars flowed many miles down the Toutle and Cowlitz Rivers, destroying bridges and lumber camps. A total of 3,900,000 cubic yards (3,000,000 m3) of material was transported 17 miles (27 km) south into the Columbia River by the mudflows.[26]
For more than nine hours, a vigorous plume of ash erupted, eventually reaching 12 to 16 miles (20 to 27 km) above sea level.[27] The plume moved eastward at an average speed of 60 miles per hour (100 km/h) with ash reaching Idaho by noon. Ashes from the eruption were found collecting on top of cars and roofs next morning, as far as the city of Edmonton in Alberta, Canada.

Diagram with different colored layers.

Lava dome growth profile from 1980–1986
By about 5:30 p.m. on May 18, the vertical ash column declined in stature, and less severe outbursts continued through the night and for the next several days. The St. Helens May 18 eruption released 24 megatons of thermal energy;[28][29] it ejected more than 0.67 cubic miles (2.79 km3) of material.[30] The removal of the north side of the mountain reduced St. Helens' height by about 1,300 feet (400 m) and left a crater 1 mile (1.6 km) to 2 miles (3.2 km) wide and 0.5 miles (800 m) deep, with its north end open in a huge breach. The eruption killed 57 people, nearly 7,000 big game animals (deer, elk, and bear), and an estimated 12 million fish from a hatchery.[7] It destroyed or extensively damaged over 200 homes, 185 miles (298 km) of highway and 15 miles (24 km) of railways.[7]
Between 1980 and 1986, activity continued at Mount St. Helens, with a new lava dome forming in the crater. Numerous small explosions and dome-building eruptions occurred. From December 7, 1989, to January 6, 1990, and from November 5, 1990, to February 14, 1991, the mountain erupted with sometimes huge clouds of ash.[31]
2004 to 2008 activity
Main article: 2004–08 volcanic activity of Mount St. Helens
Magma reached the surface of the volcano about October 11, 2004, resulting in the building of a new lava dome on the existing dome's south side. This new dome continued to grow throughout 2005 and into 2006. Several transient features were observed, such as the "whaleback," which comprised long shafts of solidified magma being extruded by the pressure of magma beneath. These features were fragile and broke down soon after they were formed. On July 2, 2005, the tip of the whaleback broke off, causing a rockfall that sent ash and dust several hundred meters into the air.[32]

Large fairly smooth rock structure inside a crater

 Appearance of the "Whaleback" in February 2005
Mount St. Helens showed significant activity on March 8, 2005, when a 36,000-foot (11,000 m) plume of steam and ash emerged—visible from Seattle.[33] This relatively minor eruption was a release of pressure consistent with ongoing dome building. The release was accompanied by a magnitude 2.5 earthquake.
Another feature to emerge from the dome was called the "fin" or "slab." Approximately half the size of a football field, the large, cooled volcanic rock was being forced upward as quickly as 6 ft (2 m) per day.[34][35] In mid-June 2006, the slab was crumbling in frequent rockfalls, although it was still being extruded. The height of the dome was 7,550 feet (2,300 m), still below the height reached in July 2005 when the whaleback collapsed.

Microscopic view of a rock

Thin section of dacite from a dome created in 2004
On October 22, 2006, at 3:13 p.m. PST, a magnitude 3.5 earthquake broke loose Spine 7. The collapse and avalanche of the lava dome sent an ash plume 2,000 feet (600 m) over the western rim of the crater; the ash plume then rapidly dissipated.
On December 19, 2006, a large white plume of condensing steam was observed, leading some media people to assume there had been a small eruption. However, the Cascades Volcano Observatory of the USGS did not mention any significant ash plume.[36] The volcano was in continuous eruption from October 2004, but this eruption consisted in large part of a gradual extrusion of lava forming a dome in the crater.
On January 16, 2008, steam began seeping from a fracture on top of the lava dome. Associated seismic activity was the most noteworthy since 2004. Scientists suspended activities in the crater and the mountain flanks, but the risk of a major eruption was deemed low.[37] By the end of January, the eruption paused; no more lava was being extruded from the lava dome. On July 10, 2008, it was determined that the eruption had ended after more than six months of no volcanic activity.[38]






 360° panorama from the summit of Mount St. Helens as seen in October 2009. In the foreground is the ice-covered crater rim. Visible in the lower center is the lava dome. Steam rises from several dome vents. Above the dome, in the upper center, lies Mount Rainier and Spirit Lake. Mount Adams appears to the right of Rainier on the horizon as well as Mount Hood and Mount Jefferson on the far right. Also on the far right are glimpses of the Swift Reservoir, Yale Lake, Lake Merwin and the Lewis River. Climbers stand on the crater rim and are visible along the Monitor Ridge climbing route.
Human history
Importance to Native Americans

Mt St Helens before the 1980 eruption (taken from Spirit Lake)

Indigenous American legends were inspired by the volcano's beauty.
American Indian lore contains numerous legends to explain the eruptions of Mount St. Helens and other Cascade volcanoes. The most famous of these is the Bridge of the Gods legend told by the Klickitat people. In their tale, the chief of all the gods and his two sons, Pahto (also called Klickitat) and Wy'east, traveled down the Columbia River from the Far North in search for a suitable area to settle.[39]
They came upon an area that is now called The Dalles and thought they had never seen a land so beautiful. The sons quarreled over the land, so to solve the dispute their father shot two arrows from his mighty bow — one to the north and the other to the south. Pahto followed the arrow to the north and settled there while Wy'east did the same for the arrow to the south. The chief of the gods then built the Bridge of the Gods, so his family could meet periodically.[39]
When the two sons of the chief of the gods fell in love with a beautiful maiden named Loowit, she could not choose between them. The two young chiefs fought over her, burying villages and forests in the process. The area was devastated and the earth shook so violently that the huge bridge fell into the river, creating the cascades of the Columbia River Gorge.[40]
For punishment, the chief of the gods struck down each of the lovers and transformed them into great mountains where they fell. Wy'east, with his head lifted in pride, became the volcano known today as Mount Hood. Pahto, with his head bent toward his fallen love, was turned into Mount Adams. The fair Loowit became Mount St. Helens, known to the Klickitats as Louwala-Clough, which means "smoking or fire mountain" in their language (the Sahaptin called the mountain Loowit).[41]
The mountain is also of sacred importance to the Cowlitz and Yakama tribes that also historically lived in the area. They find the area above its tree line to be of exceptional spiritual significance, and the mountain (which they call "Lawetlat'la", roughly translated as "the smoker") features prominently in their creation myth, and in some of their songs and rituals. In recognition of this cultural significance, over 12,000 acres (4,900 ha) of the mountain (roughly bounded by the Loowit Trail) have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[42]
Other area tribal names for the mountain include "nšh´ák´" ("water coming out") from the Upper Chehalis, and "aka akn" ("snow mountain"), a Kiksht term.[42]
Exploration by Europeans
Royal Navy Commander George Vancouver and the officers of HMS Discovery made the Europeans' first recorded sighting of Mount St. Helens on May 19, 1792, while surveying the northern Pacific Ocean coast. Vancouver named the mountain for British diplomat Alleyne Fitzherbert, 1st Baron St Helens on October 20, 1792,[41] as it came into view when the Discovery passed into the mouth of the Columbia River.
Years later, explorers, traders, and missionaries heard reports of an erupting volcano in the area. Geologists and historians determined much later that the eruption took place in 1800, marking the beginning of the 57-year-long Goat Rocks Eruptive Period (see geology section).[22] Alarmed by the "dry snow," the Nespelem tribe of northeastern Washington danced and prayed rather than collecting food and suffered during that winter from starvation.[22]
In late 1805 and early 1806, members of the Lewis and Clark Expedition spotted Mount St. Helens from the Columbia River but did not report either an ongoing eruption or recent evidence of one.[43] They did however report the presence of quicksand and clogged channel conditions at the mouth of the Sandy River near Portland, suggesting an eruption by Mount Hood sometime in the previous decades.
In 1829 Hall J. Kelley led a campaign to rename the Cascade Range as the President's Range and also to rename each major Cascade mountain after a former President of the United States. In his scheme Mount St. Helens was to be renamed Mount Washington.[44]
European settlement and use of the area

Man by wooden building that has six fur pelts on it.

 19th century photo of a fur trapper working in the Mount St. Helens area
The first authenticated eyewitness report of a volcanic eruption was made in March 1835 by Meredith Gairdner, while working for the Hudson's Bay Company stationed at Fort Vancouver.[45] He sent an account to the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, which published his letter in January 1836. James Dwight Dana of Yale University, while sailing with the United States Exploring Expedition, saw the quiescent peak from off the mouth of the Columbia River in 1841. Another member of the expedition later described "cellular basaltic lavas" at the mountain's base.[46]

Painting of a conical volcano erupting at night from the side.

 Painting by Paul Kane Mount St. Helens erupting at night after his 1847 visit to the area
In late fall or early winter of 1842, nearby settlers and missionaries witnessed the so-called "Great Eruption". This small-volume outburst created large ash clouds, and mild explosions followed for 15 years.[47] The eruptions of this period were likely phreatic (steam explosions). Josiah Parrish in Champoeg, Oregon witnessed Mount St. Helens in eruption on November 22, 1842. Ash from this eruption may have reached The Dalles, Oregon, 48 miles (80 km) southeast of the volcano.[5]
In October 1843, future California governor Peter H. Burnett recounted a story of an aboriginal American man who badly burned his foot and leg in lava or hot ash while hunting for deer. The likely apocryphal story went that the injured man sought treatment at Fort Vancouver, but the contemporary fort commissary steward, Napoleon McGilvery, disclaimed knowledge of the incident.[48] British lieutenant Henry J. Warre sketched the eruption in 1845, and two years later Canadian painter Paul Kane created watercolors of the gently smoking mountain. Warre's work showed erupting material from a vent about a third of the way down from the summit on the mountain's west or northwest side (possibly at Goat Rocks), and one of Kane's field sketches shows smoke emanating from about the same location.[49]
On April 17, 1857, the Republican, a Steilacoom, Washington, newspaper, reported that "Mount St. Helens, or some other mount to the southward, is seen ... to be in a state of eruption".[50] The lack of a significant ash layer associated with this event indicates that it was a small eruption. This was the first reported volcanic activity since 1854.[50]
Before the 1980 eruption, Spirit Lake offered year-round recreational activities. In the summer there was boating, swimming, and camping, while in the winter there was skiing.
Human impact from the 1980 eruption

Man sitting at a campsite

David A. Johnston hours before he was killed by the eruption
Fifty-seven people were killed during the eruption.[51] Had the eruption occurred one day later, when loggers would have been at work, rather than on a Sunday, the death toll would almost certainly have been much higher.[7]
83-year-old Harry R. Truman, who had lived near the mountain for 54 years, became famous when he decided not to evacuate before the impending eruption, despite repeated pleas by local authorities. His body was never found after the eruption.
Another victim of the eruption was 30-year-old volcanologist David A. Johnston, who was stationed on the nearby Coldwater Ridge. Moments before his position was hit by the pyroclastic flow, Johnston radioed his famous last words: "Vancouver! Vancouver! This is it!"[52] Johnston's body was never found.
U.S. President Jimmy Carter surveyed the damage and said, "Someone said this area looked like a moonscape. But the moon looks more like a golf course compared to what's up there."[53] A film crew, led by Seattle filmmaker Otto Seiber, was dropped by helicopter on St. Helens on May 23 to document the destruction. Their compasses, however, spun in circles and they quickly became lost. A second eruption occurred on May 25, but the crew survived and was rescued two days later by National Guard helicopter pilots. Their film, The Eruption of Mount St. Helens, later became a popular documentary.
Protection and later history

Grass, dead fallen trees and scrubs

 View of the hillside at the Johnston Ridge Observatory, 25 years after the eruption.
In 1982, President Ronald Reagan and the U.S. Congress established the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument, a 110,000 acres (45,000 ha) area around the mountain and within the Gifford Pinchot National Forest.[54]
Following the 1980 eruption, the area was left to gradually return to its natural state. In 1987, the U.S. Forest Service reopened the mountain to climbing. It remained open until 2004 when renewed activity caused the closure of the area around the mountain (see Geological history section above for more details).
Most notable was the closure of the Monitor Ridge trail, which previously let up to 100 permitted hikers per day climb to the summit. On July 21, 2006, the mountain was again opened to climbers.[55] In February 2010, a climber died after falling from the rim into the crater.[56]
The mountain is now circled by the Loowit Trail at elevations of 4000–4900 feet. The northern segment of the trail from the South Fork Toutle River on the west to Windy Pass on the east is a restricted zone where camping, biking, pets, fires, and off-trail excursions are all prohibited.[57][58]
Climbing and recreation
Mount St. Helens is a popular climbing destination for both beginning and experienced mountaineers. The peak is climbed year-round, although it is more often climbed from late spring through early fall. All routes include sections of steep, rugged terrain.[59] A permit system has been in place for climbers since 1987. A climbing permit is required year-round for anyone who will be above 4,800 feet (1,500 m) on the slopes of Mount St. Helens.[60]
The standard hiking/mountaineering route in the warmer months is the Monitor Ridge Route, which starts at the Climbers Bivouac. This is the most popular and crowded route to the summit in the summer and gains about 4,600 feet (1,400 m) in approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) to reach the crater rim. [61] Although strenuous, it is considered non-technical climb that involves some scrambling. Most climbers complete the round trip in 7 to 12 hours.[62]
The Worm Flows Route is considered the standard winter route on Mount St. Helens, as it is the most direct route to the summit. The route gains about 5,700 feet (1,700 m) in elevation over about 6 miles (9.7 km) from trailhead to summit but does not demand the technical climbing that some other Cascade peaks like Mount Rainier do. The "Worm Flows" part of the route name refers to the rocky lava flows that surround the route.[63] This route can be accessed via the Marble Mountain Sno-Park and the Swift Ski Trail.[64]
See also

Portal icon Mountains portal
Cascade Volcanoes
Geology of the Pacific Northwest
Silver Lake (Washington)
List of volcanic eruptions by death toll
Notes
1.^ Jump up to: a b "Mount Saint Helens". Geographic Names Information System, U.S. Geological Survey.
2.^ Jump up to: a b "Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument". USDA Forest Service. Archived from the original on 2006-11-28.
3.Jump up ^ "May 18, 1980 Eruption of Mount St. Helens". USDA Forest Service. Archived from the original on 2009-05-29.
4.Jump up ^ Mullineaux, The 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens, Washington, USGS Professional Paper 1250, p. 3
5.^ Jump up to: a b USGS Description of Mount St. Helens, USGS.gov . Retrieved 15 November 2006.
6.Jump up ^ Harris, Fire Mountains of the West, 1st edition, p. 201
7.^ Jump up to: a b c d Tilling et al., Eruptions of Mount St. Helens: Past, Present, and Future, USGS Special Interest Publication, 1990 . Retrieved 12 November 2006.
8.Jump up ^ Brugman, Melinda M.; Austin Post (1981). "USGS Circular 850-D: Effects of Volcanism on the Glaciers of Mount St. Helens". Retrieved 2007-03-07.
9.Jump up ^ Wiggins, Tracy B.; Hansen, Jon D.; Clark, Douglas H. (2002). "Growth and flow of a new glacier in Mt. St. Helens Crater". Abstracts with Programs - Geological Society of America 34 (5): 91.
10.Jump up ^ Schilling, Steve P.; Paul E. Carrara; Ren A. Thompson; Eugene Y. Iwatsubo (2004). "Posteruption glacier development within the crater of Mount St. Helens, Washington, USA". Quaternary Research (Elsevier Science (USA)) 61 (3): 325–329. Bibcode:2004QuRes..61..325S. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2003.11.002.
11.Jump up ^ McCandless, Melanie; Plummer, Mitchell; Clark, Douglas (2005). "Predictions of the growth and steady-state form of the Mount St. Helens Crater Glacier using a 2-D glacier model". Abstracts with Programs - Geological Society of America 37 (7): 354.
12.Jump up ^ Schilling, Steve P.; David W. Ramsey; James A. Messerich; Ren A. Thompson (2006-08-08). "USGS Scientific Investigations Map 2928: Rebuilding Mount St. Helens". Retrieved 2007-03-07.
13.^ Jump up to: a b "Volcano Review" (PDF). US Forest Service. Archived from the original on 2008-06-26.
14.Jump up ^ Schilling, Steve (2008-05-30). "MSH08_aerial_new_dome_from_north_05-30-08". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-06-07. - Glacier is still connected south of the lava dome.
15.Jump up ^ Schilling, Steve (2008-05-30). "MSH08_aerial_st_helens_crater_from_north_05-30-08". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-06-07. - Glacier arms touch on North end of glacier.
16.Jump up ^ Haugerud, R. A.; Harding, D. J.; Mark, L. E.; Zeigler, J.; Queija, V.; Johnson, S. Y. (December 2004). "Lidar measurement of topographic change during the 2004 eruption of Mount St. Helens, WA". American Geophysical Union 53: 01. Bibcode:2004AGUFM.V53D..01H.
17.Jump up ^ "Mount St. Helens - Summary of Volcanic History". USDA Forest Service. Archived from the original on 2008-10-11.
18.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Harris, Fire Mountains of the West, 1st edition, page 214
19.^ Jump up to: a b c Harris, Fire Mountains of the West, 1st edition, page 215
20.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Harris, Fire Mountains of the West, 1st edition, page 216
21.^ Jump up to: a b c d Mount St. Helens Eruptive History, USGS.gov . Retrieved 15 November 2006.
22.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Harris, Fire Mountains of the West, 1st edition, page 217
23.Jump up ^ "Summary of Events Leading Up to the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens: March 22–28". USDA Forest Service. Archived from the original on 2007-11-13.
24.Jump up ^ "Summary of Events Leading Up to the May 18, 1980 Eruption of Mount St. Helens: April 26–May 2". USDA Forest Service. Archived from the original on 2007-11-13.
25.Jump up ^ "Emission of sulfur dioxide gas from Mount St. Helens, 1980-1988". United States Geological Survey. 2008-09-25. Retrieved 2009-03-25.
26.Jump up ^ Harris, Fire Mountains of the West, 1st edition, page 209
27.Jump up ^ Kiver and Harris, Geology of U.S. Parklands, 6th edition, page 149
28.Jump up ^ "Mount St. Helens – From the 1980 Eruption to 2000". Fact Sheet 036-00. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2009-12-01.
29.Jump up ^ "Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument". United States Forest Service. Archived from the original on 2009-05-29. "24 megatons thermal energy"
30.Jump up ^ Mount St. Helens – From the 1980 Eruption to 2000, USGS Fact Sheet 036-00 . Retrieved 12 November 2006.
31.Jump up ^ Bobbie Myers, 1992, Small Explosions Interrupt 3-year Quiescence at Mount St. Helens, Washington: IN: Earthquakes and Volcanoes, v.23, n.2, p.58–73 . Retrieved November 26, 2006.
32.Jump up ^ see USGS before and after images
33.Jump up ^ Mount St. Helens, Washington, "Plume in the Evening", March 8, 2005, USGS.gov . Retrieved 15 November 2006.
34.Jump up ^ "New slab growing in Mount St. Helens dome". Fox News. Retrieved 2010-12-06.
35.Jump up ^ See close-up of the slab.
36.Jump up ^ Cascades Volcano Observatory, vulcan.wr.usgs.gov (accessed January 4, 2007)
37.Jump up ^ "Small Quake Reported at Mount St. Helens". USA Today. January 17, 2008. Retrieved 2010-12-06.
38.Jump up ^ "CVO Menu - Mount St. Helens Eruption 2004". Vulcan.wr.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
39.^ Jump up to: a b Archie Satterfield, Country Roads of Washington (Backinprint.com: 2003) ISBN 0-595-26863-3, page 82
40.Jump up ^ The Bridge of the Gods, theoutlaws.com . Retrieved November 26, 2006.
41.^ Jump up to: a b USGS. "Volcanoes and History: Cascade Range Volcano Names". Retrieved 2006-10-20.
42.^ Jump up to: a b "NRHP nomination for Lawetlat'la". National Park Service. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
43.Jump up ^ Pringle, Roadside Geology of Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument and Vicinity
44.Jump up ^ Meany, Edmond S. (1920). "Origin of Washington Geographic Names". The Washington Historical Quarterly (Washington University State Historical Society) XI: 211–212. Retrieved 2009-06-11.
45.Jump up ^ Harris, Fire Mountains of the West, 1st edition, page 219
46.Jump up ^ The Volcanoes of Lewis and Clark, USGS.gov . Retrieved 15 November 2006.
47.Jump up ^ Harris, Fire Mountains of the West, 1st edition, pages 220–221
48.Jump up ^ Harris, Fire Mountains of the West, 1st edition, page 224
49.Jump up ^ Harris, Fire Mountains of the West, 1st edition, page 225, 227
50.^ Jump up to: a b Harris, Fire Mountains of the West, 1st edition, page 228
51.Jump up ^ The Victims of the Eruption, June 06, 2006. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
52.Jump up ^ Scott LaFee. "Perish the thought: A life in science sometimes becomes a death, too." SignOnSanDiego.com: December 3, 2003. Retrieved October 26, 2006.
53.Jump up ^ Mount St. Helens: Senator Murray Speaks on the 25th Anniversary of the May 18, 1980 Eruption, Senate.gov . Retrieved 12 November 2006.
54.Jump up ^ Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument: General Visitor Information, USDA Forest Service . Retrieved 12 November 2006.
55.Jump up ^ Climbing Mount St. Helens, USDA Forest Service . Retrieved 12 November 2006.
56.Jump up ^ Climber dies after rescue attempts fail on Mount St. Helens - Seattle News - MyNorthwest.com
57.Jump up ^ "Loowit Trail". SummitPost.org. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
58.Jump up ^ "Mount St. Helens Volcanic National Monument: Restricted Area". U.S. Forrest Service. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
59.Jump up ^ "Climbing Mount St. Helens". U.S. Forest Service. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
60.Jump up ^ "Mount St Helens Climbing Permit System". U.S. Forest Service. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
61.Jump up ^ "Monitor Ridge". SummitPost. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
62.Jump up ^ "Monitor Ridge Climbing Route". U.S. Forest Service. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
63.Jump up ^ "Worm Flows Route, Mount St. Helens". IIAWT. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
64.Jump up ^ "The Worm Flows, Winter Climbing Route". U.S. Forest Service. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
References
Harris, Stephen L. (1988). "Mount St. Helens: A Living Fire Mountain". Fire Mountains of the West: The Cascade and Mono Lake Volcanoes (1st ed.). Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press Publishing Company. pp. 201–228. ISBN 0-87842-220-X.
Mullineaux, D.R.; Crandell, D.R. (1981). The 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens, Washington, USGS Professional Paper 1250. Retrieved on October 28, 2006.
Mullineaux, D.R. (1996). Pre-1980 Tephra-Fall Deposits Erupted From Mount St. Helens, USGS Professional Paper 1563. Retrieved on October 28, 2006.
Pringle (1993). Roadside Geology of Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument and Vicinity, Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Earth Resources Information; Circular 88.
USGS/Cascades Volcano Observatory, Vancouver, Washington. Description: Mount St. Helens Volcano, Washington. Retrieved on October 28, 2006.
External links
 Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Mount St. Helens
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Mount St. Helens (category)

"Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument". US Forest Service.
"St. Helens". Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-12-18.
Mount St. Helens photographs and current conditions from the United States Geological Survey website
USGS: Mount St. Helens Eruptive History USGS: Mount St. Helens — From the 1980 Eruption to 2000
Most recent photos (most aerial) from the United States Geological Survey
University of Washington Libraries: Digital Collections: Mount St. Helens Post-Eruption Chemistry Database This collection contains photographs of Mount St. Helens, post-eruption, taken over the span of three years to provide a look at both the human and the scientific sides of studying the eruption of a volcano.
Mount St. Helens Succession Collection This collection consists of 235 photographs in a study of plant habitats following the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.
Audio recording of the May 18, 1980 eruption Recorded 140 miles (225 km) southwest of the mountain. Believed to be the only audio recording of the eruption.
Mount St. Helens at DMOZ
The Royal Geography Society's Hidden Journeys project: The 1980 Mount St. Helens Eruption.
Audio slideshow: Mount St Helens (6:29 min) - Volcanologist Sarah Henton discusses the Cascade Mountains and explains the geology and impact of the 1980 Mount St Helens eruption.



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Atlantis
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Athanasius Kircher's map of Atlantis, in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. From Mundus Subterraneus 1669, published in Amsterdam. The map is oriented with south at the top.
Atlantis (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς νῆσος, "island of Atlas") is the name of a fictional island mentioned within an allegory on the hubris of nations in Plato's works Timaeus and Critias, where it represents the antagonist naval power that besieges "Ancient Athens", the pseudo-historic embodiment of Plato's ideal state (see The Republic). In the story, Athens was able to repel the Atlantean attack, unlike any other nation of the (western) known world,[1] supposedly giving testament to the superiority of Plato's concept of a state.[2][3] At the end of the story, Atlantis eventually falls out of favor with the gods and famously submerges into the Atlantic Ocean.
Despite its minor importance in Plato's work, the Atlantis story has had a considerable impact on literature. The allegorical aspect of Atlantis was taken up in utopian works of several Renaissance writers, such as Bacon's New Atlantis and More's Utopia.[4] On the other hand, 19th-century amateur scholars misinterpreted Plato's account as historical tradition, most notably in Donnelly's Atlantis: The Antediluvian World. Plato's vague indications of the time of the events—more than 9,000 years before his day[5]—and the alleged location of Atlantis—"beyond the Pillars of Hercules"—has led to much pseudoscientific speculation.[6] As a consequence, Atlantis has become a byword for any and all supposed advanced prehistoric lost civilizations and continues to inspire today's fiction, from comic books to films.
While present-day philologists and historians unanimously accept the story's fictional character,[7] there is still debate on what served as its inspiration. The fact that Plato borrowed some of his allegories and metaphors—most notably the story of Gyges[8]—from older traditions has caused a number of scholars to investigate possible inspiration of Atlantis from Egyptian records of the Thera eruption, the Sea Peoples invasion, or the Trojan War.[9][10][11][12] Others have rejected this chain of tradition as implausible and insist that Plato designed the story from scratch,[13][14][15] drawing loose inspiration from contemporary events like the failed Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415–413 BC or the destruction of Helike in 373 BC.[16]
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Plato from The School of Athens by Raphael, 1509

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Contents  [hide]
1 Plato's account 1.1 Critias
2 Interpretations 2.1 Ancient
2.2 Jewish and Christian
2.3 Modern 2.3.1 Atlantis pseudohistory 2.3.1.1 Early influential literature
2.3.1.2 Impact of Mayanism
2.3.1.3 Ignatius Donnelly
2.3.1.4 Madame Blavatsky and the Theosophists
2.3.1.5 Nazism and occultism
2.3.1.6 Edgar Cayce
2.3.2 Recent times

3 Location hypotheses 3.1 In or near the Mediterranean Sea
3.2 In the Atlantic Ocean and Europe
3.3 Other locations
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Further reading
7 External links

Plato's account
Further information: Timaeus (dialogue) and Critias (dialogue)



 A 15th-century Latin translation of Plato's Timaeus
Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias, written in 360 BC, contain the earliest references to Atlantis. For unknown reasons, Plato never completed Critias. Plato introduced Atlantis in Timaeus:

For it is related in our records how once upon a time your State stayed the course of a mighty host, which, starting from a distant point in the Atlantic ocean, was insolently advancing to attack the whole of Europe, and Asia to boot. For the ocean there was at that time navigable; for in front of the mouth which you Greeks call, as you say, 'the pillars of Heracles,' there lay an island which was larger than Libya and Asia together; and it was possible for the travelers of that time to cross from it to the other islands, and from the islands to the whole of the continent over against them which encompasses that veritable ocean. For all that we have here, lying within the mouth of which we speak, is evidently a haven having a narrow entrance; but that yonder is a real ocean, and the land surrounding it may most rightly be called, in the fullest and truest sense, a continent. Now in this island of Atlantis there existed a confederation of kings, of great and marvelous power, which held sway over all the island, and over many other islands also and parts of the continent.[17]
The four people appearing in those two dialogues are the politicians Critias and Hermocrates as well as the philosophers Socrates and Timaeus of Locri, although only Critias speaks of Atlantis. In his works Plato makes extensive use of the Socratic method in order to discuss contrary positions within the context of a supposition.
The Timaeus begins with an introduction, followed by an account of the creations and structure of the universe and ancient civilizations. In the introduction, Socrates muses about the perfect society, described in Plato's Republic (c. 380 BC), and wonders if he and his guests might recollect a story which exemplifies such a society. Critias mentions an allegedly historical tale that would make the perfect example, and follows by describing Atlantis as is recorded in the Critias. In his account, ancient Athens seems to represent the "perfect society" and Atlantis its opponent, representing the very antithesis of the "perfect" traits described in the Republic.
Critias
According to Critias, the Hellenic gods of old divided the land so that each god might have their own lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his liking, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island was larger than Ancient Libya and Asia Minor combined,[18][19] but it afterwards was sunk by an earthquake and became an impassable mud shoal, inhibiting travel to any part of the ocean. The Egyptians, Plato asserted, described Atlantis as an island comprising mostly mountains in the northern portions and along the shore, and encompassing a great plain of an oblong shape in the south "extending in one direction three thousand stadia [about 555 km; 345 mi], but across the center inland it was two thousand stadia [about 370 km; 230 mi]." Fifty stadia [9 km; 6 mi] from the coast was a mountain that was low on all sides ... broke it off all round about[20] ... the central island itself was five stades in diameter [about 0.92 km; 0.57 mi].[21]
In Plato's myth, Poseidon fell in love with Cleito, the daughter of Evenor and Leucippe, who bore him five pairs of male twins. The eldest of these, Atlas, was made rightful king of the entire island and the ocean (called the Atlantic Ocean in his honor), and was given the mountain of his birth and the surrounding area as his fiefdom. Atlas's twin Gadeirus, or Eumelus in Greek, was given the extremity of the island towards the pillars of Hercules.[22] The other four pairs of twins—Ampheres and Evaemon, Mneseus and Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, and Azaes and Diaprepes—were also given "rule over many men, and a large territory."
Poseidon carved the mountain where his love dwelt into a palace and enclosed it with three circular moats of increasing width, varying from one to three stadia and separated by rings of land proportional in size. The Atlanteans then built bridges northward from the mountain, making a route to the rest of the island. They dug a great canal to the sea, and alongside the bridges carved tunnels into the rings of rock so that ships could pass into the city around the mountain; they carved docks from the rock walls of the moats. Every passage to the city was guarded by gates and towers, and a wall surrounded each of the city's rings. The walls were constructed of red, white and black rock quarried from the moats, and were covered with brass, tin and the precious metal orichalcum, respectively.[23]
According to Critias, 9,000 years before his lifetime a war took place between those outside the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar and those who dwelt within them. The Atlanteans had conquered the parts of Libya within the Pillars of Hercules as far as Egypt and the European continent as far as Tyrrhenia, and subjected its people to slavery. The Athenians led an alliance of resistors against the Atlantean empire, and as the alliance disintegrated, prevailed alone against the empire, liberating the occupied lands.

But at a later time there occurred portentous earthquakes and floods, and one grievous day and night befell them, when the whole body of your warriors was swallowed up by the earth, and the island of Atlantis in like manner was swallowed up by the sea and vanished; wherefore also the ocean at that spot has now become impassable and unsearchable, being blocked up by the shoal mud which the island created as it settled down.[24]
The logographer Hellanicus of Lesbos wrote an earlier work titled Atlantis, of which only a few fragments survive. Hellanicus' work appears to have been a genealogical one concerning the daughters of Atlas[9] (Ἀτλαντὶς in Greek means "of Atlas"), but some authors have suggested a possible connection with Plato's island. John V. Luce notes that when he writes about the genealogy of Atlantis's kings, Plato writes in the same style as Hellanicus and suggests a similarity between a fragment of Hellanicus's work and an account in the Critias.[9] Rodney Castleden suggests Plato may have borrowed his title from Hellanicus, and that Hellanicus may have based his work on an earlier work on Atlantis.[25]
Castleden has pointed out that Plato wrote of Atlantis in 359 BCE, when he returned to Athens from Sicily. He notes a number of parallels between the physical organisation and fortifications of Syracuse and Plato's description of Atlantis.[26] Gunnar Rudberg was the first who elaborated the idea that Plato's attempt to realize his political ideas in the city of Syracuse could have heavily inspired the Atlantis account.[27]
Interpretations
Ancient
Some ancient writers viewed Atlantis as fiction while others believed it was real.[28] The philosopher Crantor, a student of Plato's student Xenocrates, is often cited as an example of a writer who thought the story to be historical fact. His work, a commentary on Plato's Timaeus, is lost, but Proclus, a Neoplatonist of the 5th century AD, reports on it.[29] The passage in question has been represented in the modern literature either as claiming that Crantor actually visited Egypt, had conversations with priests, and saw hieroglyphs confirming the story or as claiming that he learned about them from other visitors to Egypt.[30] Proclus wrote:

As for the whole of this account of the Atlanteans, some say that it is unadorned history, such as Crantor, the first commentator on Plato. Crantor also says that Plato's contemporaries used to criticize him jokingly for not being the inventor of his Republic but copying the institutions of the Egyptians. Plato took these critics seriously enough to assign to the Egyptians this story about the Athenians and Atlanteans, so as to make them say that the Athenians really once lived according to that system.
The next sentence is often translated "Crantor adds, that this is testified by the prophets of the Egyptians, who assert that these particulars [which are narrated by Plato] are written on pillars which are still preserved." But in the original, the sentence starts not with the name Crantor but with the ambiguous He, and whether this referred to Crantor or to Plato is the subject of considerable debate. Proponents of both Atlantis as a myth and Atlantis as history have argued that the word refers to Crantor.[31]
Alan Cameron argues that it should be interpreted as referring to Plato, and that when Proclus writes that "we must bear in mind concerning this whole feat of the Athenians, that it is neither a mere myth nor unadorned history, although some take it as history and others as myth", he is treating "Crantor's view as mere personal opinion, nothing more; in fact he first quotes and then dismisses it as representing one of the two unacceptable extremes".[32]
Cameron also points out that whether he refers to Plato or to Crantor, the statement does not support conclusions such as Otto Muck's "Crantor came to Sais and saw there in the temple of Neith the column, completely covered with hieroglyphs, on which the history of Atlantis was recorded. Scholars translated it for him, and he testified that their account fully agreed with Plato's account of Atlantis"[33] or J. V. Luce's suggestion that Crantor sent "a special enquiry to Egypt" and that he may simply be referring to Plato's own claims.[32]
Another passage from Proclus' commentary on the Timaeus gives a description of the geography of Atlantis:

That an island of such nature and size once existed is evident from what is said by certain authors who investigated the things around the outer sea. For according to them, there were seven islands in that sea in their time, sacred to Persephone, and also three others of enormous size, one of which was sacred to Hades, another to Ammon, and another one between them to Poseidon, the extent of which was a thousand stadia [200 km]; and the inhabitants of it—they add—preserved the remembrance from their ancestors of the immeasurably large island of Atlantis which had really existed there and which for many ages had reigned over all islands in the Atlantic sea and which itself had like-wise been sacred to Poseidon. Now these things Marcellus has written in his Aethiopica".[34]
Marcellus remains unidentified.
Other ancient historians and philosophers believing in the existence of Atlantis were Strabo and Posidonius.[35]
Plato's account of Atlantis may have also inspired parodic imitation: writing only a few decades after the Timaeus and Critias, the historian Theopompus of Chios wrote of a land beyond the ocean known as Meropis. This description was included in Book 8 of his voluminous Philippica, which contains a dialogue between King Midas and Silenus, a companion of Dionysus. Silenus describes the Meropids, a race of men who grow to twice normal size, and inhabit two cities on the island of Meropis (Cos?): Eusebes (Εὐσεβής, "Pious-town") and Machimos (Μάχιμος, "Fighting-town"). He also reports that an army of ten million soldiers crossed the ocean to conquer Hyperborea, but abandoned this proposal when they realized that the Hyperboreans were the luckiest people on earth. Heinz-Günther Nesselrath has argued that these and other details of Silenus' story are meant as imitation and exaggeration of the Atlantis story, for the purpose of exposing Plato's ideas to ridicule.[36]
Zoticus, a Neoplatonist philosopher of the 3rd century AD, wrote an epic poem based on Plato's account of Atlantis.[37]
The 4th-century historian Ammianus Marcellinus, relying on a lost work by Timagenes, a historian writing in the 1st century BC, writes that the Druids of Gaul said that part of the inhabitants of Gaul had migrated there from distant islands. Some have understood Ammianus's testimony as a claim that at the time of Atlantis's actual sinking into the sea, its inhabitants fled to western Europe; but Ammianus in fact says that "the Drasidae (Druids) recall that a part of the population is indigenous but others also migrated in from islands and lands beyond the Rhine" (Res Gestae 15.9), an indication that the immigrants came to Gaul from the north (Britain, the Netherlands or Germany), not from a theorized location in the Atlantic Ocean to the south-west.[38] Instead, the Celts that dwelled along the ocean were reported to venerate twin gods (Dioscori) that appeared to them coming from that ocean.[39]
Jewish and Christian
The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo in the early 1st century AD wrote about the destruction of Atlantis in his On the Eternity of the World, xxvi. 141, in a longer passage allegedly citing Aristotle's successor Theophrastus:[40]

... And the island of Atalantes [translator's spelling; original: Ἀτλαντὶς] which was greater than Africa and Asia, as Plato says in the Timaeus, in one day and night was overwhelmed beneath the sea in consequence of an extraordinary earthquake and inundation and suddenly disappeared, becoming sea, not indeed navigable, but full of gulfs and eddies.[41]
Some scholars believe[who?] Clement of Rome cryptically referred to Atlantis in his First Epistle of Clement, 20: 8:

... The ocean which is impassable for men, and the worlds beyond it, are directed by the same ordinances of the Master.[42]
On this passage the theologian Joseph Barber Lightfoot (Apostolic Fathers, 1885, II, p. 84) noted: "Clement may possibly be referring to some known, but hardly accessible land, lying without the pillars of Hercules. But more probably he contemplated some unknown land in the far west beyond the ocean, like the fabled Atlantis of Plato ..."[43]
Other early Christian writers wrote about Atlantis, though they had mixed views on whether it once existed or was an untrustworthy myth of pagan origin.[44] Tertullian believed Atlantis was once real and wrote that in the Atlantic Ocean once existed "[the isle] that was equal in size to Libya or Asia"[45] referring to Plato's geographical description of Atlantis. The early Christian apologist writer Arnobius also believed Atlantis once existed but blamed its destruction on pagans.[46]
Cosmas Indicopleustes in the 6th century wrote of Atlantis in his Christian Topography in an attempt to prove his theory that the world was flat and surrounded by water:[47]

... In like manner the philosopher Timaeus also describes this Earth as surrounded by the Ocean, and the Ocean as surrounded by the more remote earth. For he supposes that there is to westward an island, Atlantis, lying out in the Ocean, in the direction of Gadeira (Cadiz), of an enormous magnitude, and relates that the ten kings having procured mercenaries from the nations in this island came from the earth far away, and conquered Europe and Asia, but were afterwards conquered by the Athenians, while that island itself was submerged by God under the sea. Both Plato and Aristotle praise this philosopher, and Proclus has written a commentary on him. He himself expresses views similar to our own with some modifications, transferring the scene of the events from the east to the west. Moreover he mentions those ten generations as well as that earth which lies beyond the Ocean. And in a word it is evident that all of them borrow from Moses, and publish his statements as their own.[48]
A Hebrew treatise on computational astronomy dated to AD 1378/79, alludes to the Atlantis myth in a discussion concerning the determination of zero points for the calculation of longitude:[original research?][citation needed]

Some say that they [the inhabited regions] begin at the beginning of the western ocean [the Atlantic] and beyond. For in the earliest times [literally: the first days] there was an island in the middle of the ocean. There were scholars there, who isolated themselves in [the pursuit of] philosophy. In their day, that was the [beginning for measuring] the longitude[s] of the inhabited world. Today, it has become [covered by the?] sea, and it is ten degrees into the sea; and they reckon the beginning of longitude from the beginning of the western sea.[49]



 A map showing the supposed extent of the Atlantean Empire. From Ignatius L. Donnelly's Atlantis: the Antediluvian World, 1882.[50]
Modern
Aside from Plato's original account, modern interpretations regarding Atlantis are an amalgamation of diverse, speculative movements that began in the 16th century.[51] Contemporary perceptions of Atlantis share roots with Mayanism, which can be traced to the beginning of the Modern Age, when European imaginations were fueled by their initial encounters with the indigenous peoples of the New World.[52] From this era sprang apocalyptic and utopian visions that would inspire many subsequent generations of theorists.[52]
Most of these interpretations are considered pseudohistory, pseudoscience, or pseudoarchaeology, as they have presented their works as academic or scientific, but lack the standards or criteria.
Atlantis pseudohistory
Early influential literature
The term "utopia" (from "no place") was coined by Sir Thomas More in Utopia, his 16th Century work of fiction.[53] Inspired by Plato's Atlantis and travelers' accounts of the Americas, More described an imaginary land set in the New World.[54] His idealistic vision established a connection between the Americas and utopian societies, a theme which was further solidified by Sir Francis Bacon in The New Atlantis (c. 1623).[52] Bacon describes a utopian society that he called "Bensalem," located off the western coast of America. A character in the narrative gives a history of Atlantis that is similar to Plato's and places Atlantis in America. People had begun believing that the Mayan and Aztec ruins could possibly be the remnants of Atlantis.[53]
Impact of Mayanism
Much speculation began as to the origins of the Maya, which led to a variety of narratives and publications which tried to rationalize the discoveries within the context of the Bible and which had undertones of racism in their connections between the Old and New World. The Europeans believed the indigenous people to be inferior and incapable of building that which was now in ruins and by sharing a common history they insinuate that another race must have been responsible.
In the middle and late 19th century, several renowned Mesoamerican scholars, starting with Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, and including Edward Herbert Thompson and Augustus Le Plongeon, formally proposed that Atlantis was somehow related to Mayan and Aztec culture.
French scholar Brasseur de Bourbourg traveled extensively through Mesoamerica in the mid-1800s, and was renowned for his translations of Mayan texts, most notably the sacred book Popol Vuh, as well as a comprehensive history of the region. However, soon after these publications, Brasseur de Bourbourg lost his academic credibility, due to his claim that the Maya peoples had descended from the Toltecs, who he believed were the surviving population of the racially superior civilization of Atlantis.[55] His work combined with the skillful, romantic illustrations of Jean Frederic Waldeck, which visually alluded to Egypt and other aspects of the Old World, creating an authoritative fantasy and exciting much interest in the connections between worlds.
Inspired by Brasseur de Bourbourg's diffusion theories, pseudoarchaeologist Augustus Le Plongeon traveled to Mesoamerica and performed some of the first excavations of many famous Mayan ruins. Le Plongeon invented narratives, such as the kingdom of Moo saga, which romantically drew connections between himself, his wife Alice, and Egyptian deities Osiris and Isis, as well as with Heinrich Schliemann, who had just discovered the ancient city of Troy from Homer's epics.[56] He also believed that he had found connections between the Greek and Mayan languages, which produced a narrative of the destruction of Atlantis.[57]
Ignatius Donnelly
The 1882 publication of Atlantis: the Antediluvian World by Ignatius L. Donnelly stimulated much popular interest in Atlantis. He was greatly inspired by early works in Mayanism, and like them attempted to establish that all known ancient civilizations were descended from Atlantis, which he saw as a technologically sophisticated, more advanced culture. Donnelly drew parallels between creation stories in the Old and New Worlds, attributing the connections to Atlantis, where he believed existed the Biblical Garden of Eden.[58] As implied by the title of his book, he also believed that Atlantis was destroyed by the Great Flood mentioned in the Bible.
Donnelly is credited as the "father of the 19th century Atlantis revival" and is the reason the myth endures today.[59] He unintentionally promoted an alternative method of inquiry to history and science, and the idea that myths contain hidden information that opens them to "ingenious" interpretation by people who believe they have new or special insight.[60]
Madame Blavatsky and the Theosophists




Map of Atlantis according to William Scott-Elliott (The Story of Atlantis, Russian edition, 1910)
The Russian mystic Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and her partner Henry Steel Olcott founded their Theosophical Society in the 1870s with a philosophy that combined western romanticism and eastern religious concepts. Blavatsky and her followers in this group are often cited as the founders of New Age and other spiritual movements.[53]
Blavatsky took up Donnelly's interpretations when she wrote The Secret Doctrine (1888), which she claimed was originally dictated in Atlantis itself. She maintained that the Atlanteans were cultural heroes (contrary to Plato, who describes them mainly as a military threat). She believed in a form of racial evolution (as opposed to primate evolution), in which the Atlanteans were the fourth "Root Race", succeeded by the fifth and most superior "Aryan race" (her own race).[53] The Theosophists believed that the civilization of Atlantis reached its peak between 1,000,000 and 900,000 years ago but destroyed itself through internal warfare brought about by the inhabitants' dangerous use of psychic and supernatural powers.
Rudolf Steiner, the founder of Anthroposophy and Waldorf Schools, along with other well known Theosophists, such as Annie Besant, also wrote of cultural evolution in much the same vein.
Nazism and occultism
See also: Nazism and occultism
Blavatsky had also been inspired by the work of the 18th-century astronomer Jean-Sylvain Bailly, who had "Orientalized" the Atlantis myth in his mythical continent of Hyperborea, a reference to Greek myths featuring a Northern European region of the same name, home to a giant, godlike race.[61] Her retooling of this theory in The Secret Doctrine provided the Nazis with a mythological precedent and pretense for their ideological platform and subsequent genocide.[61]
Julius Evola's writing in 1934 also suggested that the Atlanteans were Hyperborean, Nordic supermen who originated at the North Pole (see Thule). Similarly, Alfred Rosenberg (in The Myth of the Twentieth Century, 1930) spoke of a "Nordic-Atlantean" or "Aryan-Nordic" master race.
Edgar Cayce
Edgar Cayce was a man from humble upbringings in Kentucky who allegedly possessed psychic abilities, which were performed from a trance-like state. In addition to allegedly healing the sick from this state, he also spoke frequently on the topic of Atlantis. In his "life readings," he purportedly revealed that many of his subjects were reincarnations of people that had lived on Atlantis, and by tapping into their collective consciousness, the "Akashic Records" (a term borrowed from Theosophy),[62] he was able to give detailed descriptions of the lost continent.[63] He also asserted that Atlantis would "rise" again in the 1960s (sparking much popularity of the myth in that decade), as well as that there is a "Hall of Records" beneath the Egyptian Sphinx that holds the historical texts of Atlantis.
Recent times
As continental drift became more widely accepted during the 1960s, and the increased understanding of plate tectonics demonstrated the impossibility of a lost continent in the geologically recent past,[64] most "Lost Continent" theories of Atlantis began to wane in popularity.
Plato scholar Julia Annas, Regents Professor of Philosophy at the University of Arizona, had this to say on the matter:

The continuing industry of discovering Atlantis illustrates the dangers of reading Plato. For he is clearly using what has become a standard device of fiction—stressing the historicity of an event (and the discovery of hitherto unknown authorities) as an indication that what follows is fiction. The idea is that we should use the story to examine our ideas of government and power. We have missed the point if instead of thinking about these issues we go off exploring the sea bed. The continuing misunderstanding of Plato as historian here enables us to see why his distrust of imaginative writing is sometimes justified.[65]
One of the proposed explanations for the historical context of the Atlantis story is a warning of Plato to his contemporary fourth-century fellow-citizens against their striving for naval power.[15]
Kenneth Feder points out that Critias's story in the Timaeus provides a major clue. In the dialogue, Critias says, referring to Socrates' hypothetical society:

And when you were speaking yesterday about your city and citizens, the tale which I have just been repeating to you came into my mind, and I remarked with astonishment how, by some mysterious coincidence, you agreed in almost every particular with the narrative of Solon. ...[66]
Feder quotes A. E. Taylor, who wrote, "We could not be told much more plainly that the whole narrative of Solon's conversation with the priests and his intention of writing the poem about Atlantis are an invention of Plato's fancy."[67]
Location hypotheses
Main article: Location hypotheses of Atlantis
Since Donnelly's day, there have been dozens of locations proposed for Atlantis, to the point where the name has become a generic concept, divorced from the specifics of Plato's account. This is reflected in the fact that many proposed sites are not within the Atlantic at all. Few today are scholarly or archaeological hypotheses, while others have been made by psychic (e.g., Edgar Cayce) or other pseudoscientific means. (The Atlantis researchers Jacques Collina-Girard and Georgeos Díaz-Montexano, for instance, each claim the other's hypothesis is pseudoscience.)[68][69] Many of the proposed sites share some of the characteristics of the Atlantis story (water, catastrophic end, relevant time period), but none has been demonstrated to be a true historical Atlantis.



 Satellite image of the islands of Santorini. From the Minoan eruption event, and the 1964 discovery of Akrotiri on the island, this location is one of many sites purported to have been the location of Atlantis
In or near the Mediterranean Sea
Most of the historically proposed locations are in or near the Mediterranean Sea: islands such as Sardinia, Crete, Santorini, Sicily, Cyprus, and Malta; land-based cities or states such as Troy,[70] Tartessos, and Tantalus (in the province of Manisa, Turkey); Israel-Sinai or Canaan;[citation needed] and northwestern Africa.[71][72] The Thera eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesize devastated the Minoan civilization on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the story.[73]
A. G. Galanopoulos argued that Plato's dating of 9,000 years before Solon's time was the result of an error in translation, probably from Egyptian into Greek, which produced "thousands" instead of "hundreds". Such an error would also rescale Plato's Atlantis to the size of Crete, while leaving the city the size of the crater on Thera; 900 years before Solon would be the 15th century BC.[74] In the area of the Black Sea the following locations have been proposed: Bosporus and Ancomah[75][76] (a legendary place near Trabzon).
In the Atlantic Ocean and Europe



 Map showing hypothetical extent of Doggerland (c. 8,000 BCE), which provided a land bridge between Great Britain and continental Europe.
In 2011, a team, working on a documentary for the National Geographic Channel,[77] led by Professor Richard Freund from the University of Hartford, claimed to have found evidence of Atlantis in southwestern Andalusia.[78] The team identified its possible location within the marshlands of the Doñana National Park, in the area that once was the Lacus Ligustinus,[79] between the Huelva, Cádiz and Seville provinces, and speculated that Atlantis had been destroyed by a tsunami,[80] extrapolating results from a previous study by Spanish researchers, published four years earlier.[81]
Spanish scientists have dismissed Freund's speculations, claiming that he sensationalised their work. The anthropologist Juan Villarías-Robles, who works with the Spanish National Research Council, said, "Richard Freund was a newcomer to our project and appeared to be involved in his own very controversial issue concerning King Solomon's search for ivory and gold in Tartessos, the well documented settlement in the Doñana area established in the first millennium BC", and described Freund's claims as "fanciful".[82]
A similar theory had previously been put forward by a German researcher, Rainer W. Kühne, but based only on satellite imagery and placing Atlantis in the Marismas de Hinojos, north of the city of Cádiz.[83] Before that, the historian Adolf Schulten had stated in the 1920s that Plato had used Tartessos as the basis for his Atlantis myth.[84]
The location of Atlantis in the Atlantic Ocean has a certain appeal given the closely related names. Popular culture often places Atlantis there, perpetuating the original Platonic setting. Several hypotheses place the sunken island in northern Europe, including Doggerland in the North Sea, and Sweden (by Olof Rudbeck in Atland, 1672–1702). Doggerland, as well as Viking Bergen Island, is thought to have been flooded by a megatsunami following the Storegga slide c. 6100 BCE.[85] Some have proposed the Celtic Shelf as a possible location, and that there is a link to Ireland.[86]
The Canary Islands and Madeira Islands have also been identified as a possible location,[87][88][89][90] west of the Straits of Gibraltar but in relative proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Various islands or island groups in the Atlantic were also identified as possible locations, notably the Azores.[89][90][91] However detailed geological studies of the Canary Islands, the Azores, Madeira, and the ocean bottom surrounding them found a complete lack of any evidence for the catastrophic subsidence of these islands at any time during their existence and a complete lack of any evidence that the ocean bottom surrounding them was ever dry land at any time in the recent past, with the exception of what appeared to be beaches.[citation needed] The submerged island of Spartel near the Strait of Gibraltar has also been suggested.[83]
Other locations
Several writers have speculated that Antarctica is the site of Atlantis,[92][93] while others have proposed Caribbean locations such the alleged Cuban sunken city off the Guanahacabibes peninsula in Cuba,[94] the Bahamas, and the Bermuda Triangle.[95] Areas in the Pacific and Indian Oceans have also been proposed including Indonesia (i.e. Sundaland).[96] Likewise some have speculated[97] that the continent of South America bears striking similarities to the description of Atlantis by Plato, particularly the Altiplano region of the Andes. The stories of a lost continent off the coast of India, named "Kumari Kandam," have inspired some to draw parallels to Atlantis.[98]
See also
Atlantis in popular culture
Mu (lost continent)
Antillia
Brasil (mythical island)
Ys
Hyperborea
Iram of the Pillars
El Dorado
Agharta
Shambhala
Avalon
Thule
Brittia
Baltia
Mythical place
Sandy Island, New Caledonia
Underwater geography:
Yonaguni Monument
Bimini Road
General:
Doggerland
Lost lands
Kumari Kandam
Minoan eruption
Notes
1.Jump up ^ Plato's contemporaries pictured the world as consisting of only Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia (see the map of Hecataeus of Miletus). Atlantis, according to Plato, had conquered all Western parts of the known world, making it the literary counter-image of Persia. See Welliver, Warman (1977). Character, Plot and Thought in Plato's Timaeus-Critias. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 42. ISBN 90-04-04870-7.
2.Jump up ^ Hackforth, R. (1944). "The Story of Atlantis: Its Purpose and Its Moral". Classical Review 58 (1): 7–9. doi:10.1017/s0009840x00089356. JSTOR 701961.
3.Jump up ^ David, Ephraim (1984). "The Problem of Representing Plato's Ideal State in Action". Riv. Fil. 112: 33–53.
4.Jump up ^ Hartmann, Anna-Maria (2014). "The Strange Antiquity of Francis Bacon's New Atlantis". Renaissance Studies. Forthcoming. doi:10.1111/rest.12084. edit
5.Jump up ^ The frame story in Critias tells about an alleged visit of the Athenian lawmaker Solon (c. 638 BC – 558 BC) to Egypt, where he was told the Atlantis story that supposedly occurred 9,000 years before his time.
6.Jump up ^ Feder, Kenneth (2011). "Lost: One Continent - Reward". Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology (Seventh ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 141–164. ISBN 978-0-07-811697-1.
7.Jump up ^ Clay, Diskin (2000). "The Invention of Atlantis: The Anatomy of a Fiction". In Cleary, John J.; Gurtler, Gary M. Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy 15. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 1–21. ISBN 90-04-11704-0.
8.Jump up ^ Laird, A. (2001). "Ringing the Changes on Gyges: Philosophy and the Formation of Fiction in Plato's Republic". Journal of Hellenic Studies 121: 12–29. doi:10.2307/631825. JSTOR 631825. edit
9.^ Jump up to: a b c Luce, John V. (1978). "The Literary Perspective". In Ramage, Edwin S. Atlantis, Fact or Fiction?. Indiana University Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-253-10482-3.
10.Jump up ^ Griffiths, J. Gwyn (1985). "Atlantis and Egypt". Historia 34 (1): 3–28. JSTOR 4435908. edit
11.Jump up ^ Görgemanns, Herwig (2000). "Wahrheit und Fiktion in Platons Atlantis-Erzählung". Hermes 128 (4): 405–419. JSTOR 4477385. edit
12.Jump up ^ Zangger, Eberhard (1993). "Plato's Atlants Account – A Distorted Recollection of the Trojan War". Oxford Journal of Archaeology 12 (1): 77–87. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.1993.tb00283.x. edit
13.Jump up ^ Gill, Christopher (1979). "Plato's Atlantis Story and the Birth of Fiction". Philosophy and Literature 3 (1): 64–78. doi:10.1353/phl.1979.0005.
14.Jump up ^ Naddaf, Gerard (1994). "The Atlantis Myth: An Introduction to Plato's Later Philosophy of History". Phoenix 48 (3): 189–209. JSTOR 3693746.
15.^ Jump up to: a b Morgan, K. A. (1998). "Designer History: Plato's Atlantis Story and Fourth-Century Ideology". JHS 118 (1): 101–118. JSTOR 632233.
16.Jump up ^ Plato's Timaeus is usually dated 360 BC; it was followed by his Critias.
17.Jump up ^ Timaeus 24e–25a, R. G. Bury translation (Loeb Classical Library).
18.Jump up ^ "Atlantis—Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com.
19.Jump up ^ Also it has been interpreted that Plato or someone before him in the chain of the oral or written tradition of the report accidentally changed the very similar Greek words for "bigger than" ("meson") and "between" ("mezon") – Luce, J.V. (1969). The End of Atlantis – New Light on an Old Legend. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 224.
20.Jump up ^ Critias 113, Bury translation.
21.Jump up ^ Critias 116a, Bury translation.
22.Jump up ^ The name is a back-formation from Gades, the Greek name for Cadiz.
23.Jump up ^ Critias 116bc
24.Jump up ^ Timaeus 25c–d, Bury translation.
25.Jump up ^ Castleden 2001, p. 164
26.Jump up ^ Castleden 2001, pp. 156–158.
27.Jump up ^ Rudberg, G. (1917/2012). Atlantis och Syrakusai, 1917; English: Atlantis and Syracuse, 2012. ISBN 978-3-8482-2822-5
28.Jump up ^ Nesselrath, HG (2005). 'Where the Lord of the Sea Grants Passage to Sailors through the Deep-blue Mere no More: The Greeks and the Western Seas', Greece & Rome, vol. 52, pp. 153–171 [pp. 161–171].
29.Jump up ^ Timaeus 24a: τὰ γράμματα λαβόντες.
30.Jump up ^ Cameron 2002[full citation needed]
31.Jump up ^ Castleden 2001, p,168
32.^ Jump up to: a b Cameron, Alan (1983). 'Crantor and Posidonius on Atlantis', The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 33, No. 1 (1983), pp. 81–91
33.Jump up ^ Muck, Otto Heinrich, The Secret of Atlantis, Translation by Fred Bradley of Alles über Atlantis (Econ Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf-Wien, 1976), Times Books, a division of Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co., Inc., Three Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10016, 1978. ISBN 978-0-671-82392-4
34.Jump up ^ Proclus, Commentary on Plato's Timaeus, p. 117.10–30 (=FGrHist 671 F 1), trans. Taylor, Nesselrath.
35.Jump up ^ Strabo 2.3.6
36.Jump up ^ Nesselrath, HG (1998). 'Theopomps Meropis und Platon: Nachahmung und Parodie', Göttinger Forum für Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 1, pp. 1–8.
37.Jump up ^ Porphyry, Life of Plotinus, 7=35.
38.Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick-Matthews, Keith. Lost Continents: Atlantis.
39.Jump up ^ [1] Bibliotheca historica – Diodorus Siculus 4.56.4: "And the writers even offer proofs of these things, pointing out that the Celts who dwell along the ocean venerate the Dioscori above any of the gods, since they have a tradition handed down from ancient times that these gods appeared among them coming from the ocean. Moreover, the country which skirts the ocean bears, they say, not a few names which are derived from the Argonauts and the Dioscori."
40.Jump up ^ T. Franke, Aristotle and Atlantis, 2012; pp. 131–133
41.Jump up ^ "Philo: On the Eternity of the World". Earlychristianwritings.com. 2 February 2006. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
42.Jump up ^ "First Clement: Clement of Rome". Earlychristianwritings.com. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
43.Jump up ^ Lightfoot, translator, The Apostolic Fathers, II, 1885, P. 84, Edited & Revised by Michael W. Holmes, 1989.
44.Jump up ^ De Camp, LS (1954). Lost Continents: The Atlantis Theme in History, Science, and Literature. New York: Gnome Press, p. 307. ISBN 978-0-486-22668-2
45.Jump up ^ "CHURCH FATHERS: On the Pallium (Tertullian)". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
46.Jump up ^ "ANF06. Fathers of the Third Century: Gregory Thaumaturgus, Dionysius the Great, Julius Africanus, Anatolius, and Minor Writers, Methodius, Arn - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". Ccel.org. 1 June 2005. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
47.Jump up ^ Cosmas Indicopleustes (24 June 2010). The Christian Topography of Cosmas, an Egyptian Monk: Translated from the Greek, and Edited with Notes and Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-01295-9.
48.Jump up ^ Roger Pearse. "Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography (1897) pp. 374-385. Book 12". Tertullian.org. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
49.Jump up ^ Selin, Helaine 2000, Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, pg 574. ISBN 0-7923-6363-9
50.Jump up ^ Donnelly, I (1882). Atlantis: The Antediluvian World, New York: Harper & Bros. Retrieved 6 November 2001, from Project Gutenberg, page 295.
51.Jump up ^ Feder, KL. Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology, Mountain View, Mayfield 1999. ISBN 978-0-07-811697-1
52.^ Jump up to: a b c Hoopes, John W. (2011). "Mayanism Comes of (New) Age". In Joseph Gelfer. 2012: Decoding the Counterculture Apocalypse. London: Equinox Publishing. pp. 38–59. ISBN 978-1-84553-639-8.
53.^ Jump up to: a b c d Callahan, Tim, Friedhoffer, Bob, and Pat Linse (2001). "The Search for Atlantis!". Skeptic 8 (4): 96. ISSN 1063-9330.
54.Jump up ^ Hoopes, John W. (2011). "Mayanism Comes of (New) Age". In Joseph Gelfer. 2012: Decoding the Counterculture Apocalypse. London: Equinox Publishing. pp. 38–59 [p. 46]. ISBN 978-1-84553-639-8.
55.Jump up ^ Evans, R. Tripp (2004). Romancing the Maya: Mexican Antiquity in the American Imagination, 1820–1915. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 113. ISBN 0-292-70247-7.
56.Jump up ^ Evans, R. Tripp (2004). Romancing the Maya: Mexican Antiquity in the American Imagination, 1820–1915. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 141–6. ISBN 0-292-70247-7.
57.Jump up ^ Brunhouse, Robert L. (1973). In Search of the Maya: The First Archaeologists. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. p. 153. ISBN 0-8263-0276-9.
58.Jump up ^ Donnelly 1941: 192-203
59.Jump up ^ Williams, Stephen (1991). Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild Side of North American Prehistory. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 137–8. ISBN 0-8122-8238-8.
60.Jump up ^ Jordan, Paul (2006). "Esoteric Egypt". In Garrett G. Fagan. Archaeological Fantasies. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 23–46. ISBN 978-0-415-30593-8
61.^ Jump up to: a b Edelstein, Dan (2006). "Hyperborean Atlantis: Jean-Sylvain Bailly, Madame Blavatsky, and the Nazi Myth". Studies in eighteenth-century culture 35: 267–291 [p. 268]. doi:10.1353/sec.2010.0055. ISSN 0360-2370.
62.Jump up ^ See Tillett, Gregory John Charles Webster Leadbeater (1854-1934), a biographical study. PhD Thesis. University of Sydney, Department of Religious Studies, Sydney, 1986 – p. 985.
63.Jump up ^ Cayce, Edgar Evans (1968). Edgar Cayce on Atlantis. New York and Boston: Grand Central Publishing. pp. 27–8. ISBN 0-446-35102-4.
64.Jump up ^ Runnels, Curtis; Murray, Priscilla (2004). Greece Before History: An Archaeological Companion and Guide. Stanford: Stanford UP. p. 130. ISBN 0-8047-4036-4. Retrieved 17 January 2010.
65.Jump up ^ J. Annas, Plato: A Very Short Introduction (OUP 2003), p.42 (emphasis not in the original)
66.Jump up ^ Timaeus 25e, Jowett translation.
67.Jump up ^ Feder, KL. Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology, Mountain View, Mayfield 1999, p. 164 ISBN 978-0-07-811697-1
68.Jump up ^ Collina-Girard, Jacques, L'Atlantide retrouvée: enquête scientifique autour d'un mythe (Paris: Belin – pour la science, 2009).
69.Jump up ^ Little, Greg (September 2004). "Atlantis Insider: Brief Reviews of the Latest in the Search for Atlantis".
70.Jump up ^ Zangger, Eberhard, The Flood from Heaven: Deciphering the Atlantis legend, New York: William Morrow and Company, 1993
71.Jump up ^ "Plato's Atlantis in South Morocco?". Asalas.org.
72.Jump up ^ http://www.atlantis-bakhu.com/ Atlantis-Bakhu
73.Jump up ^ The wave that destroyed Atlantis Harvey Lilley, BBC News Online, 2007-04-20. Retrieved 2007-04-21.
74.Jump up ^ Galanopoulos, Angelos Geōrgiou, and Edward Bacon, Atlantis: The Truth Behind the Legend, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969
75.Jump up ^ Atlantis and Lost city of Ancomah
76.Jump up ^ Ancomah myth in Turkish Folklore
77.Jump up ^ "Finding Atlantis". National Geographic Channel. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
78.Jump up ^ Howard, Zach (12 March 2011). "Lost city of Atlantis, swamped by tsunami, may be found". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
79.Jump up ^ Ivar Lissner (1962). The Silent Past: Mysterious and forgotten cultures of the world. Putnam. p. 156.
80.Jump up ^ Zoe Fox (14 March 2011). "Science Lost No Longer? Researchers Claim to Have Found 'Atlantis' in Spain.". Time. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
81.Jump up ^ Francisco Ruiz; Manuel Abad et al. (2008). "The Geological Record of the Oldest Historical Tsunamis in Southwestern Spain". Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia (Università degli Studi di Milano) 114 (1): 145–154. ISSN 0035-6883.
82.Jump up ^ Owen, Edward (14 March 2011). "Lost city of Atlantis 'buried in Spanish wetlands'". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 18 March 2011.
83.^ Jump up to: a b Kühne, Rainer W. (June 2004). Antiquity (Department of Archaeology, University of York) 78 (300). ISSN 0003-598X http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/078/300/default.htm |url= missing title (help). Retrieved 10 July 2011.
84.Jump up ^ Schulten, Adof (1927). "Tartessos und Atlantis". Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen (in German) 73: 284–288.
85.Jump up ^ Bernhard Weninger et al., The catastrophic final flooding of Doggerland by the Storegga Slide tsunami, Documenta Praehistorica XXXV, 2008
86.Jump up ^ Lovgren, Stefan (19 August 2004). "Atlantis "Evidence" Found in Spain and Ireland". National Geographic.
87.Jump up ^ Afonso, Leoncio (1980). "El mito de la Atlántida". Geografía física de Canarias: Geografía de Canarias (in Spanish). Editorial Interinsular Canaria. p. 11. ISBN 978-84-85543-15-1.
88.Jump up ^ Rodríguez Hernández, María Jesús (2011). Imágenes de Canarias 1764–1927. Historia y ciencia (in Spanish). Fundación Canaria Orotava. p. 38. ISBN 978-84-614-5110-4.
89.^ Jump up to: a b Sweeney, Emmet (2010). Atlantis: The Evidence of Science. Algora Publishing. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-87586-771-7.
90.^ Jump up to: a b Vidal-Naquet, Pierre (2005). L'Atlantide: Petite histoire d'un mythe platonicien (in French). Belles Lettres. p. 92. ISBN 978-2-251-38071-1.
91.Jump up ^ Stein, Wendy (1989). Atlantis: Opposing Viewpoints. Greenhaven Press. pp. 61–66. ISBN 978-0-89908-056-7.
92.Jump up ^ The Atlantis Blueprint: Unlocking the Ancient Mysteries of a Long-Lost Civilization. Delta; Reprint edition. 28 May 2002. ISBN 0-440-50898-3.
93.Jump up ^ Earth's shifting crust: A key to some basic problems of earth science. Pantheon Books. 1958. ASIN B0006AVEEU.
94.Jump up ^ Ballingrud, David (17 November 2002). "Underwater world: Man's doing or nature's?". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 3 October 2012.
95.Jump up ^ Hanson, Bill. The Atlantis Triangle. 2003.
96.Jump up ^ Atlantis – The Lost Continent Finally Found Santos, Arysio; Atlantis Publications, August 2005, ISBN 0-9769550-0-8.
97.Jump up ^ Booysen, Riaan (29 August 2012). "Terra Australis Incognita". http://blog.world-mysteries.com/. World Mysteries Blog. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
98.Jump up ^ Ramaswamy, Sumathi (2005). The lost land of Lemuria: fabulous geographies, catastrophic histories. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24440-5. Retrieved 28 September 2010
Further reading
Ancient sourcesPlato, Timaeus, translated by Benjamin Jowett at Project Gutenberg; alternative version with commentary.
Plato, Critias, translated by Benjamin Jowett at Project Gutenberg; alternative version with commentary.
Modern sourcesCalvo, T., ed. (1997). Interpreting the Timaeus-Critias, Proceedings of the IV. Symposium Platonicum in Granada September 1995. Academia St. Augustin. ISBN 3-89665-004-1.
Castleden, Rodney (2001). Atlantis Destroyed. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24759-4.
Forsyth, P. Y. (1980). Atlantis: The Making of Myth. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-0355-2.
Gill, C. (1980). Plato, The Atlantis Story: Timaeus 17-27 Critias. Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 0-906515-59-9.
Godwin, Joscelyn, PhD (2011) Atlantis and the Cycles of Time: Prophecies, Traditions, and Occult Revelations, Inner Traditions. ISBN 978-1-59477-857-5.
Jordan, P. (1994). The Atlantis Syndrome. Stroud: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-3518-9.
Ramage, E. S., ed. (1978). Atlantis: Fact or Fiction?. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-10482-3.
Vidal-Naquet, Pierre (2007). The Atlantis Story: A Short History of Plato's Myth. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. ISBN 978-0-85989-805-8.
External links
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Atlantis.
 Look up atlantis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Theoi Greek Mythology: Collection of ancient texts on Atlantis (Plato, Diodorus Siculus, et al.)
DMOZ Web link collection: Atlantis
Atlantis-Scout.de: Multilingual collection of academic articles, Web links, videos, etc.
Atlantipedia.ie: Encyclopedic collection of information on Atlantis.
Skeptic's dictionary: Atlantis
Atlantis in John Clute and John Grant, eds., The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1997)


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Loch Ness Monster
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"Nessie" redirects here. For other uses, see Loch Ness Monster (disambiguation) and Nessie (disambiguation).
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Loch Ness Monster

(Nessie, Niseag, "Nessiteras rhombopteryx")


Hoaxed photo of the Loch Ness monster.jpg
The "Surgeon's Photograph" (now known to be a hoax)

Grouping
Cryptid
Sub grouping
Lake monster
First reported
565 (retrospectively),[a]
 1802 (chronologically)[2]
Last reported
2014[citation needed]
Country
Scotland
Region
Loch Ness
Habitat
Water
The Loch Ness Monster is a cryptid, a creature whose existence has been suggested but has not been discovered or documented by the scientific community.[3] It is reputedly a large unknown animal that inhabits Loch Ness in the Scottish Highlands. It is similar to other supposed lake monsters in Scotland and elsewhere, though its description varies from one account to the next. Popular interest and belief in the animal's existence has varied since it was first brought to the world's attention in 1933. Evidence of its existence is anecdotal, with minimal and much-disputed photographic material and sonar readings.
The most common speculation among believers is that the creature represents a line of long-surviving plesiosaurs.[4] The scientific community regards the Loch Ness Monster as a modern-day myth, and explains sightings as including misidentifications of more mundane objects, outright hoaxes, and wishful thinking.[5] Despite this, it remains one of the most famous examples of cryptozoology. The legendary monster has been affectionately referred to by the nickname Nessie[b] (Scottish Gaelic: Niseag)[6] since the 1940s.[7]


Contents  [hide]
1 Origins
2 History 2.1 Saint Columba (6th century)
2.2 Spicers (1933)
2.3 Chief Constable William Fraser (1938)
2.4 C. B. Farrel (1943)
2.5 Sonar contact (1954)
3 Photographs and films 3.1 Hugh Gray's Photograph (1933)
3.2 "Surgeon's Photograph" (1934)
3.3 Taylor film (1938)
3.4 Dinsdale film (1960)
3.5 Holmes video (2007)
3.6 Sonar image (2011)
3.7 George Edwards's photograph (2011)
3.8 David Elder's video (2013)
3.9 Apple Maps photograph (2014)
4 Searches for the monster 4.1 Sir Edward Mountain Expedition (1934)
4.2 Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau (1962–1972)
4.3 LNPIB sonar study (1967–1968)
4.4 Andrew Carroll's sonar study (1969)
4.5 Submersible investigations
4.6 "Big Expedition" of 1970
4.7 Robert Rines's studies (1972, 1975, 2001 and 2008)
4.8 Operation Deepscan (1987)
4.9 Discovery Loch Ness (1993)
4.10 Searching for the Loch Ness Monster BBC (2003)
5 Explanations 5.1 Misidentification of common animals




5.2 Misidentifications of inanimate objects or effects



5.3 Folklore
5.4 Hoaxes
5.5 Exotic species of large animals




6 Popular culture
7 See also
8 Footnotes
9 Bibliography
10 Documentary
11 External links
Origins



 Loch Ness
The term "monster" was reportedly applied for the first time to the creature on 2 May 1933 by Alex Campbell, the water bailiff for Loch Ness and a part-time journalist, in a report in The Inverness Courier.[8][9][10] On 4 August 1933, the Courier published as a full news item the assertion of a London man, George Spicer, that a few weeks earlier while motoring around the Loch, he and his wife had seen "the nearest approach to a dragon or pre-historic animal that I have ever seen in my life", trundling across the road toward the Loch carrying "an animal" in its mouth.[11] Other letters began appearing in the Courier, often anonymously, with claims of land or water sightings, either on the writer's part or on the parts of family, acquaintances or stories they remembered being told.[12] These stories soon reached the national (and later the international) press, which described a "monster fish", "sea serpent", or "dragon",[13] eventually settling on "Loch Ness Monster".[14] On 6 December 1933 the first purported photograph of the monster, taken by Hugh Gray, was published in the Daily Express,[15] and shortly after the creature received official notice when the Secretary of State for Scotland ordered the police to prevent any attacks on it.[16] In 1934, interest was further sparked by what is known as The Surgeon's Photograph. In the same year R. T. Gould published a book,[17] the first of many that describe the author's personal investigation and collected record of additional reports pre-dating 1933. Other authors have claimed that sightings of the monster go as far back as the 6th century (see below).
History
Saint Columba (6th century)
The earliest report of a monster associated with the vicinity of Loch Ness appears in the Life of St. Columba by Adomnán, written in the 7th century.[18] According to Adomnán, writing about a century after the events he described, the Irish monk Saint Columba was staying in the land of the Picts with his companions when he came across the locals burying a man by the River Ness. They explained that the man had been swimming the river when he was attacked by a "water beast" that had mauled him and dragged him under. They tried to rescue him in a boat, but were able only to drag up his corpse. Hearing this, Columba stunned the Picts by sending his follower Luigne moccu Min to swim across the river. The beast came after him, but Columba made the sign of the Cross and commanded: "Go no further. Do not touch the man. Go back at once."[19] The beast immediately halted as if it had been "pulled back with ropes" and fled in terror, and both Columba's men and the pagan Picts praised God for the miracle.[19]
The oldest manuscript relating to this story was put online in 2012.[20] Believers in the Loch Ness Monster often point to this story, which takes place on the River Ness rather than the loch itself, as evidence for the creature's existence as early as the 6th century.[21] However, sceptics question the narrative's reliability, noting that water-beast stories were extremely common in medieval saints' Lives; as such, Adomnán's tale is likely to be a recycling of a common motif attached to a local landmark.[22] According to the sceptics, Adomnán's story may be independent of the modern Loch Ness Monster legend entirely, only becoming attached to it in retrospect by believers seeking to bolster their claims.[21] In an article for Cryptozoology, A. C. Thomas notes that even if there were some truth to the story, it could be explained rationally as an encounter with a walrus or similar creature that had swum up the river.[21] R. Binns acknowledges that this account is the most serious of various alleged early sightings of the monster, but argues that all other claims of monster sightings prior to 1933 are highly dubious and do not prove that there was a tradition of the monster before this date.[9]
Spicers (1933)
Modern interest in the monster was sparked by a sighting on 22 July 1933, when George Spicer and his wife saw 'a most extraordinary form of animal' cross the road in front of their car.[11] They described the creature as having a large body (about 1.2 metres (3 ft 11 in) high and 7.6 metres (25 ft) long), and long, narrow neck, slightly thicker than an elephant's trunk and as long as the 10–12-foot (3–4 m) width of the road; the neck had undulations in it. They saw no limbs, possibly because of a dip in the road obscuring the animal's lower portion.[23] It lurched across the road towards the loch 20 yards (20 m) away, leaving only a trail of broken undergrowth in its wake.[23]
In August 1933 a motorcyclist named Arthur Grant claimed to have nearly hit the creature while approaching Abriachan on the north-eastern shore, at about 1 a.m. on a moonlit night. Grant claimed that he saw a small head attached to a long neck, and that the creature saw him and crossed the road back into the loch. A veterinary student, he described it as a hybrid between a seal and a plesiosaur. Grant said he dismounted and followed it to the loch, but only saw ripples.[17][24] Some believe this story was intended as a humorous explanation of a motorcycle accident.[25]
Sightings of the monster increased following the building of a road along the loch in early 1933, bringing both workmen and tourists to the formerly isolated area.[26] Sporadic land sightings continued until 1963, when film of the creature was shot in the loch from a distance of 4 kilometres. Because of the distance at which it was shot, it has been described as poor quality.[27]
Chief Constable William Fraser (1938)
In 1938, Inverness-shire Chief Constable William Fraser wrote a letter stating that it was beyond doubt the monster existed. His letter expressed concern regarding a hunting party that had arrived armed with a specially-made harpoon gun and were determined to catch the monster "dead or alive". He believed his power to protect the monster from the hunters was "very doubtful". The letter was released by the National Archives of Scotland on 27 April 2010.[28][29]
C. B. Farrel (1943)
In May 1943, C. B. Farrel of the Royal Observer Corps was supposedly distracted from his duties by a Nessie sighting. He claimed to have been about 230 metres (750 ft) away from a large-eyed, 'finned' creature, which had a 6-to-9-metre (20 to 30 ft) long body, and a neck that protruded about 1.2–1.5 metres (3 ft 11 in–4 ft 11 in) out of the water.[30]
Sonar contact (1954)
In December 1954 a strange sonar contact was made by the fishing boat Rival III. The vessel's crew observed sonar readings of a large object keeping pace with the boat at a depth of 146 metres (479 ft). It was detected travelling for 800 m (2,600 ft) in this manner, before contact was lost, but then found again later.[30] Many sonar attempts had been made previously, but most were either inconclusive or negative.
Photographs and films
Hugh Gray's Photograph (1933)
On 12 November 1933, Hugh Gray was walking along the loch after church when he spotted a substantial commotion in the water. A large creature rose up from the lake. Gray took several pictures of it, but only one of them showed up after they were developed. This image appeared to show a creature with a long tail and thick body at the surface of the loch. The image is blurred suggesting the animal was splashing. Four stumpy-looking objects on the bottom of the creature's body might possibly be a pair of appendages, such as flippers.[31] Although critics have claimed that the photograph is of a dog swimming towards the camera (possibly carrying a stick), researcher Roland Watson rejects this interpretation and suggests there is an eel-like head on the right side of the image.[32]
This picture is the first known image allegedly taken of the Loch Ness Monster.
"Surgeon's Photograph" (1934)



 Surgeon's Photograph
The "Surgeon's Photograph" is purported to be the first photo of a "head and neck".[c][33] Dr. Wilson claimed he was looking at the loch when he saw the monster, so grabbed his camera and snapped five photos. After the film was developed, only two exposures were clear. The first photo (the more publicised one) shows what was claimed to be a small head and back. The second one, a blurry image, attracted little publicity because it was difficult to interpret what was depicted. The image was revealed as a fake in The Sunday Telegraph dated 7 December 1975.[34] Supposedly taken by Robert Kenneth Wilson, a London gynaecologist, it was published in the Daily Mail on 21 April 1934.[35] Wilson's refusal to have his name associated with the photograph led to it being called "Surgeon's Photograph".[36] The strangely small ripples on the photo fit the size and circular pattern of small ripples as opposed to large waves when photographed up close. Analysis of the original uncropped image fostered further doubt. In 1993, the makers of Discovery Communications's documentary Loch Ness Discovered analysed the uncropped image and found a white object was visible in every version of the photo, implying it was on the negative. It was believed to be the cause of the ripples, as if the object was being towed, though it could not be ruled out as a blemish in the negative. Additionally, one analysis of the full photograph revealed the object was quite small, only about 60 to 90 cm (2 to 3 ft) long.[36] However, analyses of the size of the photograph have been inconsistent.
In 1979 it was claimed to be a picture of an elephant (see below). Other sceptics in the 1980s argued the photo was that of an otter or a diving bird, but after Christian Spurling's confession most agree it was what Spurling claimed – a toy submarine with a sculpted head attached.[36] Details of how the photo was accomplished were published in the 1999 book, Nessie – the Surgeon's Photograph Exposed, that contains a facsimile of the 1975 article in The Sunday Telegraph.[37] Essentially, it was a toy submarine bought from F.W. Woolworths with a head and neck made of plastic wood, built by Christian Spurling, the son-in-law of Marmaduke Wetherell, a big game hunter who had been publicly ridiculed in the Daily Mail, the newspaper that employed him. Spurling claimed that to get revenge, Marmaduke Wetherell committed the hoax, with the help of Chris Spurling (a sculpture specialist), his son Ian Marmaduke, who bought the material for the fake, and Maurice Chambers (an insurance agent), who asked surgeon Robert Kenneth Wilson to offer the pictures to the Daily Mail.[38] The hoax story is disputed by Henry Bauer, who claims this debunking is evidence of bias, and asks why the perpetrators did not reveal their plot earlier to embarrass the newspaper.[39]
Tim Dinsdale also disputes the claim of this photograph as a hoax in his book Loch Ness Monster. He claims that he studied the photograph so often and from many different angles that he was able to discern objects that prove the photograph is not a hoax. He states "upon really close examination, there are certain rather obscure features in the picture which have a profound significance."[40] Two of the obscure features are: a solid object breaking the surface to the right of the neck, and to the left and behind the neck there is another mark of some sort, Dinsdale states.[41] After making this claim Dinsdale discusses that these objects are too hard to identify, but that just proves that they could be part of the monster. According to Dinsdale either the objects are part of a very subtle fake or genuinely part of the monster.[42] Another object that he points out to prove the photograph is not a fake is the vague smaller ripples that are behind the neck, which seem to have been caused after the neck broke the surface.[42] Dinsdale emphatically states that this is a part of the animal that is underwater behind the neck.
Alastair Boyd, one of the researchers who uncovered the hoax, argues that the Loch Ness Monster is real, and that although the famous photo was hoaxed, that does not mean that all the photos, eyewitness reports, and footage of the monster were as well. He asserts that he too had a sighting and also argues that the hoaxed photo is not a good reason to dismiss eyewitness reports and other evidence.[43]
Taylor film (1938)
In 1938, G. E. Taylor, a South African tourist, filmed something in the loch for three minutes on 16 mm colour film, which was in the possession of Maurice Burton. Burton refused to show the film to Loch Ness investigators (such as Peter Costello or the Loch Ness Investigation Bureau). A single frame was published in his book The Elusive Monster; before he retired. Roy P. Mackal, a biologist and cryptozoologist, declared the frame was "positive evidence".[44] Later, it was shown also to the National Institute of Oceanography, now known as the National Oceanography Centre, Southampton.
Dinsdale film (1960)
In 1960, aeronautical engineer Tim Dinsdale filmed a hump crossing the water leaving a powerful wake.[45] Dinsdale allegedly spotted the animal on his last day hunting for it, and described the object as reddish with a blotch on its side. When he mounted his camera the object started to move and said that he shot 40 feet of film. JARIC declared that the object was "probably animate".[46] Others were sceptical, saying that the "hump" cannot be ruled out as being a boat,[47] and claimed that when the contrast is increased a man can be seen in a boat.[46]
In 1993 Discovery Communications made a documentary called Loch Ness Discovered that featured a digital enhancement of the Dinsdale film. A computer expert who enhanced the film noticed a shadow in the negative that was not very obvious in the positive. By enhancing and overlaying frames, he found what appeared to be the rear body of a creature underwater. He commented that "Before I saw the film, I thought the Loch Ness Monster was a load of rubbish. Having done the enhancement, I'm not so sure".[43] Some have countered this finding by saying that the angle of the film from the horizontal along with sun's angle on that day made shadows underwater unlikely.[48] Others pointed out that the darker water is undisturbed water that was only coincidentally shaped like a body.[49] The same source also says that there might be a smaller object (hump or head) in front of the hump causing this.[49]
Holmes video (2007)
On 26 May 2007, Gordon Holmes, a 55-year-old lab technician, captured video of what he said was "this jet black thing, about 14 metres (46 ft) long, moving fairly fast in the water." Adrian Shine, a marine biologist at the Loch Ness 2000 centre in Drumnadrochit, described the footage as among "the best footage [he has] ever seen."[50] BBC Scotland broadcast the video on 29 May 2007.[51] STV News' North Tonight aired the footage on 28 May 2007 and interviewed Holmes. In this feature, Adrian Shine of the Loch Ness Centre was also interviewed and suggested that the footage showed an otter, seal or water bird.[52]
Holmes's credibility has been doubted by an article on the Cryptomundo website,[53] which states that he has a history of reporting sightings of cryptozoological creatures, and sells a self-published book and DVD claiming evidence for fairies. His video also has no other objects for size comparison.[54] The MonsterQuest team investigated this video as well in their TV episode "Death of Loch Ness", where they examine evidence that Nessie has died, as well as other photos. In this documentary, Holmes asserts he spotted two creatures. A CNN news report showed the footage and an interview with Gordon Holmes.
Joe Nickell has suggested that this footage shows a beaver or an otter, swimming in the loch.[55]
Sonar image (2011)
On 24 August 2011, Marcus Atkinson, a local Loch Ness boat skipper, photographed a sonar image of a long 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) wide unidentified object which was apparently following his boat for two minutes at a depth of 23 m (75 ft). Atkinson ruled out the possibility of any small fish or seal being what he believed to be the Loch Ness Monster. In April 2012, a scientist from the National Oceanography Centre said that this image is a bloom of algae and zooplankton.[56] However, Roland Watson, a cryptozoologist and Loch Ness Monster researcher, has criticised this analysis, stating that the object in the image is very unlikely to be a bloom of algae and zooplankton, since algae needs sunlight to grow, and the waters of Loch Ness are very dark, and nearly devoid of sunlight, 23 m (75 ft) down. [57]
George Edwards's photograph (2011)
On 3 August 2012, skipper George Edwards published a photograph he claims to be "The most convincing Nessie photograph ever", which he claimed to have taken on 2 November 2011. Edwards's photograph consists in a hump out of the water which, according to him, remained so for five to ten minutes. The Daily Mail reports that Edwards had the photograph independently verified by specialists such as a Loch Ness Monster sighting devotee and a group of US military monster experts. Edwards spends 60 hours per week on the loch aboard his boat, Nessie Hunter IV, in which he takes tourists for a ride on the lake, and claims to have searched for the Loch Ness monster for 26 years.[58][59] Said Edwards, "In my opinion, it probably looks kind of like a manatee, but not a mammal. When people see three humps, they're probably just seeing three separate monsters."[60]
However, other researchers of the Loch Ness phenomena have questioned the authenticity of the photograph. A subsequent investigation by Loch Ness researcher, Steve Feltham, suggests that the object in the water is in fact a fibreglass hump used previously in a National Geographic documentary that Edwards had participated in.[61] Researcher Dick Raynor has also questioned Edwards's claims about finding a deeper bottom to Loch Ness, which he refers to as "Edwards Deep". He also found inconsistencies between Edwards's claims of the location and conditions of the photograph and the actual location and weather conditions of that day. Additionally, Raynor also stated that Edwards had previously told him he had faked a photograph in 1986, which he had promoted as genuine in the National Geographic documentary.[62]
David Elder's video (2013)
On 27 August 2013, tourist David Elder presented a five-minute video of a "mysterious wave" in the loch. He believed that the wave was being produced by a 4.5 m (15 ft) "solid black object" just under the surface of the water.[63] Elder, aged 50, of East Kilbride, South Lanarkshire, was taking a picture of a swan at the pierhead of Fort Augustus, at the south-west end of the loch,[64] when he captured the movement.[65] He added that "The water was very still at the time and there were no ripples coming off the wave and no other activity on the water."[65] Sceptics suggested that the wave may have been the result of a gust of wind.[66]
Apple Maps photograph (2014)
On 19 April 2014 it was reported [67] that Apple Maps was showing what appeared to be the monster close to the surface of the loch. It was spotted by Andrew Dixon who was browsing a map of his home town at the time and took a moment to take a look at the loch. Possible explanations for the image are that it could be the wake of a boat, a seal causing ripples or a floating log.
Searches for the monster
Sir Edward Mountain Expedition (1934)
Having read the book by Gould,[17] Edward Mountain decided to finance a proper watch. Twenty men with binoculars and cameras positioned themselves around the Loch from 9 am to 6 pm, for five weeks starting 13 July 1934. They took 21 photographs, though none was considered conclusive. Captain James Fraser was employed as a supervisor, and remained by the Loch afterwards, taking cine film (which is now lost) on 15 September 1934.[68] When viewed by zoologists and professors of natural history it was concluded that it showed a seal, possibly a grey seal.[69]
Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau (1962–1972)
The Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau (LNPIB) was a UK-based society formed in 1962 by Norman Collins, R. S. R. Fitter, David James, MP, Peter Scott and Constance Whyte[70] "to study Loch Ness to identify the creature known as the Loch Ness Monster or determine the causes of reports of it."[71] It later shortened the name to Loch Ness Investigation Bureau (LNIB). It closed in 1972. The society had an annual subscription charge, which covered administration. Its main activity was for groups of self-funded volunteers to watch the loch from various vantage points, equipped with cine cameras with telescopic lenses. From 1965 to 1972 it had a caravan camp and main watching platform at Achnahannet, and sent observers to other locations up and down the loch.[72] According to the 1969 Annual Report of the Bureau,[73] it had 1,030 members, of whom 588 were from the UK.
LNPIB sonar study (1967–1968)
Professor D. Gordon Tucker, chairman of the Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering at the University of Birmingham, England, volunteered his services as a sonar developer and expert at Loch Ness in 1968. The gesture was part of a larger effort helmed by the LNPIB from 1967 to 1968 and involved collaboration between volunteers and professionals in various fields. Tucker had chosen Loch Ness as the test site for a prototype sonar transducer with a maximum range of 800 m (2,600 ft). The device was fixed underwater at Temple Pier in Urquhart Bay and directed towards the opposite shore, effectively drawing an acoustic 'net' across the width of Ness through which no moving object could pass undetected. During the two-week trial in August, multiple animate targets 6 m (20 ft) in length were identified ascending from and diving to the loch bottom. Analysis of diving profiles ruled out air-breathers because the targets never surfaced or moved shallower than midwater.
Andrew Carroll's sonar study (1969)


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In 1969 Andrew Carroll, field researcher for the New York Aquarium in New York City, proposed a mobile sonar scan operation at Loch Ness. The project was funded by the Griffis foundation (named for Nixon Griffis, then a director of the aquarium). This was the tail-end (and most successful portion) of the LNPIB's 1969 effort involving submersibles with biopsy harpoons. The trawling scan, in Carroll's research launch Rangitea, took place in October. One sweep of the loch made contact with a strong, animate echo for nearly three minutes just north of Foyers. The identity of the contact remains a mystery. Later analysis determined that the intensity of the returning echo was twice as great as that expected from a 3-metre (10 ft) pilot whale. On returning to the University of Chicago, biologist Roy Mackal and colleagues subjected the sonar data to greater scrutiny and confirmed dimensions of 6 metres (20 ft).[citation needed]
Submersible investigations


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Earlier submersible work had yielded dismal results. Under the sponsorship of World Book Encyclopedia, pilot Dan Taylor deployed the Viperfish at Loch Ness on 1 June 1969. His dives were plagued by technical problems and produced no new data. The Deep Star III built by General Dynamics and an unnamed two-man submersible built by Westinghouse were scheduled to sail but never did. It was only when the Pisces arrived at Ness that the LNPIB obtained new data. Owned by Vickers, Ltd., the submersible had been rented out to produce The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes, a film featuring a dummy Loch Ness Monster. When the dummy monster broke loose from the Pisces during filming and sank to the bottom of the loch, Vickers executives capitalised on the loss and 'monster fever' by allowing the sub to do a bit of exploring. During one of these excursions, the Pisces picked up a large moving object on sonar 60 m (200 ft) ahead and 15 m (49 ft) above the bottom of the loch. Slowly the pilot closed to half that distance but the echo moved rapidly out of sonar range and disappeared.[citation needed]
"Big Expedition" of 1970


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During the so-called "Big Expedition" of 1970, Roy Mackal, a biologist who taught for 20 years at the University of Chicago, devised a system of hydrophones (underwater microphones) and deployed them at intervals throughout the loch. In early August a hydrophone assembly was lowered into Urquhart Bay and anchored in 210 metres (690 ft) of water. Two hydrophones were secured at depths of 300 and 180 metres (590 ft). After two nights of recording, the tape (sealed inside a 44 gallon drum along with the system's other sensitive components) was retrieved and played before an excited LNPIB. "Bird-like chirps" had been recorded, and the intensity of the chirps on the deep hydrophone suggested they had been produced at greater depth. In October "knocks" and "clicks" were recorded by another hydrophone in Urquhart Bay, indicative of echolocation. These sounds were followed by a "turbulent swishing" suggestive of the tail locomotion of a large aquatic animal. The knocks, clicks and resultant swishing were believed were the sounds of an animal echo-locating prey before moving in for the kill. The noises stopped whenever craft passed along the surface of the loch near the hydrophone, and resumed once the craft reached a safe distance. In previous experiments, it was observed that call intensities were greatest at depths less than 30 metres (100 ft). Members of the LNPIB decided to attempt communication with the animals producing the calls by playing back previously recorded calls into the water and listening via hydrophone for results, which varied greatly. At times the calling patterns or intensities changed, but sometimes there was no change at all. Mackal noted that there was no similarity between the recordings and the hundreds of known sounds produced by aquatic animals.[citation needed]
Robert Rines's studies (1972, 1975, 2001 and 2008)
In the early 1970s, a group of people led by Robert H. Rines obtained some underwater photographs. Two were rather vague images, perhaps of a rhomboid flipper (though others have dismissed the image as air bubbles or a fish fin). The alleged flipper was photographed in different positions, indicating movement.[74] On the basis of these photographs, British naturalist Peter Scott announced in 1975 that the scientific name of the monster would henceforth be Nessiteras rhombopteryx (Greek for "The Ness monster with diamond-shaped fin").[75] Scott intended that this would enable Nessie to be added to a British register of officially protected wildlife. Scottish politician Nicholas Fairbairn pointed out that the name was an anagram for "Monster hoax by Sir Peter S".[76][77]
The underwater photos were reportedly obtained by painstakingly examining the loch depths with sonar for unusual underwater activity. Rines knew the water was murky and filled with floating wood and peat, so he took precautions to avoid it. A submersible camera with an affixed, high-powered flood light was deployed to record images below the surface. If he detected anything on the sonar, he would turn the lights on and take some pictures. Several of the photographs, despite their obviously murky quality, did indeed seem to show an animal resembling a plesiosaur in various positions and lightings. One photograph appeared to show the head, neck and upper torso of a plesiosaur-like animal.[78] After two distinct sonar contacts were made, the strobe light camera photographed two large lumps in the water, suggesting there to be two large animals living in the loch. Another photo seemed to depict a horned "gargoyle head", consistent to that of several sightings of the monster.[79] Sceptics point out that several years later, a log was filmed underwater which bore a striking resemblance to the gargoyle head.[who?]
A few close-ups of what might be the creature's diamond-shaped fin were taken, with the "fin" in different positions, as though the creature was moving, but after some time it came to be known that the "flipper photograph" was highly enhanced and retouched compared with the original image. The Museum of Hoaxes shows the original unenhanced photo. Team member Charles Wyckoff claimed that someone retouched the photo to superimpose the flipper, and that the original enhancement showed a much smaller flipper. No one is sure how the original came to be altered.[80]
On 8 August 1972, Rines' Raytheon DE-725C sonar unit, operating at a frequency of 200 kHz and anchored at a depth of 11 metres (36 ft), identified a moving target (or targets) estimated by echo strength to be 6 to 9 metres (20 to 30 ft) in length. Specialists from Raytheon, Simrad (now Kongsberg Maritime), and Hydroacoustics, Inc.; Marty Klein of MIT and Klein Associates (a producer of side scan sonar); and Dr. Ira Dyer of MIT's Department of Ocean Engineering were all on hand to examine the data. Further, P. Skitzki of Raytheon suggested that the data showed a protuberance, 3 metres (10 ft) in length, projecting from one of the echoes. Mackal proposed that the shape was a "highly flexible laterally flattened tail" or the misinterpreted return from two animals swimming together.[81]
In 2001, the Robert Rines' Academy of Applied Science videoed a powerful V-shaped wake traversing the still water on a calm day. The AAS also videotaped an object on the floor of the loch resembling a carcass, found marine clam-shells and a fungus-like organism not normally found in fresh water lochs, which they suggest gives some connection to the sea and a possible entry for Nessie.[82]
In 2008, Rines theorised that the monster may have become extinct, citing the lack of significant sonar readings and a decline in eyewitness accounts. Rines undertook one last expedition to look for remains of the monster, using sonar and underwater camera in an attempt to find a carcass. Rines believed that the animals may have failed to adapt to temperature changes as a result of global warming.[83]
Operation Deepscan (1987)
In 1987, Operation Deepscan took place. Twenty-four boats equipped with echosounder equipment were deployed across the whole width of the loch and they simultaneously sent out acoustic waves. BBC News reported that the scientists had made sonar contact with a large unidentified object of unusual size and strength. The researchers decided to return to the same spot and re-scan the area. After analysing the echosounder images, it seemed to point to debris at the bottom of the loch, although three of the pictures were of moving debris. Shine speculates that they could be seals that got into the loch, since they would be of about the same magnitude as the objects detected.[84]
Darrell Lowrance, sonar expert and founder of Lowrance Electronics, donated a number of echosounder units used during Operation Deepscan. After examining the echogram data, specifically a sonar return revealing a large moving object near Urquhart Bay at a depth of 180 metres (590 ft), Lowrance said: "There's something here that we don't understand, and there's something here that's larger than a fish, maybe some species that hasn't been detected before. I don't know."[85]
Discovery Loch Ness (1993)


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In 1993 Discovery Communications began to research the ecology of the loch. The study did not focus entirely on the monster, but on the loch's nematodes (of which a new species was discovered) and fish. Expecting to find a small fish population, the researchers caught twenty fish in one catch, increasing previous estimates of the loch's fish population about ninefold.
Using sonar, the team encountered a kind of underwater disturbance (called a seiche) due to stored energy (such as from a wind) causing an imbalance between the loch's warmer and colder layers (known as the thermocline). While reviewing printouts of the event the next day, they found what appeared to be three sonar contacts, each followed by a powerful wake. These events were later shown on a program called Loch Ness Discovered, in conjunction with analyses and enhancements of the 1960 Dinsdale Film, the Surgeon's Photo, and the Rines Flipper Photo.[citation needed]
Searching for the Loch Ness Monster BBC (2003)
In 2003, the BBC sponsored a full search of the Loch using 600 separate sonar beams and satellite tracking. The search had enough resolution to pick up a small buoy. No animal of any substantial size was found whatsoever and despite high hopes, the scientists involved in the expedition admitted that this essentially proved the Loch Ness monster was only a myth.[86]
Explanations
A variety of explanations have been postulated over the years to account for sightings of the Loch Ness Monster. These may be categorised as: misidentifications of common animals; misidentifications of inanimate objects or effects; reinterpretations of traditional Scottish folklore; hoaxes; and exotic species of large animals.
Misidentification of common animals
Bird wakes
There are wake sightings that occur when the loch is dead calm with no boat nearby. A bartender named David Munro claims to have witnessed a wake he believed was a creature zigzagging, diving, and reappearing. (There were 26 other witnesses from a nearby car park.)[80] Some sightings describe the onset of a V-shaped wake, as if there were something underwater.[82] Moreover, many wake sightings describe something not conforming to the shape of a boat.[43] Under dead calm conditions, a creature too small to be visible to the naked eye can leave a clear v-shaped wake. In particular, a group of swimming birds can give a wake and the appearance of an object. A group of birds can leave the water and then land again, giving a sequence of wakes like an object breaking the surface, which Dick Raynor says is a possible explanation for his film.[87]
Eels
A giant eel was one of the first suggestions made.[16] Eels are found in Loch Ness, and an unusually large eel would fit many sightings. This has been described as a conservative explanation.[88] Eels are not known to protrude swanlike from the water and thus would not account for the head and neck sightings.[89][90] Dinsdale dismissed the proposal because eels move in a side-to-side undulation.[91]
Sightings, in 1856, of a 'sea-serpent' or Kelpie in a freshwater lake near Leurbost in the Outer Hebrides were also explained as being of an oversized eel, which were also believed to be common in 'Highland lakes': "All, however, agree, in describing its form as that of an eel; and we have heard one, whose evidence we can rely upon, state that in length he supposed it to be about forty feet. It is probable that it is no more than a conger eel after all, animals of this description having been caught in the Highland lakes which have attained a huge size."[92]
On 2 May 2001, two conger eels were found on the shore of the loch; as conger eels are saltwater animals and Loch Ness is freshwater, it is believed that they were put there to be seen as "Mini-Nessies".[93]
Elephant
In a 1979 article, California biologist Dennis Power and geographer Donald Johnson claimed that the Surgeon's Photograph was in fact the top of the head, extended trunk and flared nostrils of a swimming elephant, probably photographed elsewhere and claimed to be from Loch Ness.[94] In 2006, palaeontologist and artist Neil Clark similarly suggested that travelling circuses might have allowed elephants to refresh themselves in the loch and that the trunk could therefore be the head and neck, with the elephant's head and back providing the humps. In support of this he provided a painting.[95]
Resident animals
When viewed through a telescope or binoculars with no outside reference, it is difficult to judge the size of an object in the water. Loch Ness has resident otters and pictures of them are given by Binns,[96] which could be misinterpreted. Likewise he gives pictures of deer swimming in Loch Ness, and birds that could be taken as a "head and neck" sighting.[97]
Seals
A number of photographs and a video have confirmed the presence of seals in the loch, for up to months at a time.[98][99] In 1934 the Sir Edward Mountain expedition analysed film taken the same year and concluded that the monster was a species of seal, which was reported in a national newspaper as "Loch Ness Riddle Solved – Official".[100] A long-necked seal was advocated by Peter Costello for Nessie and for other reputed lake-monsters.[101] R.T. Gould wrote "A grey seal has a long and surprisingly extensible neck; it swims with a paddling action; its colour fits the bill; and there is nothing surprising in its being seen on the shore of the loch, or crossing a road."[17] This explanation would cover sightings of lake-monsters on land, during which the creature supposedly waddled into the loch upon being startled, in the manner of seals.[101] Seals could also account for sonar traces that act as animate objects. Against this, it has been argued that all known species of pinnipeds are usually visible on land during daylight hours to sunbathe,[102] something that Nessie is not known to do. However seals have been observed and photographed in Loch Ness and the sightings are sufficiently infrequent to allow for occasional visiting animals rather than a permanent colony.
Misidentifications of inanimate objects or effects
Trees
In 1933 the Daily Mirror showed a picture with the following caption 'This queerly-shaped tree-trunk, washed ashore at Foyers may, it is thought, be responsible for the reported appearance of a "Monster"'.[103] (Foyers is on Loch Ness.)
In a 1982 series of articles for New Scientist, Dr Maurice Burton proposed that sightings of Nessie and similar creatures could actually be fermenting logs of Scots Pine rising to the surface of the loch's cold waters. Initially, a rotting log could not release gases caused by decay, because of high levels of resin sealing in the gas. Eventually, the gas pressure would rupture a resin seal at one end of the log, propelling it through the water—and sometimes to the surface. Burton claimed that the shape of tree logs with their attendant branch stumps closely resemble various descriptions of the monster.[104][105][106]
Four Scottish lochs are very deep, including Morar, Ness and Lomond. Only the lochs with pinewoods on their shores have monster legends; Loch Lomond—with no pinewoods—does not. Gaseous emissions and surfactants resulting from the decay of the logs can cause the foamy wake reported in some sightings. Indeed, beached pine logs showing evidence of deep-water fermentation have been found. On the other hand, there are believers who assert that some lakes do have reports of monsters, despite an absence of pinewoods; a notable example would be the Irish lough monsters.[107]
Seiches and wakes
Loch Ness, because of its long, straight shape, is subject to some unusual ripples affecting its surface. A seiche is a large, regular oscillation of a lake, caused by a water reverting to its natural level after being blown to one end of the lake. The impetus from this reversion continues to the lake's windward end and then reverts. In Loch Ness, the process occurs every 31.5 minutes.[108]
Boat wakes can also produce strange effects in the loch. As a wake spreads and divides from a boat passing the centre of the loch, it hits both sides almost simultaneously and deflects back to meet again in the middle. The movements interact to produce standing waves that are much larger than the original wake, and can have a humped appearance. By the time this occurs, the boat has passed and the unusual waves are all that can be seen.[109][110]
Optical effects
Wind conditions can give a slightly choppy and thus matte appearance to the water, with occasional calm patches appearing as dark ovals (reflecting the mountains) from the shore, which can appear as humps to visitors unfamiliar with the loch. In 1979, Lehn showed that atmospheric refraction could distort the shape and size of objects and animals,[111] and later showed a photograph of a rock mirage on Lake Winnipeg that looked like a head and neck.[112]
Seismic gas
The Italian geologist Luigi Piccardi has proposed geological explanations for some ancient legends and myths. He pointed out that in the earliest recorded sighting of a creature, the Life of St. Columba, the creature's emergence was accompanied "cum ingenti fremitu" (with very loud roaring). The Loch Ness is located along the Great Glen Fault, and this could be a description of an earthquake. Furthermore, in many sightings, the report consists of nothing more than a large disturbance on the surface of the water. This could be caused by a release of gas from through the fault, although it could easily be mistaken for a large animal swimming just below the surface.[113]
Binns concludes that it would be unwise to put forward a single explanation of the monster, and probably a wide range of natural phenomena have been mistaken for the monster at times: otters, swimming deer, unusual waves. However, he adds that this also touches on some issues of human psychology, and the ability of the eye to see what it wants to see.[9]
Folklore
According to the Swedish naturalist and author Bengt Sjögren (1980), present day beliefs in lake monsters such as the Loch Ness Monster are associated with the old legends of kelpies. He claims that the accounts of loch monsters have changed over the ages, originally describing creatures with a horse-like appearance; they claimed that the "kelpie" would come out of the lake and turn into a horse. When a tired traveller would get on the back of the kelpie, it would gallop into the loch and devour its prey. This myth successfully kept children away from the loch, as was its purpose. Sjögren concludes that the kelpie legends have developed into current descriptions of lake-monsters, reflecting modern awareness of plesiosaurs. In other words, the kelpie of folklore has been transformed into a more realistic and contemporary notion of the creature. Believers counter that long-dead witnesses could only compare the creature to that with which they were familiar, and they were not familiar with plesiosaurs.[114]
Specific mention of the kelpie as a water horse in Loch Ness was given in a Scottish newspaper in 1879,[115] and was commemorated in the title of a book Project Water Horse by Tim Dinsdale.[116]
A study of the Highland folklore literature prior to 1933 with specific references to Kelpies, Water Horses and Water bulls suggested that Loch Ness was the most mentioned loch by a large margin.[117]
Hoaxes
The Loch Ness monster phenomenon has seen several attempts to hoax the public, some of which were very successful. Other hoaxes were revealed rather quickly by the perpetrators or exposed after diligent research. A few examples are mentioned below.
In August 1933, Italian journalist Francesco Gasparini submitted what he claimed was the first news article on the Loch Ness monster. In 1959, he confessed to taking a sighting of a "strange fish" and expanding on it by fabricating eye witness accounts. "I had the inspiration to get hold of the item about the strange fish. The idea of the monster had never dawned on me, but then I noted that the strange fish would not yield a long article, and I decided to promote the imaginary being to the rank of monster without further ado."[118]
In the 1930s, a big-game hunter named Marmaduke Wetherell went to Loch Ness to look for the Loch Ness Monster. He claimed to have found footprints, but when casts of the footprints were sent to scientists for analysis, they turned out to be from a hippopotamus. A prankster had used a hippopotamus-foot umbrella stand to make the footprints.[119]
In 1972 a team of zoologists from Yorkshire's Flamingo Park Zoo had gone in search of the legendary monster and discovered a large body floating in the water. The corpse was 4.9–5.4 m (16–18 ft) long and weighed up to 1.5 tonnes, described by the Press Association as having "a bear's head and a brown scaly body with clawlike fins." The creature was put in a van to be taken away for testing, whereupon police chased them down and took the cadaver under an act of parliament that prohibits the removal of "unidentified creatures" from Loch Ness. But it was later revealed that Flamingo Park's education officer John Shields had shaved the whiskers and otherwise disfigured a bull elephant seal that had died the week before and dumped it in Loch Ness to dupe his colleagues.[120]
On 2 July 2003, Gerald McSorely found a fossil supposedly belonging to Nessie when he tripped and fell into the loch. After examination, it became clear that the fossil was not from Loch Ness and had been planted there.[93]



Cryptoclidus model used in the Five TV programme "Loch Ness Monster: The Ultimate Experiment"
In 2004, a documentary team for television channel Five, using special effects experts from movies, tried to make people believe there was something in the loch. They constructed an animatronic model of a plesiosaur, and dubbed it "Lucy". Despite setbacks, such as Lucy falling to the bottom of the loch, about 600 sightings were reported in the places they conducted the hoaxes.[121][122]
In 2005, two students claimed to have found a huge tooth embedded in the body of a deer on the loch shore. They publicised the find widely, even setting up a website, but expert analysis soon revealed that the "tooth" was the antler of a muntjac.[123] The Loch Ness tooth was a publicity stunt to promote a horror novel by Steve Alten titled The Loch.[93]
In 2007, a video purported to show Nessie jumping high into the air showed up on YouTube. This was revealed by the online amateur sceptic's community eSkeptic to be a viral ad promoting the then-upcoming Sony Pictures film The Water Horse.[124] The release of the film confirmed the eSkeptic analysis: the viral video comprises footage from The Water Horse.
Exotic species of large animals
Plesiosaur



 Reconstruction of Nessie as a plesiosaur outside Museum of Nessie
In 1933 the suggestion was made that the monster "bears a striking resemblance to the supposedly extinct plesiosaur",[125] a long-necked aquatic reptile that went extinct during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. At the time this was a popular explanation. The following arguments have been put against it:
Plesiosaurs were probably cold-blooded reptiles requiring warm tropical waters, while the average temperature of Loch Ness is only about 5.5 °C (42 °F).[126] Even if the plesiosaurs were warm-blooded, they would require a food supply beyond that of Loch Ness to maintain the level of activity necessary for warm-blooded animals.[127]
In October 2006, the New Scientist headlined an article "Why the Loch Ness Monster is no plesiosaur" because Leslie Noè of the Sedgwick Museum in Cambridge reported, "The osteology of the neck makes it absolutely certain that the plesiosaur could not lift its head up swan-like out of the water".[128]
The loch is only about 10,000 years old, dating to the end of the last ice age. Prior to that date, the loch was frozen solid for about 20,000 years.[129]
If creatures similar to plesiosaurs lived in the waters of the Loch Ness, they would be seen very frequently as they would have to surface several times a day to breathe.[84]
In response to these criticisms, proponents such as Tim Dinsdale, Peter Scott and Roy Mackal postulate a trapped marine creature that evolved either from a plesiosaur or to the shape of a plesiosaur by convergent evolution.[130] Robert Rines also explained that the "horns" described in some sightings may be breathing tubes or nostrils that allow the animal to breathe without breaking the surface.
Amphibian
R. T. Gould suggested something like a long-necked newt[17][131] and Roy Mackal discussed this possibility, giving it the highest score (88%) in his list of possible candidates.[132]
Invertebrate
In 1968 Frank Holiday proposed that Nessie and other lake-monsters such as Morag could be explained by a giant invertebrate such as a bristleworm, and cited the extinct Tullimonstrum as an example of the shape.[133] He says this provides an explanation for land sightings and for the variable back shape, and relates it to the medieval description of dragons as "worms". Mackal considered this, but found it less convincing than eel, amphibian or plesiosaur types of animal.[134]
Pinniped
In the 1930s, the Dutch zoologist Antoon Cornelis Oudemans first proposed that the Loch Ness Monster could possibly be an unknown form of long-necked Pinniped (semi-aquatic mammals including seals). In 1892, Oudemans had come to the conclusion that several sightings of Sea serpents were probably huge, plesiosaur-like pinnipeds. He came up with a hypothetical new species of long-necked pinniped, to which he gave the scientific name of Megophias megophias. He theorised that the Loch Ness cryptid was simply a freshwater version of his own Megophias megophias. In 2003, cryptozoologists Loren Coleman and Patrick Huyghe discussed the pinniped hypothesis, and found it to be the most likely candidate for the Loch Ness Monster.[135]
Popular culture
Main article: Loch Ness Monster in popular culture
See also
Bear Lake monster
Bunyip
Champ (cryptozoology)
Chessie (sea monster)
Gaasyendietha
Jiaolong
Lake monster
Lake Tianchi Monster
Lake Van Monster
Lariosauro
List of reported lake monsters
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
Leviathan
Manipogo
Memphre
Mokele-mbembe
Morag
Nahuel Huapi Lake Monster
Ogopogo
Sea monster
Stronsay Beast
Wani (dragon)
Water Horse
Footnotes
Notes
a.Jump up ^ The date is inferred from the oldest written source reporting a monster near Loch Ness.[1]
b.Jump up ^ Derived from "Loch Ness". Also a familiar form of the girl's name Agnes, relatively common in Scotland, e.g. the Daily Mirror 4 August 1932 reports the wedding of "Miss Nessie Clark, a Banffshire schoolteacher"
c.Jump up ^ The photo is often cropped to make the monster seem proportionally large, while the original uncropped shot shows the other end of the loch and the monster in the centre.
References
1.Jump up ^ Life of St. Columba (chapter 28).
2.Jump up ^ Delrio, Martin (2002). The Loch Ness Monster. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 48. ISBN 0-8239-3564-7.
3.Jump up ^ Carroll, Robert T. (09-02-23). "Cryptozoology". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved 12 April 2009.
4.Jump up ^ A. G. Harmsworth (2009). Loch-ness.org says the Plesiosaur theory is "Without doubt (the) most popular candidate among monster believers and the press".
5.Jump up ^ Robert Todd Carroll, The Skeptic's Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions pages 200–201 (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003). ISBN 0-471-27242-6
6.Jump up ^ Campbell, Elizabeth Montgomery & David Solomon, The Search for Morag (Tom Stacey 1972) ISBN 0-85468-093-4, page 28 gives an-t-Seileag, an-Niseag, a-Mhorag for the monsters of Lochs Shiel, Ness and Morag, adding that they are feminine diminutives
7.Jump up ^ "Up Again". Edinburgh Scotsman. 14 May 1945. p. 1. "So "Nessie" is at her tricks again. After a long, she has by all accounts bobbed up in home waters..."
8.Jump up ^ The Sun 27 November 1975: I'm the man who first coined the word "monster" for the creature.
9.^ Jump up to: a b c R. Binns The Loch Ness Mystery Solved pp 11–12
10.Jump up ^ Inverness Courier 2 May 1933 "Loch Ness has for generations been credited with being the home of a fearsome-looking monster"
11.^ Jump up to: a b "Is this the Loch Ness monster?". Inverness Courier. 4 August 1933.
12.Jump up ^ R. Binns The Loch Ness Mystery Solved pp 19–27
13.Jump up ^ Daily Mirror, 11 August 1933 "Loch Ness, which is becoming famous as the supposed abode of a dragon..."
14.Jump up ^ The Oxford English Dictionary gives 9 June 1933 as the first usage of the exact phrase Loch Ness monster
15.Jump up ^ R. P. Mackal (1983) "The Monsters of Loch Ness" p.94
16.^ Jump up to: a b Daily Mirror 8 December 1933 "The Monster of Loch Ness – Official! Orders That Nobody is to Attack it" ... A Huge Eel?"
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19.^ Jump up to: a b Adomnán, p. 176 (II:27).
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21.^ Jump up to: a b c Adomnán p. 330.
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23.^ Jump up to: a b T. Dinsdale (1961) Loch Ness Monster page 42.
24.Jump up ^ Tim Dinsdale Loch Ness Monster pp 44–5
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34.Jump up ^ Book review of Nessie – The Surgeon's Photograph – Exposed Douglas Chapman.
35.Jump up ^ Daily Mail 21 April 1934
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41.Jump up ^ Dinsdale, Tim (1976). Loch Ness Monster. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 56–57. ISBN 0-7100-8395-5.
42.^ Jump up to: a b Dinsdale, Tim (1976). Loch Ness Monster. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 57. ISBN 0-7100-8395-5.
43.^ Jump up to: a b c Discovery Communications, Loch Ness Discovered, 1993
44.Jump up ^ Janet and Colin Bord, 'Alien Animals' (Granada 1986) p18
45.Jump up ^ "The Loch Ness Monster". YouTube. 19 January 2007. Retrieved 8 July 2009.
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50.Jump up ^ "Tourist Says He's Shot Video of Loch Ness Monster". Fox News. 1 June 2007. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
51.Jump up ^ "Fabled monster caught on video". Web.archive.org. 1 June 2007. Archived from the original on 18 June 2007. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
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53.Jump up ^ Coleman, Loren (4 June 2007). "Nessie Footage Questions Focus on Filmmaker". Cryptomundo.com. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
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55.Jump up ^ "The Legend of Nessie". CNN. 2007. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
56.Jump up ^ Conway, Lawrence (20 April 2012). "Is this the Loch Ness Monster? Sonar picture shows 'serpent-like creature' at bottom of mysterious loch". Daily Mail (London).
57.Jump up ^ Watson, Roland. "Nessie Sonar Controversy Goes Commercial". Retrieved 21 May 2012.
58.Jump up ^ Blake, Matt (3 August 2012). "'The most convincing Nessie photograph ever': Skipper claims to have finally found proof that Loch Ness Monster exists". Daily Mail (London). Retrieved 3 August 2012.
59.Jump up ^ McLaughlin, Erin (15 August 2012). "Scottish Sailor Claims To Have Best Picture Yet of Loch Ness Monster | ABC News Blogs – Yahoo!". Gma.yahoo.com. Retrieved 11 April 2013.
60.Jump up ^ McLaughlin, Erin, "Scottish Sailor Claims To Have Best Picture Yet Of Loch Ness Monster", ABC News/Yahoo! News, 16 August 2012
61.Jump up ^ Watson, Roland. "Follow up to the George Edwards Photo". Retrieved 20 August 2012.
62.Jump up ^ Raynor, Dick. "An examination of the claims and pictures taken by George Edwards". Retrieved 1 September 2012.
63.Jump up ^ McCloskey, Jimmy (27 August 2013). "Tourist captures evidence of Loch Ness Monster". DailyStar.co.uk. Retrieved 29 August 2013.
64.Jump up ^ "Do new pictures from amateur photographer prove Loch Ness Monster exists?". Metro. 26 August 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
65.^ Jump up to: a b Baillie, Claire (27 August 2013). "New photo of Loch Ness Monster sparks debate". The Scotsman. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
66.Jump up ^ "Finally, is this proof the Loch Ness monster exists?". news.com.au. 28 August 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
67.Jump up ^ Gander, Kashmira (19 April 2014). "Loch Ness Monster found on Apple Maps?". London: The Independent. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
68.Jump up ^ R. Binns (1983) The Loch Ness Mystery Solved ISBN 0-7291-0139-8, pages 36–39
69.Jump up ^ The Times 5 October 1934, page 12 Loch Ness "Monster" Film
70.Jump up ^ Henry H. Bauer, The Enigma of Loch Ness: Making Sense of a Mystery, page 163 (University of Illinois Press, 1986). ISBN 0-252-01284-4
71.Jump up ^ Rick Emmer, Loch Ness Monster: Fact or Fiction?, page 35 (Infobase Publishing, 2010). ISBN 978-0-7910-9779-3
72.Jump up ^ Tim Dinsdale (1973) The Story of the Loch Ness Monster Target Books ISBN 0-426-11340-3
73.Jump up ^ "1969 Annual Report: Loch Ness Investigation" (PDF). Retrieved 8 July 2009.
74.Jump up ^ http://web.archive.org/web/20110829140111/http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/Nessie_Rines%20flipper.gif
75.Jump up ^ "Naming the Loch Ness monster". Nature 258 (5535): 466. 1975. doi:10.1038/258466a0.
76.Jump up ^ Dinsdale, T. "Loch Ness Monster" (Routledge and Kegan paul 1976), p.171. Dinsdale, in the same paragraph, also says that Robert Rines, co-author of the Nature article, "soon came up with the antidote – 'Yes, both pix are monsters – R.'"
77.Jump up ^ "London, 18 December (Reuters) – A Scottish member of Parliament has discovered an anagram for Nessiteras rhombopteryx... Nicholas Fairbairn, the MP, announced the anagram in a letter to The Times: 'Monster hoax by Sir Peter S.' ("Loch Ness Monster Shown a Hoax by Another Name." New York Times 19 December 1975. p. 78.)
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79.Jump up ^ http://www.cryptomundo.com/wp-content/uploads/rines1975a.jpg
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115.Jump up ^ Aberdeen Weekly Journal, Wednesday, 11 June 1879 "This kelpie had been in the habit of appearing as a beautiful black horse… No sooner had the weary unsuspecting victim seated himself in the saddle than away darted the horse with more than the speed of the hurricane and plunged into the deepest part of Loch Ness, and the rider was never seen again."
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117.Jump up ^ Watson, Roland,The Water Horses of Loch Ness (2011) ISBN 1-4611-7819-3
118.Jump up ^ "Invention of Loch Ness monster". The Irish Times. 1 January 2009. Archived from the original on 1 January 2009.
119.Jump up ^ "Birth of a legend: Famous Photo Falsified?". Pbs.org. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
120.Jump up ^ The Independent. Tales of Nessie. Some of the best April Fools' hoaxes. Retrieved 6 April 2011.
121.Jump up ^ "Loch Ness monster: The Ultimate Experiment". Crawley-creatures.com. Archived from the original on 3 May 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
122.Jump up ^ "Nessie swims in Loch for TV Show". BBC News. 16 August 2005. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
123.Jump up ^ "Loch Ness Monster's tooth found?". Worldnetdaily.com. 10 June 2005. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
124.Jump up ^ "Creature of Loch Ness Caught on tape! video on YouTube". YouTube. 26 May 2007. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
125.Jump up ^ R. J. Binns (1983) The Loch Ness Mystery Solved, page 22
126.Jump up ^ Rick Emmer, Loch Ness Monster: Fact or Fiction?, page 62 (Infobase Publishing, 2010). ISBN 978-0-7910-9779-3
127.Jump up ^ "Were Dinosaurs Endotherms or Ectotherms?". BBC. 2001. Retrieved 8 April 2007.
128.Jump up ^ "Why the Loch Ness Monster is no plesiosaur". New Scientist 2576: 17. 2006. Retrieved 8 April 2007.
129.Jump up ^ "A Geological View of Loch Ness and Area".
130.Jump up ^ Roy P. Mackal (1976) The Monsters of Loch Ness, page 138
131.Jump up ^ The Times 9 December 1933, page 14
132.Jump up ^ R. P. Mackal (1976) The Monsters of Loch Ness, pages 138–9, 211–213
133.Jump up ^ Holiday, F.T. The Great Orm of Loch Ness (Faber and Faber 1968)
134.Jump up ^ R. P. Mackal (1976) The Monsters of Loch Ness pages 141–142, chapter XIV
135.Jump up ^ Coleman, Loren & Huyghe, Patrick. (2003). The Field Guide To Lake Monsters, Sea Serpents, And Other Mystery Denizens of the Deep. Retrieved 16 May 2012.
Bibliography
Bauer, Henry H. The Enigma of Loch Ness: Making Sense of a Mystery, Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 1986
Binns, Ronald, The Loch Ness Mystery Solved, Great Britain, Open Books, 1983, ISBN 0-7291-0139-8 and Star Books, 1984, ISBN 0-352-31487-7
Burton, Maurice, The Elusive Monster: An Analysis of the Evidence from Loch Ness, London, Rupert Hart-Davis, 1961
Campbell, Steuart. The Loch Ness Monster – The Evidence, Buffalo, New York, Prometheus Books, 1985.
Dinsdale, Tim, Loch Ness Monster, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1961, SBN 7100 1279 9
Harrison, Paul The encyclopaedia of the Loch Ness Monster, London, Robert Hale, 1999
Gould, R. T., The Loch Ness Monster and Others, London, Geoffrey Bles, 1934 and paperback, Lyle Stuart, 1976, ISBN 0-8065-0555-9
Holiday, F. W., The Great Orm of Loch Ness, London, Faber & Faber, 1968, SBN 571 08473 7
Mackal, Roy P., The Monsters of Loch Ness, London, Futura, 1976, ISBN 0-86007-381-5
Whyte, Constance, More Than a Legend: The Story of the Loch Ness Monster, London, Hamish Hamilton, 1957
Documentary
Secrets of Loch Ness. Produced & Directed by Christopher Jeans (ITN/Channel 4/A&E Network, 1995).
External links
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Loch Ness Monster.
Nova Documentary On Nessie
Smithsonian Institution
Skeptic's Dictionary: Loch Ness "monster"
Darnton, John (20 March 1994). "Loch Ness: Fiction Is Stranger Than Truth". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
Photos of Nessie and other cryptids


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Sea monster
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Sea Monsters (disambiguation).



 Picture taken from a Hetzel copy of Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.
Sea monsters are sea-dwelling mythical or legendary creatures, often believed to be of immense size. Marine monsters can take many forms, including sea dragons, sea serpents, or multi-armed beasts. They can be slimy or scaly and are often pictured threatening ships or spouting jets of water. The definition of a "monster" is subjective, and some sea monsters may have been based on scientifically accepted creatures such as whales and types of giant and colossal squid.


Contents  [hide]
1 Sightings and legends
2 Alleged sea monster carcasses
3 Legendary sea monsters
4 Historically reported sea monsters
5 Currently reported specific sea monsters
6 Sea monsters in fiction
7 See also
8 References

Sightings and legends[edit]



 Plate ca. 1544 depicting various sea monsters; compiled from the Carta Marina.
Historically, decorative drawings of heraldic dolphins and sea monsters were frequently used to illustrate maps, such as the Carta marina. This practice died away with the advent of modern cartography. Nevertheless, stories of sea monsters and eyewitness accounts which claim to have seen these beasts persist to this day. Such sightings are often cataloged and studied by folklorists and cryptozoologists.



 Sea serpent reported by Hans Egede, Bishop of Greenland, in 1734.
Sea monster accounts are found in virtually all cultures that have contact with the sea. For example, Avienus relates of Carthaginian explorer Himilco's voyage "...there monsters of the deep, and beasts swim amid the slow and sluggishly crawling ships." (lines 117-29 of Ora Maritima). Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed to have encountered a lion-like monster with "glaring eyes" on his return voyage after formally claiming St. John's, Newfoundland (1583) for England.[1] Another account of an encounter with a sea monster comes from July 1734. Hans Egede, a Dano-Norwegian missionary, reported that on a voyage to Gothaab/Nuuk on the western coast of Greenland he observed:[2]

a most terrible creature, resembling nothing they saw before. The monster lifted its head so high that it seemed to be higher than the crow's nest on the mainmast. The head was small and the body short and wrinkled. The unknown creature was using giant fins which propelled it through the water. Later the sailors saw its tail as well. The monster was longer than our whole ship.
Other reports are known from the Pacific, Indian and Southern Oceans (e.g. see Heuvelmans 1968).
There is a Tlingit legend about a sea monster named Gunakadeit (Goo-na'-ka-date) who brought prosperity and good luck to a village in crisis, people starving in the home they made for themselves on the southeastern coast of Alaska.
A more recent development has been the two mysterious noises "Bloop" and "Slow Down" picked up by hydrophonic equipment in 1997 and not heard since. While matching the audio characteristics of an animal, they were deemed too large to be a whale. Investigations thus far have been inconclusive.
It is debatable what these modern "monsters" might be. Possibilities include the frilled shark, basking shark, oarfish, giant squid, seiches,[clarification needed - discuss] or whales. For example Ellis (1999) suggested the Egede monster might have been a giant squid. Other hypotheses are that modern-day monsters are surviving specimens of giant marine reptiles, such as an ichthyosaur or plesiosaur, from the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods, or extinct whales like Basilosaurus. Ship damage from Tropical cyclones such as hurricanes or typhoons may also be another possible origin of sea monsters.
In 1892, Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans, then director of the Royal Zoological Gardens at The Hague saw the publication of his The Great Sea Serpent, which suggested that many sea serpent reports were best accounted for as a previously unknown giant, long-necked pinniped.
It is likely that many other reports of sea monsters are misinterpreted sightings of shark and whale carcasses (see below), floating kelp, logs or other flotsam such as abandoned rafts, canoes and fishing nets.
Alleged sea monster carcasses[edit]



 The St. Augustine Monster was a carcass that washed ashore near St. Augustine, Florida in 1896. It was initially postulated to be a gigantic octopus.
Sea monster corpses have been reported since recent antiquity (Heuvelmans 1968). Unidentified carcasses are often called globsters. The alleged plesiosaur netted by the Japanese trawler Zuiyō Maru off New Zealand caused a sensation in 1977 and was immortalized on a Brazilian postage stamp before it was suggested by the FBI to be the decomposing carcass of a basking shark. Likewise, DNA testing confirmed that an alleged sea monster washed up on Fortune Bay, Newfoundland in August 2001, was a sperm whale.[3]
Another modern example of a "sea monster" was the strange creature washed up in Los Muermos on the Chilean sea shore in July 2003. It was first described as a "mammoth jellyfish as long as a bus" but was later determined to be another corpse of a sperm whale. Cases of boneless, amorphic globsters are sometimes believed to be gigantic octopuses, but it has now been determined that sperm whales dying at sea decompose in such a way that the blubber detaches from the body, forming featureless whitish masses that sometimes exhibit a hairy texture due to exposed strands of collagen fibers. The analysis of the Zuiyō Maru carcass revealed a comparable phenomenon in decomposing basking shark carcasses, which lose most of the lower head area and the dorsal and caudal fins first, making them resemble a plesiosaur.
Legendary sea monsters[edit]



 Prima fontana dei mostri marini - First sea monster fountain, Florence


 Seconda fontana dei mostri marini - Second sea monster fountain, FlorenceThe Aspidochelone, a giant turtle or whale that appeared to be an island, and lured sailors to their doom
Capricorn, Babylonian Water-Goat, in the Zodiac
Cetus
Charybdis of Homer, a monstrous whirlpool that sucked any ship nearby beneath the ocean
Cirein-cròin
Coinchenn, from whose bone the Gae Bulg is made in Celtic mythology
The Devil Whale, Extremely large demonic whale, the size of an island.
Hydra, Greece
Iku-Turso, reputedly a type of colossal octopus or walrus
Jörmungandr, the Norse Midgard Serpent.
Kraken, a gigantic octopus, squid or crab-like creature
Leviathan
Makara
Proteus
Scylla of Homer, a six-headed, twelve-legged serpentine that devoured six men from each ship that passed by
Sirens of Homer
Taniwha
The Rainbow Fish
Tiamat
Umibōzu
Yacumama, South America
Historically reported sea monsters[edit]
Sea monsters actually reported first or second hand include
A giant octopus by Pliny (not to be confused with the documented giant Pacific octopus)
Cecaelias or Octopus people
Sea monk
Various sea serpents
Tritons by Pliny
Currently reported specific sea monsters[edit]
See also: Lake monster
Cadborosaurus of the Pacific Northwest
Chessie of the Chesapeake Bay
Champ of Lake Champlain
Lusca
Morgawr
Ayia Napa Sea Monster, of Ayia Napa, Cyprus
Sea monsters in fiction[edit]
Bacoon in Star Fox 64.
Creatures of H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos, including Cthulhu itself.
Creatures of The X-Files episodes Agua Mala.
Creatures in such sci-fi/horror films as Deepstar Six, The Rift, Deep Rising and Deep Shock.
Carcharodon Megalodon in Steve Alten's Meg series.
Clover
Fictional portrayals of the Giant Squid.
Giant octopus in It Came from Beneath the Sea.
Giganto
Godzilla
Gorgo
Manda
Kraken as depicted in Clash of the Titans (both the 1981 and 2010 versions).
Kraken as depicted in Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest.
Leviathan in the Gears of War series.
Ebirah
Titanosaurus
Zigra
Moby Dick
Nabooian sea monsters in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace.
Rhedosaurus
Sin
Ichthyosaur and plesiosaur in A Journey to the Center of the Earth.
The Terrible Dogfish
Title creature of Peter Benchley's White Shark.
The War God Goura
See also[edit]
Bloop
Lake monster
Here be dragons
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Edward Haies: Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Voyage To Newfoundland, 1583 In the fifth section after the notice "Footnote 11: Stephen Parmenius"
2.Jump up ^ J. Mareš, Svět tajemných zvířat, Prague, 1997
3.Jump up ^ Carr, S.M., H.D. Marshall, K.A. Johnstone, L.M. Pynn & G.B. Stenson 2002. How To Tell a Sea Monster: Molecular Discrimination of Large Marine Animals of the North Atlantic. Biological Bulletin 202: 1-5.
Ellis, R. (1999) In Search of the Giant Squid. Penguin. London.
Heuvelmans, B. (1968) In the Wake of the Sea Serpents. Hill & Wang. New York.
Pliny Natural History III (Books 8 -111) (Translated by H.Rackham). Loeb. Harvard.
Sea Monsters That Weren't
"...An Alleged Plesiosaur carcass netted in 1977..."
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sea monster.
 


Categories: Mythical aquatic creatures
Nautical lore
Monsters
Sea cryptids




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The Old Man and the Sea (1958 film)
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Jump to: navigation, search


The Old Man and the Sea
The Old Man and the Sea (1958 film).jpg
Directed by
John Sturges
Henry King>br>Fred Zinnemann
Produced by
Leland Hayward
Written by
Peter Viertel
Based on
The Old Man and the Sea
 1951 novel
 by Ernest Hemingway
Starring
Spencer Tracy
Narrated by
Spencer Tracy[1]
Music by
Dimitri Tiomkin
Cinematography
James Wong Howe
 Add'l photography: Floyd Crosby, Tom Tutwiler
Underwater photography: Lamar Boren[2]
Edited by
Arthur P. Schmidt,
Folmar Blangsted
Distributed by
Warner Bros.
Running time
86 minutes[3]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$5 million[4]
The Old Man and the Sea is a Warnercolor 1958 film starring Spencer Tracy, in a portrayal for which he was nominated for a best actor Oscar. The screenplay (the "most literal, word-for-word rendition of a written story ever filmed"[1]) was adapted by Peter Viertel from the novella of the same name by Ernest Hemingway, and the film was directed by John Sturges. Sturges called it "technically the sloppiest picture I have ever made."[4]
Dimitri Tiomkin won the Academy Award for Best Original Score for his work on the film, one that was also nominated for best color cinematography.


Contents  [hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Music
5 Reception
6 References
7 External links

Plot summary[edit]
[icon] This section requires expansion. (February 2011)
Spencer Tracy is the Old Man, a Cuban fisherman who tries to haul in a huge fish that he catches far from shore.[5] He has gone 84 days without a catch - his only friend, a young boy (Felipe Pazos), is barred by his father from accompanying him to sea. On the 85th day the old man hooks a huge marlin. For three days and nights he battles the fish as a trial of mental and physical courage--and the ultimate test of his worth as a man.
Cast[edit]
In addition to Tracy, the cast included the following:
Felipe Pazos Jr., the boy
Harry Bellaver, Martin
Don Diamond, café proprietor
Don Blackman, arm wrestler
Joey Ray, gambler
Mary Hemingway, tourist
Richard Alameda, gambler
Tony Rosa, gambler
Carlos Rivero, gambler
Robert Alderette, gambler
Mauritz Hugo, gambler
Ernest Hemingway, tourist in café [cameo]
Production[edit]
Fred Zinnemann was the film's original director; after he withdrew, he was replaced by John Sturges.[4] The film's budget—originally $2 million— grew to $5 million "in search of suitable fish footage."[4] According to Turner Classic Movies, a February 2005 CNN article points out that The Old Man and the Sea was one of the first films to "use a bluescreen compositing technology invented by Arthur Widmer that combined actors on a soundstage with a pre-filmed background."[1]
The credits note that "Some of the marlin film used in this picture was of the world's record catch by Alfred C. Glassell, Jr. at the Cabo Blanco Fishing Club in Peru. Mr. Glassell acted as special advisor for these sequences."[1][6]
Felipe Pazos Jr., who played the role of the boy in the film, is the son of the Cuban economist, Felipe Pazos.
Music[edit]
Veteran film composer Dimitri Tiomkin composed and conducted the music for the film. His soundtrack recording, with the Warner Brothers Studio Orchestra, was recorded in the auditorium of Hollywood Post No. 43, American Legion, in Hollywood; "The Billboard" reported that the acoustics in the Hollywood Legion were "far superior to most studio space in Hollywood and similar to that of the best concert halls." During the week of April 21, 1958, Columbia held open sessions for "The Old Man and the Sea" at the Legion Hall. The soundtrack was later released in both stereo and mono by Columbia Records.
Reception[edit]
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote:[3]

Credit Leland Hayward for trying something off the beaten track in making a motion-picture version of Ernest Hemingway's The Old Man and the Sea, and credit Spencer Tracy for a brave performance in its one big role. Also credit Dimitri Tiomkin for providing a musical score that virtually puts Mr. Tracy in the position of a soloist with a symphony. And that just about completes a run-down of the praiseworthy aspects of this film.
Among the film's short-comings, Crowther notes, is that "an essential feeling of the sweep and surge of the open sea is not achieved in precise and placid pictures that obviously were shot in a studio tank. There are, to be sure, some lovely long shots of Cuban villages and the colorful coast...But the main drama, that of the ordeal, is played in a studio tank, and even some fine shots of a marlin breaking the surface and shaking in violent battle are deflated by obvious showing on the process screen."[3]
Time noted that "the script follows the book in almost every detail" and called the novel a fable "no more suitable for the screen than The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock"; Tracy was "never permitted to catch a marlin" while on location, so the "camera could never catch him at it" and the result is "Sturges must cross-cut so interminably—fish, Tracy, fish, Tracy—that Old Man loses the lifelikeness, the excitement, and above all the generosity of rhythm that the theme requires.[4]
Hemingway was pleased with the film. According to Leland Hayward, the film's producer, Hemingway said it had "a wonderful emotional quality and [he] is very grateful and pleased with the transference of his material to the screen. He thought Tracy was great (in light of his quarrels with him this is quite a compliment) ... the photography was excellent ... the handling of the fishing and mechanical fish very good. Had some minor dislikes ... but all in all he was terribly high on the picture and pleased with it."[7]
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b c d "Notes for The Old Man and the Sea (1958)". Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
2.Jump up ^ "Full Credits for The Old Man and the Sea (1958)". Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
3.^ Jump up to: a b c Bosley Crowther (October 8, 1958). "Old Man and the Sea Stars Spencer Tracy". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
4.^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Cinema: Two with Tracy". Time. October 27, 1958. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
5.Jump up ^ "The Old Man and the Sea - Cast, Reviews, Summary, and Awards - AllRovi". Allmovie.com. 2011-09-08. Retrieved 2011-09-21.
6.Jump up ^ Adele Conover (April 2000). "The Biggest One That Didn't Get Away". Smithsonian. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
7.Jump up ^ Curtis, James (2011). Spencer Tracy: A Biography. London: Hutchinson. pp. 744-745. The notes for this page attribute the quotation as follows: "Leland Hayward as reported to Jack L. Warner by Steve Trilling, 3/10/58, Jack Warner Collection, University of Southern California."
External links[edit]
The Old Man and the Sea at the Internet Movie Database
The Old Man and the Sea at Rotten Tomatoes
The Old Man and the Sea at AllMovie
The Old Man and the Sea (1958 film) at the TCM Movie Database
The Old Man and the Sea at the American Film Institute Catalog
http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0085737/


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The Old Man and the Sea (miniseries)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search


Question book-new.svg
 This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2012)

The Old Man and the Sea

Genre
Television Film
Created by
Ernest Hemingway
Directed by
Jud Taylor
Produced by
Norman Foster
 Robert E Fuisz
 Brian Harris
 Keith Richardson
 William F. Stroke
Written by
Roger O. Hirson
Starring
Anthony Quinn
Gary Cole
Patricia Clarkson
Alexis Cruz
Music by
Bruce Broughton
Editing by
Fredric Steinkamp
Country
United States
Language
English
Original airing
March 25, 1990
Running time
93 min.
The Old Man and the Sea is a 1990 television miniseries based on the novel The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway. The film was nominated for three Emmy Awards for Outstanding Achievement in Music for a Miniseries or a Special (Dramatic Underscore), Outstanding Sound Editing for a Miniseries for a Special, and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Miniseries or Special. Stephen Grubbs also won the Motion Picture Sound Editors Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing in Television Long Form - Dialogue & ADR
Characters[edit]
Santiago, Anthony Quinn and Francesco Quinn,
Anderez, Paul Calderon,
Mary Pruitt, Patricia Clarkson,
Gomez, Manuel Santiago,
Maria, Sully Diaz,
Manolo, Alexis Cruz
Angela, Valentina Quinn
Lopez, Joe Santos
Tom Pruitt, Gary Cole
Release[edit]
The DVD for Region 1 was released on January 29, 2002 by Lance Entertainment. A Region 2 DVD was released on January 15, 2007 by Granada Television.
External links[edit]
The Old and the Sea at the Internet Movie Database


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 1999 film
 

See also: ·
 Hello Hemingway
 

 


Categories: English-language films
1990 television films
American television films
Films based on works by Ernest Hemingway
American television miniseries





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The Old Man and the Sea (1999 film)
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The Old Man and the Sea
The Old Man and the Sea.jpg
screenshot

Directed by
Aleksandr Petrov
Produced by
Bernard Lajoie
Tatsuo Shimamura
Screenplay by
Aleksandr Petrov
Based on
The Old Man and the Sea
 by Ernest Hemingway
Music by
Denis L. Chartrand
Normand Roger
Edited by
Denis Papillon
Release date(s)
1999
Running time
20 minutes
Country
Canada
 Japan
 Russia
Language
English
 French
The Old Man and the Sea (Старик и море) is a 1999 paint-on-glass-animated short film directed by Aleksandr Petrov, based on the novel of the same name by Ernest Hemingway. The film won many awards, including the Academy Award for Animated Short Film. Work on the film took place in Montreal over a period of two and a half years and was funded by an assortment of Canadian, Russian and Japanese companies. French and English-language soundtracks to the film were released concurrently. It was the first animated film to be released in IMAX.


Contents  [hide]
1 Plot
2 Creators
3 History and technique
4 Artistic style
5 Awards
6 DVD releases
7 See also
8 Further reading
9 External links

Plot[edit]
The film follows the plot of the original novel, but at times emphasizes different points.
It opens with the dream sequence of an old man named Santiago, who dreams about his childhood on the masts of a ship and lions on the shores.
When he wakes up, we find out that he has gone 84 days without catching any fish at all. He is apparently so unlucky that his young apprentice, Manolin, has been forbidden by his parents to sail with the old man and been ordered to fish with more successful fishermen. Still dedicated to the old man, however, the boy visits Santiago's shack in the morning. The next day, before sunrise, Santiago and Manolin make their way to the seashore. Santiago says that he will venture far out into the Gulf to fish. Manolin wants to come, but Santiago insists on going alone.
After venturing far out, Santiago sets his lines and soon catches a small fish which he decides to use as bait. A big fish that he is sure is a marlin takes his bait. Unable to pull in the great marlin, Santiago instead finds the fish pulling his skiff. An unspecified number of days pass in this manner, during which the old man bears the tension of the line with his body. On one night, Santiago dreams of his youth, of how he won an arm wrestling match against the strongest black man in town. On another night, though he is wounded by the struggle and in pain, Santiago dreams that he and the marlin are brothers, swimming through the ocean together. An extended fantasy sequence is animated here by Petrov. Suddenly, he is woken up; the marlin tries to take advantage of the situation and escape. As the fish jumps out of the water, the old man sees for the first time just how big it is.
Eventually, the fish begins to circle the skiff, indicating his tiredness to the old man. With each circle, Santiago tries to pull it in a little closer. As the fish swims under the boat, Santiago manages to stab the marlin with a harpoon, thereby ending the long battle.
Santiago straps the marlin to his skiff and heads home, triumphant. However, in a short while, sharks are attracted to the trail of blood left by the marlin in the water. Santiago kills one with his harpoon, losing that weapon in the process. He makes a new harpoon by strapping his knife to the end of an oar to help ward off the next line of sharks and manages to kill a few more. Soon, however, the sharks have devoured the marlin's entire carcass, leaving only its skeleton. The old man castigates himself for sacrificing the marlin.
The next morning, a group of fishermen gathers around the boat where the fish's skeleton is still attached. Manolin, worried during the old man's endeavor, brings him food and drink and finds the old man lying in his cabin. When he wakes, he tells him that they had boats searching for him and that his parents allowed him to fish together once again.
Creators[edit]
Director Aleksandr Petrov
Scenario Aleksandr Petrov
Animators Aleksandr Petrov
Dmitri Petrov
Video operator Thierry Fargeau
Producer Bernard Lajoie
Tatsuo Shimamura
Executive producers Jean-Yves Martel
Shizuo Ohashi
Composers Denis L. Chartrand
Normand Roger
Voice actors Gordon Pinsent (English)
Kevin Delaye (English)
Yoji Matsuda (Japanese)
Rentarō Mikuni (Japanese)
Editors Denis Papillon
History and technique[edit]



 A screen capture of the film
The project was initiated in 1995 after Petrov (who had made his first films in Russia) had his first meeting with Pascal Blais Studio, a Canadian animation studio. The film was partially funded by and was made at their studio. Other funding came from Imagica Corporation, Dentsu Tec and NHK from Japan, and Panorama studio from Yaroslavl, Russia (of which Aleksandr Petrov is the head).
Work on the film began in March 1997. It took Aleksandr Petrov and his son Dmitri Petrov (who helped his father) until April 1999 to paint each of the 29,000+ frames. The film's technique, pastel oil paintings on glass, is mastered by only a handful of animators in the world. Petrov used his fingertips in addition to various paintbrushes to paint on different glass sheets positioned on multiple levels, each covered with slow-drying oil paints. After photographing each frame painted on the glass sheets, which was four times larger than the usual A4-sized canvas, he had to slightly modify the painting for the next frame and so on. For the shooting of the frames a special adapted motion-control camera system was built, probably the most precise computerized animation stand ever made. On this an IMAX camera was mounted, and a video-assist camera was then attached to the IMAX camera.
Artistic style[edit]
The film's style is analogous to that used in Petrov's other films and can be characterized as a type of Romantic realism. People, animals and landscapes are painted and animated in a very realistic fashion, but there are sections where Petrov attempts to visually show a character's inner thoughts and dreams. For example, the film contains a scene where the fisherman dreams that he and the marlin are brothers swimming through the sea and the sky.
Awards[edit]
1999 - Cinanima: "Grand Prize"
1999 - Japan Media Arts Festival: "Grand Prize" (Animation)
1999 - Montréal World Film Festival: Nominated for "First Prize (Short Films)"
2000 - Academy Award for Animated Short Film
2000 - Annecy International Animated Film Festival: "Audience Award", "Grand Prix for Best Animated Short Film"
2000 - BAFTA Awards: Nominated for "Best Animated Short Film"
2000 - Buster International Children's Film Festival: "Politiken's Short Film Award"
2000 - Genie Awards: Nominated for "Best Animated Short Film"
2000 - Jutra Awards: "Jutra" in the category "Best Animated Film"
2000 - Mainichi Film Concours: "Ofuji Noburo Award"
2000 - Saint Petersburg Message to Man International Film Festival: "Special Jury Prize" in the category "International Competition"
2000 - Zagreb World Festival of Animated Films: "First Prize" in "Category C - 15 Min. to 30 Min."
2001 - Burbank International Children's Film Festival: "Director's Gold Award"
2001 - San Diego International Film Festival: "Festival Award" in the category "Best Animation"
DVD releases[edit]
The film is currently available on two DVD releases, English and French ("Le Vieil Homme et la mer"). Despite similar covers, their contents are actually significantly different. The one with the English cover contains both the English and French sound versions of the animated film as well as the 17-minute short film Hemingway: A Portrait directed by Eric Canuel (the two films were originally screened together at IMAX theatres).
The French DVD contains only the French-language versions of everything on the English DVD as well as Petrov's previous films: The Cow (1989), The Dream of a Ridiculous Man (1992) and The Mermaid (1997), which are 10, 20 and 10 minutes long respectively and are in their original Russian language with French subtitles. There is also a 9-minute-long "making of" film.
See also[edit]
History of Russian animation
Further reading[edit]
Olivier Cotte (2007) Secrets of Oscar-winning animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations. (Making of '"The Old Man and the Sea") Focal Press. ISBN 978-0-240-52070-4
External links[edit]
The Old Man and the Sea at the Internet Movie Database
The Old Man and the Sea (1999 film) at the Big Cartoon DataBase
Pascal Blais Studio - here you can see clips of Petrov's films, including this one (enter the English site, then click on "directors")
The Old Man and the Sea at the Animator.ru


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Categories: 1999 films
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The Sea Beast
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search


The Sea Beast
Theseabeast.jpg
Directed by
Millard Webb
Produced by
Warner Brothers
Written by
Bess Meredyth
Starring
John Barrymore
Dolores Costello
George O'Hara
Cinematography
Byron Haskin
 Frank Kesson
Edited by
Rupert Hughes
Distributed by
Warner Brothers
Release date(s)
January 15, 1926
Running time
100 minutes
Country
USA
Language
Silent film
English intertitles
The Sea Beast is a 1926 silent film adaptation of the novel Moby Dick by Herman Melville, a story about a monomaniacal hunt for a great white whale. However, the film alters the novel's plotline by establishing prequel (the romancing of Esther) and sequel (Ahab's safe return) elements that are not in the original story, and substitutes a happy ending for Melville's original tragic one.
Some of the characters in the film do not appear in Melville's original novel.


Contents  [hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Production and release
3 Cast
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

Plot summary[edit]
At the beginning of the story, Ahab (John Barrymore) and his half brother Derek (George O'Hara) compete for the affections of a winsome minister's daughter, Esther Wiscasset (Dolores Costello). Meanwhile, the albino whale has been eluding harpooners, and bears the scars of many failed attacks against him. His fame has reached epic proportions. One day, Ahab and Derek are on the same whaler as the whale heaves into view. Ahab raises his harpoon to kill the beast, but at that moment, Derek pushes him overboard and Ahab loses a right leg to the whale. Not long after this incident, the shallow Esther rebuffs Ahab as her suitor once she catches sight of his peg leg. Heartbroken at this turn of events, Ahab blames neither Esther nor his brother - instead he transfers blame and an undying hatred onto the whale. The following saga of Ahab's pursuit of the whale takes on the aura of a super-human quest, far beyond the proportions of its first motivation.
Production and release[edit]
John Barrymore signed a three film contract with Warner Brothers in 1925 after the success of 1924's Beau Brummel. Barrymore had always wanted to do a film version of Moby Dick and insisted on making this film first rather than the prospected first contract film Don Juan. In retrospect and because of this delay, Don Juan became the first Warner feature to have the Vitaphone soundtrack rather than The Sea Beast.
One of the most popular of Barrymore's films, this version extends the story beyond the final battle of man versus whale in a variation on Melville's book. Adding publicity to the film was a bit of early Hollywood hype, unintentional though it may seem: the actress Priscilla Bonner was fired by Barrymore from the role of Wiscasset, in preference for his lover, actress Dolores Costello, and Bonner successfully sued the studio and won a considerable out-of-court settlement.
Due to the popularity of this film, an all-talking version was released in 1930 under Melville's original book title, with Barrymore again in the role of Captain Ahab. The 1930 film used the plotline of The Sea Beast rather than following Melville's novel. A German-language version, Daemon des Mers, was filmed simultaneously in Hollywood by Warner Bros. It was directed by William Dieterle, beginning his American career.
Cast[edit]
John Barrymore as Captain Ahab Ceeley
Dolores Costello as Esther Harper
George O'Hara as Derek Ceeley
Mike Donlin as Flask
Sam Baker as Queequeg
Kamiyama Sojin as Fedallah
George Berrell as Perth/As Himself
Sam Allen as Captain
Frank Nelson as Stubbs
Mathilde Comont as Mula
James O. Barrow as Rev. Harper
Vadim Uraneff as Pip
Frank Hagney as Daggoo
Joyzelle Joyner as Dancer in prologue
See also[edit]
List of American films of 1926
References[edit]
Mannikka, Eleanor. "The Sea Beast". Allmovie.com. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
External links[edit]
The Sea Beast at the Internet Movie Database
The Sea Beast at AllMovie
The Sea Beast at SilentEra.com
Australian daybill long poster


[hide]
v ·
 t ·
 e
 
Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851)


Main characters
Captain Ahab ·
 Ishmael ·
 Queequeg
 

Ships
Pequod
 

Special subjects
Cetology
 

Film
The Sea Beast (1926 silent) ·
 Moby Dick (1930) ·
 Moby Dick (1956) ·
 Moby Dick (1971) ·
 Moby Dick (1978) ·
 Moby Dick (2010)
 

Television
Hakugei: Legend of the Moby Dick (1997 Japanese) ·
 Moby Dick (1998) ·
 Moby Dick (2011)
 

Stage
Moby Dick—Rehearsed (1955) ·
 Moby Dick (1990 musical) ·
 Moby-Dick (2010 opera)
 

Other
 adaptations
Age of the Dragons ·
 The Call of the Wretched Sea ·
 Capitaine Achab ·
 Dopey Dick the Pink Whale ·
 Dicky Moe ·
 Leviathan ·
 "Möbius Dick" ·
 Moby Dick and Mighty Mightor ·
 Railsea ·
 Samson & Sally
 

Related
Adaptations ·
 Moby Dick Coin
 

 


Categories: 1926 films
1920s adventure films
American films
Black-and-white films
Films about whaling
Films based on Moby-Dick
American silent feature films
Films directed by Millard Webb
Warner Bros. films


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Moby Dick (2011 miniseries)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search


Moby Dick

Directed by
Mike Barker
Screenplay by
Nigel Williams
Based on
Moby-Dick
 by Herman Melville
Starring
William Hurt
Ethan Hawke
Charlie Cox
Eddie Marsan
Gillian Anderson
Donald Sutherland
Billy Boyd
Production company
RHI Entertainment
Tele München
 Gate Filmproduktion
Budget
US$25 million
Country
Germany
 Austria
Language
English
Original channel
Encore
Original run
United States:
 August 1, 2011  – August 2, 2011
Running time
180 minutes
No. of episodes
2
Moby Dick is a television miniseries based on Herman Melville's 1851 novel of the same name,[1] produced by RHI Entertainment,[2] Tele München Gruppe,[1][3] and Gate Filmproduktion.[3] Starring William Hurt as Captain Ahab, it was directed by Mike Barker with a screenplay by Nigel Williams. The cast also includes Ethan Hawke as Starbuck, Charlie Cox as Ishmael, Eddie Marsan as Stubb, Donald Sutherland as Father Mapple, and Gillian Anderson as Ahab's wife, Elizabeth.[2]


Contents  [hide]
1 Cast
2 Production
3 Release 3.1 Critical reception
3.2 Home media
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

Cast[edit]
William Hurt as Captain Ahab
Ethan Hawke as Starbuck
Charlie Cox as Ishmael
Eddie Marsan as Stubb
Gillian Anderson as Elizabeth, Ahab's wife
Donald Sutherland as Father Mapple
Billy Boyd as Elijah
Raoul Trujillo as Queequeg
James Gilbert as Steelkilt
Daniel Gordon as Pip
Matthew Lemche as Flask
Billy Merasty as Tashtego
Onyekachi Ejim as Dagoo
Gary Levert as Perth
Richard Donat as Inn Landlord
Sandy MacLean as Quaker Preacher
Glen Matthews as Tom
Stephen McHattie as Rachel Captain
Production[edit]



 Film property in Hamburg
A "reimagined" version of Melville's book,[4] Moby Dick was shot primarily in Shelburne, Nova Scotia, during late 2009.[4][5] Costing US$25 million, it is Tele München's most expensive production to date.[5] This adaptation gives Ahab a wife named Elizabeth, although Melville's story lacks female characters.[4] In 1998, producer Robert Halmi Sr. worked on a similar miniseries for the USA Network, starring Patrick Stewart.[6][7]
Release[edit]
Moby Dick aired on the U.S. pay-television network Encore on August 1 and 2, 2011. It is the first program to air under the Encore Originals brand,[2] as well as the network's first miniseries.[8] Prior to this airing, it was broadcast in Australia and some other countries.[9]
Critical reception[edit]
The miniseries received fairly positive reviews, with an average score of 68/100 assigned by Metacritic.[10] Linda Stasi of the New York Post gave the miniseries three stars out of four;[11] Nancy DeWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal also gave it a positive review, but warned that "Purists [of the novel] may go wild" over changes from the original story.[12] Likewise, Hank Stuever of The Washington Post called it "a lavish, exciting, well-acted and admirably thorough movie adaptation".[13] The New York Daily News' David Hinckley awarded it three stars out of five, remarking: "The action will hold your attention, though [the miniseries] is really more a drama of character and flaws and faith. At times, in fact, it lapses into melodrama."[8] Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times wrote that while "[it] is not entirely silly or even half bad", "it’s an ambitious, beautifully made adventure tale that seeks to be respectful of the book while still making the characters and story accessible to modern viewers." She called the creation of scenes involving Captain Ahab's wife the "most startling" change to Melville's story, noting that the wife was "only fleetingly mentioned" in the original book. Stanley further commented on a few modernized lines in the script, and added, "Some shortcuts and substitutions are useful. Too often, however, the improvisations fall back on clichés that don’t visually distill Melville’s words as much as they forcibly remind viewers of other books and movies."[4]
Home media[edit]
The miniseries was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc in October 2011.[14][15]
See also[edit]
Adaptations of Moby Dick
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b "Program information for Moby Dick". Starz Entertainment. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
2.^ Jump up to: a b c Kenneally, Tim (July 13, 2011). "Encore Goes Original With 'Moby Dick' Adaptation, Jerry Lewis Doc". Reuters. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
3.^ Jump up to: a b Staff (July 13, 2011). "Encore Dives Into Original Programming With Miniseries 'Moby Dick' And 'The Take'". Deadline Hollywood. PMC. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
4.^ Jump up to: a b c d Stanley, Stanley (July 31, 2011). "Ahab Has a Wife and a Heart. Oh, and a Whale.". The New York Times. p. C1. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
5.^ Jump up to: a b Fischer, Russ (September 28, 2009). "Donald Sutherland and Gillian Anderson Join William Hurt for TV Moby Dick". /Film. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
6.Jump up ^ Lloyd, Robert (August 1, 2011). "Television review: 'Moby Dick' / William Hurt stars as Captain Ahab in the new version on Encore, but Herman Melville seems to be missing.". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
7.Jump up ^ Russo, Tom (March 13, 1998). "Captain My Captain: Patrick Stewart takes the helm of a new ship in 'Moby Dick'". Entertainment Weekly (Time Warner) (422). Retrieved August 4, 2011.
8.^ Jump up to: a b Hinckley, David (August 1, 2011). "'Moby Dick' review: Ethan Hawke, William Hurt and Gillian Anderson tackle Encore's obsessive series". New York Daily News. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
9.Jump up ^ Pennington, Gail (July 30, 2011). "Encore sneaks 'Moby Dick' onto schedule". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
10.Jump up ^ "Reviews for Moby Dick (2011)". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
11.Jump up ^ Stasi, Linda (July 30, 2011). "Whale war: Hurt, Hawke lead assault on [Moby] Dick". New York Post. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
12.Jump up ^ Smith, Nancy DeWolf (July 29, 2011). "Adventures on the Seas of Life". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
13.Jump up ^ Stuever, Hank (July 31, 2011). "Encore’s lavish new ‘Moby Dick’: There whale be blood". The Washington Post. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
14.Jump up ^ "Moby Dick (DVD)". Amazon.com. October 4, 2011. Retrieved November 30, 2011.
15.Jump up ^ "Moby Dick (Blu-ray)". Amazon.com. October 4, 2011. Retrieved November 30, 2011.
External links[edit]
Official website
Moby Dick at the Internet Movie Database


[hide]
v ·
 t ·
 e
 
Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851)


Main characters
Captain Ahab ·
 Ishmael ·
 Queequeg
 

Ships
Pequod
 

Special subjects
Cetology
 

Film
The Sea Beast (1926 silent) ·
 Moby Dick (1930) ·
 Moby Dick (1956) ·
 Moby Dick (1971) ·
 Moby Dick (1978) ·
 Moby Dick (2010)
 

Television
Hakugei: Legend of the Moby Dick (1997 Japanese) ·
 Moby Dick (1998) ·
 Moby Dick (2011)
 

Stage
Moby Dick—Rehearsed (1955) ·
 Moby Dick (1990 musical) ·
 Moby-Dick (2010 opera)
 

Other
 adaptations
Age of the Dragons ·
 The Call of the Wretched Sea ·
 Capitaine Achab ·
 Dopey Dick the Pink Whale ·
 Dicky Moe ·
 Leviathan ·
 "Möbius Dick" ·
 Moby Dick and Mighty Mightor ·
 Railsea ·
 Samson & Sally
 

Related
Adaptations ·
 Moby Dick Coin
 

 


Categories: English-language films
2011 television films
American television miniseries
Films based on Moby-Dick
Television programs based on novels





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Moby Dick (musical)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Moby Dick! The Musical)
Jump to: navigation, search




 Poster for the original Old Fire Station production
Moby Dick is a musical with a book by Robert Longden, and music and lyrics by Longden and Hereward Kaye.
A mixture of high camp, music hall-style smut, and wild anachronism overflowing with double entendres, the show focuses on the anarchic and nubile girls of St. Godley’s Academy for Young Ladies who, determined to save the institution from bankruptcy, decide to stage Herman Melville's classic novel in the school's swimming pool.
Having become involved with the restoration of Oxford's Old Fire Station Theatre, producer Cameron Mackintosh sought a new musical to inaugurate its re-opening. Impressed by an audio tape sent him by Longden, Mackintosh offered him £25,000 to stage what was then called Moby Dick: A Whale of a Tale. Originally an intimate piece with a cast of twelve performing with an upright piano, it became a greatly expanded version featuring a troupe of thirty and a six-piece band. The end result was a madcap romp, with veteran cabaret star Tony Monopoly playing the headmistress/Captain Ahab in drag, that immediately developed a cult following among the university students. One of its first venues was aboard Ki Longfellow's Old Profanity Showboat where after a slow start, it quickly became sold out.
Against the advice of his staff, Mackintosh decided the show was suited for a full-fledged West End production, and in March 1992 he transferred it to the cavernous Piccadilly Theatre, where it opened to almost universally scathing reviews. Despite an increasingly appreciative audience and nightly ovations the musical failed to find its audience quickly enough and the economics of the large venue forced it to close after 4 months. Such was its public appeal, Cameron later recalled, that the announcement of closure sent audience reaction into orbit and it barnstormed out of the West End as if it were one of the greatest hits of all time.[1]
Over the years, the show, alternately titled Moby Dick! The Musical or Moby!, has proven to be a popular choice with regional theatre groups. In 2003 an Americanized version deleted all the unfamiliar British references and played down many of the burlesque aspects. No matter where it's produced, the tradition of having the headmistress portrayed by a male continues to be upheld.


Contents  [hide]
1 Character List
2 Original song list
3 2003 song list
4 References

Character List[edit]
Elijah: As Elijah, a wacky, one-armed crew member of the Pequod who is a gossipmonger spreading rumors. Doubles as Pierre and Janitor.
Esta: A boy-crazy hussy and the smart aleck of the group. Doubles as Ahab's wife.
Father Mapple / Flask: As Mapple, a flamboyant, revival-type preacher. As Flask, a crew member on the Pequod who tries to steal Queequeg's money.
Gardiner / Dagoo: As Gardiner, Captain of the Rachel with a penchant for classical comedy. Doubles as Dagoo.
Headmistress / Captain Ahab: The Headmistress is a stern and uptight ruler over the academy, played in drag with fearless confidence. Doubles as Captain Ahab.
Ishmael: The story's narrator, she is a goody two-shoes who everyone picks on. An earnest, but nerdy, musician and student.
Pip: The school's puny security guard and cabin boy aboard the Pequod. He is smaller and weaker than the others.
Queequeg: The mystical, strange, savage harpooner who is tender and kind underneath it all. A cannibal of sorts.
Starbuck: The stern and strong girl that the others look up to. She is very Christian, upright and fair.
The Ensemble play Sailors, Shrunken Heads, Wives, Heathens and Ghosts.
Original song list[edit]
Act IHymn
Parent's Day
Forbidden Seas
In Old Nantucket
A Man Happens
Ahab's Curse
Gypsy Dancer
Love Will Always
Primitive
Punish Us
People Build Walls
Pequod
At Sea One Day
Building America
 Act IILiving Shadows
Mr. Starbuck
Heave Away
Deck Dance
Can't Keep Out The Night
Ahab's Insomnia
A Whale Of Tale
Daily Massacre
Ship Ahoy
Shadows Of The Deep
Storm
Heave Away (Reprise)
The Whale's Revenge
Save The Whale

2003 song list[edit]
Act IHymn
Moby Dick
I Live and Breathe
Old Nantucket Town
A Man Happens
Ahab's Homecoming
Love Will Always
Primitive
A Sinking Man
Jonah Fell
Pequod
At Sea One Day
Building America
 Act IIMoby Dick (Reprise)
Deck Dance/Death to Moby/Heave Away
Can't Keep Out the Night
Whale of a Tale
Love Will Always (Reprise)
The Rachel/Shadows of the Deep
Bones
Heave 2
Ahab's Death
Finale (Ahab's Dead!)

References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Caught by the Tale - a forward to the Moby Dick cast recording (DICKCD1)
Hey, Mr. Producer! The Musical World of Cameron Mackintosh by Sheridan Morley and Ruth Leon, published in the UK by Weidenfeld & Nicolson and in the US by Back Stage Books, 1998
Moby Dick! The Musical at the Music Theatre International website


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Moby Dick—Rehearsed
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Moby Dick—Rehearsed

Written by
Orson Welles
Date premiered
June 16, 1955
Place premiered
Duke of York's Theatre, London
Original language
English
Genre
Drama
IBDB profile
Moby Dick—Rehearsed is a two-act drama by Orson Welles. The play was staged June 16–July 9, 1955, at the Duke of York's Theatre in London, in a production directed by Welles. The original cast included Welles, Gordon Jackson, Patrick McGoohan and Joan Plowright.[1] The play was published by Samuel French in 1965.[2]
Welles used minimal stage design. The stage was bare, the actors appeared in contemporary street clothes, and the props were minimal. For example, brooms were used for oars, and a stick was used for a telescope. The actors provided the action, and the audience's imagination provided the ocean, costumes, and the whale.
Welles filmed approximately 75 minutes of the production, with the original cast, at the Hackney Empire and Scala Theatres in London. He hoped to sell the film to Omnibus, the United States television series which had presented his live performance of King Lear in 1953; but Welles stopped shooting when he was disappointed in the results. The film is lost.[3]


Contents  [hide]
1 Plot
2 Productions 2.1 London
2.2 New York
3 Film
4 References
5 External links

Plot[edit]
The setting is a mid-19th century American repertory theater. The play begins subtly as the audience arrives with the cast milling around an empty stage. The cast members generally fool around and complain about their boss and their forthcoming production of King Lear. Then, making a big dramatic entrance and smoking a cigar, the actor manager of the time comes on stage and tells them they are going to rehearse another piece, Moby Dick.
The cast grudgingly performs the play, improvising scenery from items lying around, and gradually get more into character as the play develops.
Productions[edit]
London[edit]
Directed by Orson Welles, the original production of Moby Dick—Rehearsed ran June 16–July 9, 1955, at the Duke of York's Theatre, London.

Actor
Role
Gordon Jackson A Young Actor/Ishmael
Christopher Lee / Peter Sallis [4] A Stage Manager/Flask
Patrick McGoohan A Serious Actor/Starbuck
Wensley Pithey A Middle-Aged Actor/Stubb
Joan Plowright A Young Actress/Pip
Orson Welles An Actor Manager/Father Mapple/Ahab
Kenneth Williams A Very Serious Actor/Elijah and others
Joseph Chelton A Manager/Tashtego
John Gray An Assistant Stage Manager/Bo'sun
Jefferson Clifford An Experienced Actor/Peleg
New York[edit]
Directed by Douglas Campbell, Moby Dick—Rehearsed was presented on Broadway November 28–December 8, 1962, at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre. Orson Welles was not involved in the production, which ran 13 performances.

Actor
Role
Bruno Gerussi A Young Actor/Ishmael
Max Helpmann A Cynical Actor/Flask
Roy Poole A Serious Actor/Starbuck
Hugh Webster Actor with Newspaper/Stubb
Frances Hyland A Young Actress/Pip
Rod Steiger An Actor Manager/Father Mapple/Ahab
Bill Fletcher Member of the Company/Elijah
Louis Zorich Middle-aged Actor/Tashtego
William Needles Stage Manager/Peleg/Voice of The Rachel
David Thomas An Old Pro/The Carpenter
John Horton Member of the Company/The Mastheader/Voice of The Bachelor
Lee Morrison Member of the Company/Queequeg
Melvin Scott Member of the Company/Daggoo
The play has since been performed numerous times on both sides of the Atlantic.
Film[edit]
Orson Welles filmed approximately 75 minutes of the original 1955 production, with the original cast, at the Hackney Empire and Scala Theatres in London. He hoped to sell the film to Omnibus, the United States television series which had presented his live performance of King Lear in 1953; but Welles stopped shooting when he was disappointed in the results.[5] The film is lost, with the only copy believed to have been destroyed when a fire broke out at Welles's Madrid home in 1970, while he rented it to the actor Robert Shaw, who was drunkenly smoking in bed.[citation needed]
Because the film is lost, many people have speculated it was never created. However, evidence supporting the film was made can be found in the book, The Films Of Christopher Lee, by Pohle Jr. and Hart — Patrick McGoohan said in a 1986 interview that the excerpt of the film he saw while Welles was reviewing the rushes one day was fantastic.[6]
In The Fabulous Orson Welles, by Peter Noble, cameraman Hilton Craig reveals, "it was by no means merely a photographed stage-play. On the contrary, it was shot largely in close-ups and looked very impressive on near-completion."
Kenneth Williams' autobiography Just Williams records Williams' apprehension at the project, as it was filmed by the play's cast in just one weekend at the then-abandoned Hackney Empire theatre. He describes how Welles' dim, atmospheric stage lighting made some of the footage so dark as to be unwatchable. At least forty minutes of the play was filmed, but is now presumed lost.
Of the film project, Welles's official biographer Barbara Leaming wrote in 1985:
Persistent rumours over the years have hinted that there is a finished film of Welles's Moby Dick[—Rehearsed] stashed away somewhere, but Orson had barely started the film when he gave it up. "We shot for three days", he recalls, "and it was obvious it wasn't going to be any good, so we stopped. There was no film made at all. We only did one and a half scenes. I said, let's not go on and waste our money, because it's not going to be any good."[7]
In support of this, Leaming quotes Welles's friend at the time, the playwright Wolf Mankowitz, who said, "Orson's attitude is a very pragmatic one. He thinks until you get on the set with the actors and lights and the rest of it, you don't know whether it's going to work or not. And he simply reserves the right as an artist to sort of drop it if it doesn't work."[8]
The Moby Dick—Rehearsed film is not to be confused with a later unfinished film project in 1971, wherein Welles filmed 22 minutes of various scenes from the play, playing all the parts himself. The footage of that film was acquired by the Munich Film Museum in 1995 and restored in 1999.
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Welles, Orson and Peter Bogdanovich, This is Orson Welles. New York: HarperCollins Publishers 1992 ISBN 0-06-016616-9 Welles career chronology by Jonathan Rosenbaum, page 418
2.Jump up ^ Welles, Orson, Moby Dick—Rehearsed: A Drama in Two Acts. New York: Samuel French, Inc., 1965 ISBN 0-573-61242-0. "Being an adaptation—for the most part in blank verse—of the novel by Herman Melville."
3.Jump up ^ Welles, Orson, and Peter Bogdanovich, This is Orson Welles, Welles career chronology by Jonathan Rosenbaum, page 418
4.Jump up ^ Peter Sallis: Fading Into the Limelight, Orion 2006
5.Jump up ^ Welles, Orson, and Peter Bogdanovich, This is Orson Welles, Welles career chronology by Jonathan Rosenbaum, page 418
6.Jump up ^ "[1] Patrick McGoohan: Danger Man or Prisoner?" by Roger Langley, Tomahawk Press, 2007
7.Jump up ^ Barbara Leaming, Orson Welles: A Biography (Viking, New York, 1985) p.402
8.Jump up ^ Barbara Leaming, Orson Welles: A Biography (Viking, New York, 1985) p.402
External links[edit]
Moby Dick—Rehearsed at the Internet Movie Database
Moby Dick—Rehearsed at the Internet Broadway Database
http://www.wellesnet.com/?p=699


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Moby Dick (2010 film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search


Moby Dick
Moby Dick.jpg
DVD cover

Directed by
Trey Stokes
Produced by
David Michael Latt
David Rimawi
Paul Bales
Screenplay by
Paul Bales
Based on
Moby-Dick
 by Herman Melville
Starring
Barry Bostwick
Renée O'Connor
 Michael B. Teh
Adam Grimes
Music by
Chris Ridenhour
Cinematography
Alexander Yellen
Edited by
Alex Evans
Distributed by
The Asylum
Release date(s)
November 23, 2010

Running time
87 mins.
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$500,000
Moby Dick (alternatively titled 2010: Moby Dick or Moby Dick: 2010) is a 2010 film adaptation of Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick. The film is an Asylum production, and stars Barry Bostwick as Captain Ahab.[1] It also stars Renee O'Connor, Michael B. Teh, and Adam Grimes and is directed by Trey Stokes.


Contents  [hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 References
4 External links

Plot[edit]
The film begins in November 20, 1969, 50 miles off Soviet waters. When the USS Acushnet dives under the ice, a young Ahab listens for enemy subs when suddenly he detects an unknown target. When the captain listens, he hears nothing, but Ahab insists in the presence of an emptiness. The target dives into a trench, but the captain abandons his search in favor of photographing the target. The target attacks the submarine as Ahab hears a roar. The sub is brought to the icy surface, and the target identifies itself as a gigantic, white, whale-like creature. Ahab survives, but loses his leg to the beast when it hauls the other half of the sub back underwater.
In the present day, Dr. Michelle Herman (Renée O'Connor) and her assistant Pip (Derrick Scott) test a whale song generator when the USS Pequod surfaces behind them and Lieutenant Commander Starbuck (Adam Grimes), the executive officer, persuades them to come aboard. In the sub, Starbuck tells them about several attacks in which eyewitnesses all report seeing an enormous whale. Although Michelle explains that the whale song generator needs a recorded whale vocalization, Captain Ahab (Barry Bostwick) comes to the deck and gives her the recording he took of Moby Dick back in 1969. Although Michelle disagrees on joining a Navy sub with the intent of killing an animal, she has no choice.
In San Diego, Captain Boomer (another survivor of the attack of '69) is told by his superiors of suspicious activity revolving around the Pequod. He is assigned to investigate, and thanks to a survivor from a recent attack by the White Whale, he comes to the conclusion that Ahab is on the hunt for Moby Dick.
Meanwhile, the USS Essex is searching for the Pequod off Hawaii. When they go to active sonar, it attracts the attention of the wandering Moby Dick. The Essex engages at what appears to be the sub they were searching for, but realizes too late that their adversary is biological just before the sub is destroyed by a torpedo it shot. Later the Pequod comes to their location with no sign of the whale, but encounter the corpses of Essex crew. Rousing his crew with a speech, Ahab moves on to search for the beast.
A helicopter in search of the Pequod encounters it while the sub is following a 600-foot target. As the helicopter engages them, the sub fires a nuke at the unknown target, but the confused helicopter crew tell them they shot a school of giant squid just before they are swallowed alive by Moby Dick.
The whale then attacks the S.S. Rachel, a cruise liner, when the Pequod intervenes with Michelle's whalesong generator. This, although, causes the whale to attack them, subsequently destroying a fin on the Pequod. The sub fires a harpoon made from the Acushnet's hull on top of Moby Dick's eye, which forces him to dive deeper, dragging the Pequod with it. As the water pressure begins to damage the hull, the line snaps and Starbuck forces the ship to surface.
Moby-Dick surfaces too, and the Pequod, along with the help of Boomer in a helicopter, forces the whale into an atoll. The sub gets trapped in shallow water, and three boats are sent out to face the whale with guns and Ahab's harpoon. Moby-Dick destroys two of the boats and forces the survivors onto the island's shores. The whale attacks them again, resulting in the death of Queequeg (Michael Teh). Ahab takes the last boat and fires his harpoon at the whale's other eye. Moby Dick destroys the boat, killing Ahab. The remaining crew of the Pequod, including Starbuck, and Pip, follow Ahab's orders and fire nukes at the island. Moby Dick dodges the nukes and crushes the Pequod just as the island explodes. The film ends with the White Whale surviving to wreak havoc another day, and with Michelle swimming to the surface just as a rescue helicopter arrives.
Cast[edit]
Barry Bostwick as CaptainAhab
Renée O'Connor as Dr. Michelle Herman
Jay Gillespie as Young Ahab
Michael B. Teh as Queequeg
Adam Grimes as Starbuck
Cindi Arrata as Lt. Vanessa
Carlos Antonio as Captain Macey
Matt Lagan as Capt. John "Boomer" Enderby
Jay Beyers as Young Boomer
Dean Kreyling as Admiral De Deer
Carlos Javier Castillo as Cabaco
Oliver Rayon as Bulkington
Durant Fowler as Doughby
Michael Gaglio as XO / Millard Davis
Bart Baggett as Lt. Flask
Derrick Scott as Pip
Carl Watts as Captain Pollard
Kevin Sumethasorn as Archy
Kevin Allen as Pilot
Jett Turner as Essex Sonar
Jeff Jones as Seaman #1
Moby Dick: Throughout the movie, Moby Dick has various exaggerated powers and sizes. According to the photographs and Michelle's estimates, Moby Dick is around 500 feet in length and can swim at amazing speeds. Moby Dick also possesses the ability to crawl very quickly on land for a short period of time and, in the beginning of the movie, was able to absorb sonar waves to avoid detection; this is later proved useless against high-tech submarine sonars. There is also a scientific error committed : at one point, Dr Michelle Herman says that the Sperm whale (67 ft long) is the biggest existing whale in the world, but it is the Blue whale (98 ft long).
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ http://www.theasylum.cc/product.php?id=177
External links[edit]
Official website
Moby Dick at the Internet Movie Database
Mo Serviços Em i OS s igina POR Dick Revisão em Blueprint: Revisão


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Categories: 2010 films
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Films based on Moby-Dick
Submarine films
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The Whale (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search


The Whale
BBC Whale.png
Genre
Drama
Directed by
Alrick Riley
Produced by
Mike Dormer
Written by
Terry Cafolla
Music by
Debbie Wiseman
Cinematography
David Raedeker
Editing by
James Hughes
Production company
BBC Factual Productions
Animal Planet

Budget
£2,213,684
Country
United Kingdom
Language
English
Original channel
BBC One
BBC One HD
Release date
22 December 2013 (UK)

Running time
90 minutes
Official website
The Whale is a British television film that was first broadcast on BBC One on 22 December 2013. The film, about the Essex incident in 1820, which also formed the basis of Herman Melville's Moby-Dick, was written by Terry Cafolla.[1] The Whale will also broadcast on Animal Planet in the United States in summer 2014.[2]


Contents  [hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
5 References
6 External links

Plot[edit]
Thomas Nickerson (Martin Sheen) recalls his past as a cabin boy on the Essex whaling ship.
Cast[edit]
Martin Sheen as old Thomas Nickerson
Charles Furness as young Tom Nickerson
Jonas Armstrong as Owen Chase
Adam Rayner as Captain George Pollard
Jolyon Coy as Benjamin Lawrence
Jassa Ahluwalia as Owen Coffin
David Gyasi as Richard Peterson
John Boyega as William Bond
Ferdinand Kingsley as Obed Hendricks
Paul Kaye as Matthew Joy
Production[edit]
The Whale used underwater shots and specialist equipment to create storm scenes for Essex, the whaleship the film is based on.[3] The television film was made by BBC Factual Productions with Animal Planet as co-producer, with Eamon Hardy and Ruth Caleb as executive producers for the BBC and Mick Kaczorowski as executive producer for Animal Planet. The director is Alrick Riley and the composer is Debbie Wiseman.[3] The producer is Mick Dormer.[3]
Around the time of the first read-through of the script, Joe Armstrong left his role as Lawrence. The role was later given to Jolyon Coy who had recently finished the theatre show Posh.[4] Filming began in Malta on 8 April 2013 and ended on 12 May 2013.[5][6][7][8] In Malta, filming took place in Gozo and the Mediterranean Film Studios with the help of Latina Pictures. The set was visited by Emmanuel Mallia, Minister for Home Affairs for Malta, and Malta Film Commissioner Peter Busutill in May 2013.[9][10] On 16 April 2013, the set was visited by Anton Refalo, the Minister for Gozo.[5][11] Jassa Ahluwalia said re-recording took place on 11 October 2013.[12] The production budget was £2,213,684.[5]
On 25 November 2013, the BBC announced that the television film would be part of BBC One's Christmas schedule.[13]
Reception[edit]
Writing in The Guardian, John Crace said it "felt like a big-screen movie epic trapped inside a relatively small-budget TV programme" and was disappointed by the whale scenes.[14] The Daily Telegraph's Michael Hogan gave it three out of five stars and called it "gripping and gory".[15]
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Jeffery, Morgan (8 April 2013). "Jonas Armstrong to lead new BBC One drama 'The Whale'". Digital Spy. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
2.Jump up ^ "Martin Sheen to Star in The Whale, Premiering Summer 2014 on Animal Planet". Broadway World. 25 November 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
3.^ Jump up to: a b c "Multiple award-winner Martin Sheen stars in BBC One's The Whale". BBC. 25 November 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
4.Jump up ^ Munn, Patrick (9 April 2013). "Joe Armstrong Exits BBC One's 'The Whale', Jolyon Coy To Assume Role". TV Wise. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
5.^ Jump up to: a b c "Minister Mallia visits film studies for production of The Whale". Gozo News. 5 May 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
6.Jump up ^ "Jonas Armstrong stars in BBC One's The Whale, a dramatisation of events that inspired Moby Dick". BBC. 8 April 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
7.Jump up ^ Dowell, Ben (8 April 2013). "BBC plans whaling drama based on tale that inspired Moby Dick". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
8.Jump up ^ Vincent, Alice (9 April 2013). "BBC start work on Moby Dick film The Whale, but there's no Ahab in sight". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
9.Jump up ^ Goundry, Nick. "Malta Minister pledges filming support as BBC shoots The Whale". The Location Guide. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
10.Jump up ^ Dalli, Miriam (4 May 2013). "Home Affairs Minister visits film set of BBC production The Whale". Malta Today. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
11.Jump up ^ "Gozo Minister visits production of the BBC drama The Whale". Gozo News. 17 April 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
12.Jump up ^ Ahluwalia, Jassa. "ADR morning for The Whale!". Twitter. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
13.Jump up ^ "Christmas on the BBC – A selection of festive treats across the BBC this Christmas". BBC. 25 November 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
14.Jump up ^ Crace, John (23 December 2013). "The Whale; The Ladybird Books Story – TV review". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
15.Jump up ^ Hogan, Michael (22 December 2013). "The Whale, BBC One, review". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
External links[edit]
The Whale at BBC Programmes
The Whale at the Internet Movie Database
 


Categories: English-language films
2013 television films
British television films
English-language television programming
Films shot in Malta
Moby-Dick





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Ann Alexander (ship)
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Career (US)

Name: Ann Alexander
Fate: Struck by a sperm whale and sunk, 1851
General characteristics

The Ann Alexander was a whaling ship from New Bedford, Massachusetts, notable for being rammed by a wounded sperm whale in the South Pacific on August 20, 1851, some 30 years after the famous incident in which the Essex was stove in and sunk by a whale in the same area.


Contents  [hide]
1 Early history
2 Sunk by a sperm whale
3 Retrieval and rescue
4 Melville and Moby-Dick
5 Aftermath
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links

Early history[edit]
According to a 1912 account,[1] with Capt. Loammi (Loum) Snow of Rochester, New York in command, on a voyage in October 1805 from New York to Leghorn with a cargo of general merchandise and a deck cargo of lumber that was Snow's personal property, she encountered the British fleet a few days after its victory at the battle of Trafalgar. Informed that Lord Nelson had died aboard the Victory and the new commander, Admiral Collingwood, was attempting to repair the damage done to numerous ships during the naval action, Snow sold the British Navy lumber, flour and apples on the spot.
According to the same 1912 account,[1] in 1807, with Snow still in command, the Ann Alexander was captured by a Spanish privateer on a voyage from St. Ives, England to Leghorn, who replaced all but Snow and a mate with a prize crew, and set a course for Spain. She was immediately captured the next day by a British man-of-war, who replaced the Spanish prize crew with one of their own, and turned their prize toward Gibraltar. Just short of landfall, they were captured again by another Spanish privateer and taken to Algiers. Upon landing, Snow immediately reported the previous British prize captain for piracy, preventing the authorities from knowing the ship's latest seizure was by Spain. The Algerian authorities allowed him to take possession of his ship and proceed to Leghorn.[1]
Sunk by a sperm whale[edit]
Under the command of Captain John Deblois, the Ann Alexander left New Bedford on June 1, 1850 for the whaling grounds in the Atlantic. After taking on about 500 barrels of oil, she rounded Cape Horn in January, 1851. After provisioning in Chile and dropping a sailor at Paita, Peru, she headed west to the "Offshore Ground" in August, about 2,000–3,000 miles off the South American coast where more whales are likely to be located. In the Ann Alexander's case, she resumed the hunt at the latitude of 5° 50′ south, and longitude 102° west.[1]
On August 20, the ship dropped two whaleboats; the one commanded by the first mate harpooned a whale. After hauling the tethered boat on a Nantucket sleighride, the whale turned, opened its jaws, and attacked and destroyed it. The second boat, captained by Deblois, rowed to the site and saved all six crewmen.
At this point, as there were now 12 men in a single boat, the waist boat was launched from the ship, now some six miles off. The crewmen were divided between the two boats, and it was decided to attack the whale again with the waist boat, under the first mate's command, in the advance. When the whale saw the boats returning, he attacked again, this time destroying the waist boat. Deblois rescued the crew for a second time and attempted to return to the Ann Alexander in the last remaining boat. The wounded whale again rushed the boat and passed within a few cables of it, but did not directly attack it.
Once the whalers were aboard the Ann Alexander, a smaller boat was launched to retrieve the whaleboat oars, and Deblois decided to hunt the whale from the safety of the ship. Another harpoon was sunk into its head, and after a feint towards the ship, the whale seemed to disappear under the surface. At this point it was nearly sundown, so Deblois decided to abandon the pursuit. Moments later, the whale reappeared, moving at a speed of about 15 knots (a little over 17 mph), toward the ship, which was making only five knots. The whale rammed the slower-moving ship, which was unable to outrun or avoid it, and put a hole completely through the hull of the ship, below the waterline some two feet from the keel. Like most ships of that time, the Ann Alexander carried a large amount of pig iron as ballast, so in an attempt to keep her from sinking immediately, Deblois ordered the crew to cut away the anchors and throw all heavy metal cables overboard. The crew only succeeded in cutting away one anchor and cable, and the ship began to sink rapidly. Deblois made his way to the cabin, where he seized a sextant, chronometer and chart. A second attempt to obtain anything beyond the provisions and water that were being loaded into the remaining boats was fruitless, as the ship was almost completely heeled over and flooded. The 22 crewmen had no choice but to abandon ship, with Deblois, the last to leave, being forced to swim to the closest boat.[2]
Retrieval and rescue[edit]
It was soon discovered that they possessed only twelve gallons of water and no food at all, and the boats, containing eleven men each, leaked and needed to be bailed out throughout the night. The next day, seeing that the Ann Alexander had not yet sunk but was on her beam ends, Deblois went on board to cut away the masts with a hatchet, in the hope this would lessen the drag. The ship partially righted itself, and the crew, using spades, were able to cut the foremast anchor chain, which helped bring her on a more even keel. Using ropes tied around their waists, the whalers then lowered themselves over the side and cut holes through the decks to get to the food stores, but obtained only five gallons of vinegar and twenty pounds of waterlogged bread. The ship became unstable, so they returned to their boats and rowed away.
With water rations for only a few days, Deblois reckoned that if they headed for a northern latitude with more rainfall they might survive. Almost miraculously, two days later on August 22, at around 5 p.m. they sighted a ship and were rescued by the Nantucket whaler Nantucket under the command of Captain Gibbs. A last attempt to retrieve anything from the Ann Alexander was abandoned due to rough seas, and the crew was eventually landed in Paita on September 15, 1851. They all returned to New York via the schooner Providence on October 12.[2]
Melville and Moby-Dick[edit]
Just a few months later, October 18, 1851, and November 14, 1851, the first editions of Hermann Melville's great whaling novel Moby-Dick, inspired by the Essex attack, were published in London and New York, respectively.
Melville commented, "Ye Gods! What a commentator is this Ann Alexander whale. What he has to say is short & pithy & very much to the point. I wonder if my evil art has raised this monster."[3]
Aftermath[edit]
Weak with infection from the two harpoons and pieces of timber from the attack embedded in its head, the whale was caught and killed five months later by the crew of the Rebecca Simms,[4] and yielded 70 or 80 barrels of oil.[5]
While an accidental collision with a sperm whale at night accounted for sinking of the Union in 1807,[6] the Essex incident some 30 years prior was the only other documented case of a ship being deliberately attacked, holed and sunk by a whale. However, these two incidents are probably not as much of a freak occurrence as they appear to be. Observations of aggression in males of the cetacean species suggest that head-butting during male–male aggression is a basal behavior, and that the enlarged melon or spermaceti organ is a direct product of sexual dimorphism, evolving as a battering ram to injure an opponent in these attacks. [7]
The ability of the sperm whale to aggressively attack and destroy ships some 3–5 times its body mass in this manner is therefore hardly surprising. The 5-month period that elapsed between the sinking of the Ann Alexander and the killing of the whale involved demonstrates that long-term survival was possible after combat with a much larger ship and so, presumably, with another whale as well.[7]
See also[edit]
In the Heart of the Sea: The Tragedy of the Whaleship Essex, a National Book Award-winning work of maritime history by Nathaniel Philbrick telling the Essex story from the point of view of both Nickerson and Chase.
In the Heart of the Sea (film), the above book being adapted into a feature film by director Ron Howard, starring Chris Hemsworth, Ben Whishaw, and Cillian Murphy.[8]
Moby-Dick, a 1851 novel by Herman Melville
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b c d Representative men and old families of southeastern Massachusetts, Containing historical sketches of prominent and representative citizens and genealogical records of many of the old families ... v. 3. J.H. Beers & Co. 1912. p. 1438.
2.^ Jump up to: a b [1], Thrilling Account of the Destruction of a Whale Ship by a Sperm Whale - Sinking of the Ship - Loss of the Boats and Miraculous Escape of the Crew, The New York Times, November 5, 1851 .
3.Jump up ^ Melville's Reflections, a page from The Life and Works of Herman Melville
4.Jump up ^ Starbuck, A. (1878). History of the American Whale Fishery, from its Earliest Inception to the Year 1876. New York: Argosy-Antiquarian Ltd.
5.Jump up ^ Jenkins, Thomas H (1902). Bark Kathleen sunk by a whale, to which is added an account of two like occurrences, the loss of ships Ann Alexander and Essex. New Bedford, MA: Hutchinson. pp. 31–34.
6.Jump up ^ Report of the Commissioner By United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, p11
7.^ Jump up to: a b David R. Carrier, Stephen M. Deban and Jason Otterstrom (2002). "The face that sank the Essex: potential function of the spermaceti organ in aggression". The Journal of Experimental Biology No. 205 (Great Britain: The Company of Biologists Limited). pp. 1755–1763.
8.Jump up ^ In the Heart of the Sea at the Internet Movie Database.
Further reading[edit]
Sawtell, Clement Cleveland (1962). The ship Ann Alexander of New Bedford, 1805-1851. Mystic, CT: The Marine Historical Association.
External links[edit]
Ann Alexander, poster, New Bedford Whaling Museum
History of the American Whale Fishery from its Earliest Inception to the Year 1876, by Alexander Starbuck
Loss of the ship Ann Alexander, account of the incident as told by contemporaries, Internet Archive

 


Categories: Shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Moby-Dick
Whaling in the United States
Whaling ships
Individual sailing vessels
Whale collisions with ships
Maritime incidents in 1807
Maritime incidents in 1851
Ships built in Massachusetts
Captured ships






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In the Heart of the Sea
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from In the Heart of the Sea: The Tragedy of the Whaleship Essex)
Jump to: navigation, search

For the film adaptation, see In the Heart of the Sea (film).
In the Heart of the Sea
In the Heart of the Sea
Hardcover edition

Author
Nathaniel Philbrick
Country
United States
Language
English
Subject
New England, whaling
Genre
History
Publisher
Viking Press

Publication date
 May 8, 2000
Media type
Print
Pages
320 pp.
ISBN
0-670-89157-6
OCLC
608132810



 The Essex struck by a whale — a sketch by Thomas Nickerson
In the Heart of the Sea: The Tragedy of the Whaleship Essex is a book by American writer Nathaniel Philbrick about the loss of the Whaleship Essex in the Pacific Ocean in 1820. The book was published by Viking Press on May 8, 2000, and won the 2000 National Book Award for Nonfiction. It is being adapted into a film of the same name, scheduled for release in 2015.


Contents  [hide]
1 Summary
2 Reception
3 Film adaptation
4 See also
5 References

Summary[edit]
The Essex, an American whaleship from Nantucket, sank when it was attacked by a sperm whale in the Pacific Ocean in November 1820. Having lost their ship, the crew of the Essex attempted to sail to South America in whaleboats. After suffering from starvation and dehydration, most of the crew died before the survivors were rescued in February 1821.
In retelling the story of the crew's ordeal, Philbrick utilizes an account written by Thomas Nickerson, who was a teenage cabin boy on board the Essex and wrote about the experience in his old age; his account was lost until 1960 but was not authenticated until 1980 before being published, abridged, in 1984. The book also utilizes the better known account of Owen Chase, the ship's first mate, which was published soon after the ordeal.[1]
Reception[edit]
In the Heart of the Sea won the 2000 U.S. National Book Award for Nonfiction.[2]
Film adaptation[edit]
Main article: In the Heart of the Sea (film)
The story is being adapted into a feature film by director Ron Howard, starring Chris Hemsworth, Ben Whishaw, and Cillian Murphy.[3]
See also[edit]
Moby-Dick, a 1851 novel by Herman Melville
Ann Alexander, a ship sunk by a whale on August 20, 1851
The Raft of the Medusa, an oil painting of 1818–1819 by the French Romantic painter and lithographer Théodore Gericault
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Philbrick, Nathaniel (2001). In the Heart of the Sea: The Tragedy of the Whaleship Essex. Penguin Books. pp. xiv–xv. ISBN 0-14-100182-8.
2.Jump up ^ "National Book Awards – 2000". National Book Foundation. Retrieved 2012-02-20.
3.Jump up ^ Browne, Julie (29 October 2013). "Cillian Murphy’s ‘Peaky Blinders’ Renewed for a Second Season". The Irish Film & Television Network.



Stub icon This naval article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.




Stub icon This article about a non-fiction book on U.S. history is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.




 


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In the Heart of the Sea (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search


In the Heart of the Sea

Directed by
Ron Howard
Produced by
Brian Grazer
Marshall Herskovitz
Joe Roth
Paula Weinstein
Screenplay by
Charles Leavitt
Rick Jaffa
 Amanda Silver
Peter Morgan
Based on
In the Heart of the Sea
 by Nathaniel Philbrick
Starring
Chris Hemsworth
Benjamin Walker
Cillian Murphy
Tom Holland
Brendan Gleeson
Michelle Fairley
Cinematography
Anthony Dod Mantle
Production
   company
Village Roadshow Pictures
Imagine Entertainment
 Roth Films
 Spring Creek Pictures
Distributed by
Warner Bros.
Release date(s)
March 15, 2015

Country
United States
In the Heart of the Sea (also known as Heart of the Sea) is an upcoming drama film directed by Ron Howard. The film stars Chris Hemsworth, Cillian Murphy, and Tom Holland. It is based on Nathaniel Philbrick's 2000 book In the Heart of the Sea, about the sinking of the whaleship Essex. The film is scheduled for release on March 15, 2015.[1]


Contents  [hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production 3.1 Pre-production
3.2 Filming
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

Plot[edit]
In 1820, the whaleship Essex is crewed by Captain George Pollard, Jr. (Benjamin Walker), first mate Owen Chase (Chris Hemsworth), second mate Matthew Joy (Cillian Murphy), and cabin boy Thomas Nickerson (Tom Holland). During their voyage, the ship is struck by a large bull sperm whale, ultimately leaving its crew shipwrecked at sea for 90 days over a thousand miles from home.[2][3] After the attack, the crew sails for South America and is forced to become cannibalistic.[4]
Cast[edit]
Chris Hemsworth as Owen Chase, the First Mate[5]
Benjamin Walker as Captain George Pollard, Jr.
Cillian Murphy as Matthew Joy, the Second Mate[5]
Tom Holland as Young Thomas Nickerson, the Cabin Boy
Brendan Gleeson[5] as Old Thomas Nickerson
Michelle Fairley as Mrs Nickerson
Frank Dillane as Owen Coffin, cousin of Captain George Pollard, Jr.
Charlotte Riley[6] as Peggy
Donald Sumpter as Paul Macy
Ben Whishaw as Herman Melville[5]
Production[edit]
Pre-production[edit]
Before Benjamin Walker was set to play the Captain, other actors that were considered included Benedict Cumberbatch, Tom Hiddleston and Henry Cavill.[3] The film was in talks back in 2000 with Barry Levinson directing for The Weinstein Company.[4]
Filming[edit]
Filming began in September 2013 in London and at Leavesden Studios in Hertfordshire, England, U.K.[7][8] It was also shot on location on the island of La Gomera (plus some scenes on Lanzarote) in the Canary Islands, Spain.[9] On November 22, 2013, it was announced that the film would be released on March 15, 2015.[1]
In an interview with Jimmy Kimmel, Chris Hemsworth revealed that to prepare for the role of starving sailors, the cast were on a diet of 500–600 calories a day to lose weight.[10]
See also[edit]
Moby-Dick, an 1851 novel by Herman Melville
Ann Alexander, a ship sunk by a whale on August 20, 1851
The Raft of the Medusa, an oil painting of 1818–1819 by the French Romantic painter and lithographer Théodore Gericault
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b Deadline, The (1970-01-01). "Ron Howard's 'In The Heart Of The Sea' Set For March 2015 Release". Deadline.com. Retrieved 2013-11-23.
2.Jump up ^ Marder, Brian (12 June 2012). "'Avengers' Star Chris Hemsworth Books Disaster Tale 'In the Heart of the Sea'". Hollywood.com. Retrieved 30 October 2013.
3.^ Jump up to: a b Kroll, Justin (7 May 2013). "Ben Walker in Talks for ‘The Heart of the Sea’ with Chris Hemsworth". Variety. Retrieved 30 October 2013.
4.^ Jump up to: a b Jagernauth, Kevin (11 June 2012). "Chris Hemsworth To Topline Maritime Adventure 'In The Heart Of The Sea,' DreamWorks Circling". Indie Wire. Retrieved 30 October 2013.
5.^ Jump up to: a b c d Browne, Julie (29 October 2013). "Cillian Murphy’s ‘Peaky Blinders’ Renewed for a Second Season". The Irish Film & Television Network.
6.Jump up ^ Yamato, Jen (15 October 2013). "‘In The Heart Of The Sea’ Adds Charlotte Riley; Cheyenne Jackson To Sing ‘The Song’". Deadline.
7.Jump up ^ "Ron Howard starts shooting 'Heart of the Sea' in the U.K.". United Press International. 3 October 2013. Retrieved 30 October 2013.
8.Jump up ^ Godfrey, Alex (18 October 2013). "Chris Hemsworth on Rush, Thor and being a God". The Guardian.
9.Jump up ^ "Production Begins on Ron Howard's Heart of the Sea". ComingSoon.net. 24 September 2013.
10.Jump up ^ "Chris Hemsworth's Crash Diet Only Has Him Eating 500 To 600 Calories A Day". Huffington Post. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
External links[edit]
In the Heart of the Sea at the Internet Movie Database


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Essex (whaleship)
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Career (United States)


Name: Essex
Laid down: Nantucket, Massachusetts, United States
Fate: Struck by a sperm whale and sunk, November 20, 1820
Notes: Sunk 0° 4' 0" S latitude, 119° 0' 0" W longitude
General characteristics
Class & type: Whale ship
Tons burthen: 238 tons
Length: 87 feet (27 m)
Notes: Four whaleboats, 20–30 feet (6.1–9.1 m)


Crew of Essex Upon Last Voyage

Captain
George Pollard, Jr.
First Mate
Owen Chase
Second Mate
Matthew Joy †
Boatsteerers
Thomas Chappel
 Obed Hendricks †
 Benjamin Lawrence
Steward
William Bond †
Sailors
Owen Coffin †
 Isaac Cole †
 Henry Dewitt*
 Richard Peterson †
 Charles Ramsdell
 Barzillai Ray †
 Samuel Reed †
 Isaiah Sheppard †
 Charles Shorter †
 Lawson Thomas †
 Seth Weeks
 Joseph West †
 William Wright
*deserted in Ecuador, Sept 1820
Cabin Boy
Thomas Nickerson

The Essex was an American whaleship from Nantucket, Massachusetts. The ship, captained by George Pollard, Jr., is widely known for being attacked and sunk by a sperm whale in the southern Pacific Ocean in 1820. The crew spent months at sea before the final eight survivors were rescued; first mate Owen Chase and cabin boy Thomas Nickerson subsequently wrote accounts of the ordeal. The incident served as inspiration for Herman Melville's 1851 novel, Moby-Dick.


Contents  [hide]
1 Ship and crew
2 Final Voyage
3 Whale attack
4 Survivors 4.1 Chase boat
4.2 Pollard and Hendricks boats
5 Rescue and reunion
6 Aftermath
7 Legacy
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links

Ship and crew[edit]
The Essex was an old ship, but because so many of her voyages were profitable she gained the reputation as a "lucky" vessel. Captain George Pollard and his first mate, Owen Chase, had served together on her previous, equally successful, trip, and it led to their promotions. Only 29, Pollard was one of the youngest men ever to command a whaling ship. Owen Chase was 23, and the youngest member of the crew was the cabin boy, Thomas Nickerson, who was 14.
She had recently been totally refitted, but at 87 feet (27 m) long, and measuring 238 tons,[1] she was small for a whaleship. Essex was equipped with four separate whaleboats, each about 28 ft (8.5 m) in length, which were launched from the ship. In addition, a spare was kept below decks.[2] These boats were built for speed rather than durability, being clinker built, with planks that overlapped each other rather than fitting flush together.[3]
Final Voyage[edit]
Essex left Nantucket on August 12, 1819 on what at the time was expected to be a roughly two-and-a-half-year voyage to the whaling grounds off the west coast of South America. Two days after leaving port the ship was hit by a squall that knocked her on her beam ends, nearly sinking her. The topgallant sail was lost, with one whaleboat damaged and two destroyed. Deciding to continue without replacing the boats and repairing the damage, Essex rounded Cape Horn in January 1820. This passage took a full five weeks, which was extreme even for that time; combined with the unsettling earlier incident there began to be talk of ill-omens. This was put aside as Essex began the long spring and summer hunt in the warm waters of the south Pacific, going up the western coast of South America.
Finding the area nearly fished out, they encountered other whalers, who told them of a newly discovered hunting ground, known as the "offshore ground", located at 5–10 degrees south latitude and 105–125 degrees west longitude, in the South Pacific, roughly 2500 nautical miles (4,600 km) to the south and west. In the early days of Pacific whaling, this was an immense distance to travel out from land, and the area, with its many islands rumored to be populated by cannibals, was an unknown quantity. To restock their food supplies for the long journey, Essex sailed for Charles Island in the Galapagos Islands group.
Due to the need to fix a serious leak, the vessel first anchored at Hood Island on October 8. Over seven days they captured 300 Galápagos giant tortoises to supplement the ship's stores. They then sailed for Charles Island (now known as Floreana Island) where on October 22 they obtained another 60 tortoises.[4] While hunting on Charles Island, helmsman Thomas Chappel decided to set a fire as a prank. Being the height of the dry season, the fire soon burned out of control and quickly surrounded the hunters, who were forced to run through the flames to escape. By the time the men returned to Essex almost the entire island was burning. The crew were upset about the fire and Captain Pollard swore vengeance on whoever had set it. Fearing a whipping, it was to be some time before Chappel admitted to being the culprit. The next day saw the island still burning as the ship sailed for the offshore grounds and after a full day of sailing the fire was still visible on the horizon. Many years later Nickerson returned to Charles Island and found a black wasteland, "neither trees, shrubbery, nor grass have since appeared." It is believed the fire contributed to the extinction of the Floreana Tortoise and the near extinction of the Floreana Mockingbird which no longer inhabits the island.[5]
Whale attack[edit]
Thousands of miles from the coast of South America, tension was mounting among the officers of Essex, in particular between Pollard and Chase. The launched whaleboats had come up empty for days, and on November 16, Chase's boat had been "dashed...literally in pieces" by a whale surfacing directly beneath it. But at eight in the morning of November 20, 1820, the lookout sighted spouts and the three remaining whaleboats set out to pursue a sperm whale pod.[6]
On the leeward side of Essex, Chase's boat harpooned a whale, but its tail struck the boat and opened up a seam, resulting in their having to cut his line from the whale and put back to the ship for repairs. Two miles away off the windward side, Captain Pollard and the second mate's boats had each harpooned a whale and were being dragged towards the horizon in what was known as a Nantucket sleighride. Chase was repairing the damaged boat on board when the crew observed a whale, that was much larger than normal (alleged to be around 85 feet (26 m)), acting strangely. It lay motionless on the surface with its head facing the ship, then began to move towards the vessel, picking up speed by shallow diving. The whale rammed the ship and then went under, battering it and causing it to tip from side to side. Finally surfacing close on the starboard side of Essex with its head by the bow and tail by the stern, the whale appeared to be stunned and motionless. Chase prepared to harpoon it from the deck when he realized that its tail was only inches from the rudder, which the whale could easily destroy if provoked by an attempt to kill it. Fearing to leave the ship stuck thousands of miles from land with no way to steer it, he relented. The whale recovered and swam several hundred yards ahead of the ship and turned to face the bow.

"I turned around and saw him about one hundred rods [500 m or 550 yards] directly ahead of us, coming down with twice his ordinary speed of around 24 knots (44 km/h), and it appeared with tenfold fury and vengeance in his aspect. The surf flew in all directions about him with the continual violent thrashing of his tail. His head about half out of the water, and in that way he came upon us, and again struck the ship." —Owen Chase.[7]
The whale crushed the bow like an eggshell, driving the 238-ton vessel backwards. The whale finally disengaged its head from the shattered timbers and swam off, never to be seen again, leaving the Essex quickly going down by the bow. Chase and the remaining sailors frantically tried to add rigging to the only remaining whaleboat, while the steward ran below to gather up whatever navigational aids he could find.

"The captain's boat was the first that reached us. He stopped about a boat's length off, but had no power to utter a single syllable; he was so completely overpowered with the spectacle before him. He was in a short time, however, enabled to address the inquiry to me, "My God, Mr. Chase, what is the matter?" I answered, "We have been stove by a whale." —Owen Chase.
Survivors[edit]



 Map showing the location of Essex sinking marked by an X and the area travelled.
The ship sank 2,000 nautical miles (3,700 km) west of South America. After spending two days salvaging what supplies they could, the twenty sailors set out in the three small whaleboats with wholly inadequate supplies of food and fresh water. The closest known islands, the Marquesas, were more than 1,200 mi (1,900 km) to the west and Captain Pollard intended to make for them but the crew, led by Owen Chase, feared the islands might be inhabited by cannibals and voted to make for South America. Unable to sail against the Trade winds, the boats would need to sail south for 1,000 mi (1,600 km) before they could use the Westerlies to turn towards South America, which would still lie another 3,000 mi (4,800 km) to the east.
Food and water was rationed from the beginning, but most of the food had been soaked in seawater and this was eaten first despite it increasing their thirst. It took around two weeks to consume the contaminated food and by this time the survivors were rinsing their mouths with seawater and drinking their own urine. Never designed for long voyages, all the whaleboats had been roughly repaired and leaks were a constant and serious problem. After losing a timber, the crew of one boat had to lean to one side to raise the other side out of the water until another boat was able to draw close and a sailor nailed a piece of wood over the hole. Within hours of the crew beginning to die of thirst, the boats landed on uninhabited Henderson Island, within the modern-day British territory of the Pitcairn Islands. Had they landed on Pitcairn, 104 miles (167 km) to the S/W, they would have received help; it was habitable and the survivors of HMS Bounty still lived there. On Henderson Island they found a small freshwater spring and the men gorged on birds, eggs, crabs, and peppergrass. After one week, they had largely exhausted the island's food resources and on December 26 concluded that they would starve if they remained much longer. Three men, William Wright, Seth Weeks and Thomas Chappel, who were the only white members of the crew who were not natives of Nantucket, opted to stay behind on Henderson, and the remaining Essex crewmen resumed the journey on 27 December, hoping to reach Easter Island. Within three days they had exhausted the crabs and birds they had collected for the voyage, leaving only a small reserve of bread, salvaged from Essex. On January 4, they estimated that they had drifted too far south of Easter Island to reach it and decided to make for Más a Tierra island, 1,818 miles (2,926 km) to the east and 419 miles (674 km) west of South America. One by one, the men began to die.[8]
Chase boat[edit]
On January 10, Matthew Joy died and on the following day the boat carrying Owen Chase, Richard Peterson, Isaac Cole, Benjamin Lawrence and Thomas Nickerson became separated from the others during a squall. Peterson died on January 18 and like Joy, was sewn into his clothes and buried at sea, as was the custom. On February 8, Isaac Cole died but with food running out they kept his body and, after a discussion, the men resorted to cannibalism in order to survive. By February 15 the three remaining men had again run out of food and on February 18, were spotted and rescued by the British whaleship Indian, 90 days after the sinking of the Essex. Several days after the rescue, Chase's whaleboat was lost in a storm while under tow behind the Indian.[9]
Pollard and Hendricks boats[edit]
Obed Hendricks's boat exhausted their food supplies on January 14 with Pollard's men exhausting theirs on January 21. Lawson Thomas had died on January 20 and it was now decided they had no choice but to keep the body for food. Charles Shorter died on January 23, Isaiah Shepard on January 27 and Samuel Reed on January 28. Later that day the two boats separated with the one carrying Obed Hendricks, Joseph West and William Bond never to be seen again.
By February 1 the food had run out and the situation in Captain Pollard's boat became quite critical. The men drew lots to determine who would be sacrificed for the survival of the crew. A young man named Owen Coffin, Captain Pollard's 17-year old cousin, whom he had sworn to protect, drew the black spot. Pollard allegedly offered to protect his cousin but Coffin is said to have replied "No, I like my lot as well as any other." Lots were drawn again to determine who would be Coffin's executioner. His young friend, Charles Ramsdell, drew the black spot. Ramsdell shot Coffin, and his remains were consumed by Pollard, Barzillai Ray, and Charles Ramsdell. On February 11, Ray also died. For the remainder of their journey, Pollard and Ramsdell survived by gnawing on the bones of Coffin and Ray. They were rescued when almost within sight of the South American coast by the Nantucket whaleship Dauphin, on February 23, 95 days after Essex sank. Both men by that time were so completely dissociative that they did not even notice the Dauphin alongside them and became terrified by seeing their rescuers.
Rescue and reunion[edit]
After a few days in Valparaíso, Chase, Lawrence and Nickerson were transferred to the U.S. frigate USS Constellation (1797) and placed under the care of the ship’s doctor, who oversaw their recovery. After officials were informed that three Essex survivors were stranded on Henderson Island, an Australian trader destined on a trans-Pacific passage was ordered to look for the men. Although close to death, the three men were eventually rescued.[9]
On 17 March, Pollard and Ramsdell were reunited with Chase, Lawrence and Nickerson. By the time the last of the eight survivors were rescued on April 5, 1821 the corpses of seven fellow sailors had been consumed. All eight returned to the sea within months of their return to Nantucket. Herman Melville later speculated that all would have survived had they followed Captain Pollard's recommendation and sailed west.[10]
Aftermath[edit]



 Owen Chase in later life
Several years later, a whaleboat containing four skeletons was found beached on a Pacific island. Although it was suspected to be Obed Hendricks's missing boat the remains were never positively identified.[9]
Captain George Pollard, Jr. returned to sea in early 1822 to captain the whaleship Two Brothers. After it was wrecked on the French Frigate Shoals during a storm off the coast of Hawaii on his first voyage, he joined a merchant vessel which was in turn also wrecked off the Sandwich Islands (Hawaiian Islands) shortly after. By now he was considered a "Jonah" (unlucky), and no ship owner would trust him to sail on a ship again, so he was forced to retire. He became Nantucket's night watchman. Every November 20, he would lock himself in his room and fast in memory of the men of Essex.[8]
First Mate Owen Chase returned to Nantucket on June 11, 1821 to find he had a 14-month-old daughter he had never seen. Four months later he had completed an account of the disaster, the Narrative of the Most Extraordinary and Distressing Shipwreck of the Whale-Ship Essex; this was used by Herman Melville as one of the inspirations for his novel Moby-Dick. In December he sailed as first mate on the whaler Florida and then as captain of Winslow for each subsequent voyage until he had his own whaler, Charles Carrol, built. Chase remained at sea for 19 years, only returning home for short periods every two or three years, each time fathering a child. His first two wives died while he was at sea. He divorced his third wife when he found she had given birth 16 months after he had last seen her, although he subsequently brought up the child as his own. In September 1840, two months after the divorce was finalised, he married for the fourth and final time and retired from whaling.[8] Memories of the harrowing ordeal haunted Chase, and he suffered terrible headaches and nightmares. Later in his life, he began hiding food in the attic of his Nantucket house on Orange Street and was eventually institutionalized.[11]
The cabin boy, Thomas Nickerson, became a captain in the Merchant Service and later wrote another account of the sinking titled The Loss of the Ship "Essex" Sunk by a Whale and the Ordeal of the Crew in Open Boats, which was not published until 1984 by the Nantucket Historical Association. Nickerson wrote his account late in his life and it was lost until 1960. It was not until 1980, when it came into the hands of Nantucket whaling expert Edouard Stackpole, that its significance was realized.
Charles Ramsdell captained the whaleship General Jackson before his retirement. Benjamin Lawrence went on to captain the whaleships Dromo and Huron before retiring to become a farmer. William Wright returned to whaling and drowned during a hurricane in the West Indies. Seth Weeks retired to Cape Cod. Thomas Chappel is believed to have become a missionary preacher.
Most of the survivors at some time or another wrote accounts of the disaster, some of which differ considerably on details regarding the behavior of various survivors.
While Essex was the first ship sunk by a whale, it was not the last. In 1835, Pusie Hall was attacked. In 1836, Lydia and Two Generals were both attacked by whales. Pocahontas was sunk by a whale in 1850 as was Ann Alexander the following year.
Legacy[edit]



Essex being struck by a whale on November 20, 1820 (sketched by Thomas Nickerson)
As noted above, word of the sinking reached a young Herman Melville when, while serving on the whaleship Acushnet, he met the son of Owen Chase, who was serving on another whaleship. Coincidentally, the two ships encountered each other less than 100 mi (160 km) from where Essex sank. Chase lent his father's account of the ordeal to Melville, who read it at sea and was inspired by the idea that a whale was capable of such violence. Melville later met Captain Pollard, writing inside his copy of Chase's narrative, "Met Captain Pollard on Nantucket. To most islanders a nobody. To me, one of the most extraordinary men I have ever met." In time, he wrote Moby-Dick: or, The Whale, in which a sperm whale is said to be capable of similar acts. Melville's book draws its inspiration from the first part of the Essex story, ending with the sinking.
See also[edit]
Ann Alexander, a ship sunk by a whale on August 20, 1851
In the Heart of the Sea: The Tragedy of the Whaleship Essex, a National Book Award-winning work of maritime history by Nathaniel Philbrick telling the Essex story from the point of view of both Nickerson and Chase
The Whale is a British television film about the Essex incident
Custom of the Sea
R v Dudley and Stephens
The Raft of the Medusa
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Philbrick 2001, p. 241, citing original 1799 specifications.
2.Jump up ^ Chase (1965), p. 19
3.Jump up ^ The Wreck of the Whaleship Essex BBC
4.Jump up ^ Weighing between 100 pounds (45 kg) and 800 pounds (360 kg) each, the tortoises were kept alive and allowed to roam the ship at will. They could live for around a year without the need to be fed or given water. Considered delicious and extremely nutritious by sailors they were butchered for food as the need arose.
5.Jump up ^ Account of the Ship Essex Sinking, 1819–1821 Thomas Nickerson
6.Jump up ^ Chase (1965), p. 30
7.Jump up ^ Chase(1821) p. 26
8.^ Jump up to: a b c Edward Leslie & Sterling Seagrave Desperate Journeys, Abandoned Souls: True Stories of Castaways and Other Survivors Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 1998 pg 251 – 253 ISBN 978-0-395-91150-1
9.^ Jump up to: a b c Surviving the Essex Disaster (Part 3 of 3) Providencia December 2, 2012
10.Jump up ^ Gussow, Mel (1 August 2000). "Resurrecting The Tale That Inspired and Sank Melville". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 August 2012. "Melville wrote in his annotations on his copy of Chase's Narrative: 'All the sufferings of these miserable men of the Essex might, in all human probability, have been avoided had they immediately after leaving the wreck, steered straight for Tahiti, from which they were not very distant at the time. But they dreaded cannibals.' Melville knew that missionaries had been on the island and that it was safe."
11.Jump up ^ Philbrick 2001, p. 244.
Philbrick, Nathaniel (2001). In the Heart of the Sea: The Tragedy of the Whaleship Essex. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-100182-8. OCLC 46949818.
Chase, Owen (1965). Iola Haverstick, Betty Shepard, ed. The Wreck of the Whaleship Essex. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. p. 124.
Further reading[edit]
Chase, Owen (1821). Narrative of the Most Extraordinary and Distressing Shipwreck of the Whale-Ship Essex. New York: W. B. Gilley. OCLC 12217894. Also in Heffernan, Thomas Farel, Stove by a whale: Owen Chase and the Essex, Middletown, Conn. : Wesleyan University Press ; [New York] : distributed by Columbia University Press, 1981.
Nickerson, Thomas (1984) [1876]. The Loss of the Ship Essex Sunk by a Whale and the Ordeal of the Crew in Open Boats. Nantucket: Nantucket Historical Society. OCLC 11613950.
Karp, Walter, "The Essex Disaster", American Heritage, April/May 1983 (34:3)
External links[edit]
Summary of the Essex Tragedy
Artifacts of the Essex
Nantucket Historical Association
Nantucket Whaling Museum
"Into the Deep: America, Whaling & the World", PBS, American Experience, 2010.
'Moby Dick' captain's ship found — George Pollard, Jr.
The Drawing of the Whale That Became Moby Dick on Atlas Obscura
Coordinates: 0°41′S 118°00′W


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Moby Dick (1998 miniseries)
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Moby Dick

Directed by
Franc Roddam
Screenplay by
Anton Diether
Based on
Moby-Dick
 by Herman Melville
Starring
Patrick Stewart
Henry Thomas
Production company
American Zoetrope, Nine Network Australia,
 USA Pictures
Budget
US $20 million
Country
United States
 Australia
Language
English
Original channel
USA Network
Original airing
United States:
 March 15, 1998
Running time
180 minutes
No. of episodes
3
Moby Dick is a television miniseries based on Herman Melville's 1851 novel of the same name, filmed in Australia in 1997 and first released in the United States in 1998.[1][2]


Contents  [hide]
1 Cast and crew
2 Awards
3 See also
4 References
5 External links

Cast and crew[edit]
Patrick Stewart took the lead role as Captain Ahab shortly after making a striking reference to the book, and quoting from it, in Star Trek: First Contact.[3]
The cast also included Henry Thomas as Ishmael, Gregory Peck as Father Mapple and Ted Levine as Starbuck.
The executive producers were Robert Halmi Snr, Francis Ford Coppola and Fred Fuchs. Franc Roddam and Kris Noble were the producers.
Awards[edit]
Gregory Peck won a Golden Globe Award for best supporting actor, this almost forty years after he played Ahab in the 1956 film of the same name directed by John Huston. The series also won awards for its music, and was nominated for several Emmy Awards.[4]
See also[edit]
Adaptations of Moby Dick
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Lloyd, Robert (August 1, 2011). "Television review: 'Moby Dick' / William Hurt stars as Captain Ahab in the new version on Encore, but Herman Melville seems to be missing.". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
2.Jump up ^ Russo, Tom (March 13, 1998). "Captain My Captain: Patrick Stewart takes the helm of a new ship in 'Moby Dick'". Entertainment Weekly (Time Warner) (422). Retrieved August 4, 2011.
3.Jump up ^ "Captain My Captain". Entertainment Weekly. March 13, 1998. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
4.Jump up ^ Awards, IMDb.com
External links[edit]
"Patrick Stewart in Moby Dick". Official website. USA Network. Archived from the original on 2001-04-28. Retrieved 22 November 2011.
Moby Dick at the Internet Movie Database


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Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851)


Main characters
Captain Ahab ·
 Ishmael ·
 Queequeg
 

Ships
Pequod
 

Special subjects
Cetology
 

Film
The Sea Beast (1926 silent) ·
 Moby Dick (1930) ·
 Moby Dick (1956) ·
 Moby Dick (1971) ·
 Moby Dick (1978) ·
 Moby Dick (2010)
 

Television
Hakugei: Legend of the Moby Dick (1997 Japanese) ·
 Moby Dick (1998) ·
 Moby Dick (2011)
 

Stage
Moby Dick—Rehearsed (1955) ·
 Moby Dick (1990 musical) ·
 Moby-Dick (2010 opera)
 

Other
 adaptations
Age of the Dragons ·
 The Call of the Wretched Sea ·
 Capitaine Achab ·
 Dopey Dick the Pink Whale ·
 Dicky Moe ·
 Leviathan ·
 "Möbius Dick" ·
 Moby Dick and Mighty Mightor ·
 Railsea ·
 Samson & Sally
 

Related
Adaptations ·
 Moby Dick Coin
 

 


Categories: English-language films
1998 television films
American television miniseries
USA Network original films
Films based on Moby-Dick
Television programs based on novels




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