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Quakers

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"Quaker" redirects here. For other uses, see Quaker (disambiguation).
"Society of Friends" redirects here. For the Greek movement for independence, see Filiki Eteria.


 It has been suggested that Quaker music be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since April 2015.

Religious Society of Friends
Quaker Star
Symbol used by Friends' service organizations since the late 19th century
 
Classification
Protestant
Theology
Variable; depends on meeting
Polity
Congregational
Distinct fellowships
Friends World Committee for Consultation
Associations
Friends United Meeting, Evangelical Friends International, Central Yearly Meeting of Friends, Conservative Friends, Friends General Conference, Beanite Quakerism
Founder
George Fox
Origin
Mid-17th century
 England
Separated from
Church of England
Separations
Shakers[1]

 

 Heritage-listed Quaker meeting house, Sydney, Australia
Quakers (or Friends, as they refer to themselves) are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is the priesthood of all believers,[2][3] a doctrine derived from a verse in the New Testament, 1 Peter 2:9.[4] Many Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional conservative Quaker understandings of Christianity. Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has actively tried to avoid creeds and hierarchical structures.[5] As of 2007 there were approximately 359,000 adult members of Quaker meetings in the world.[6]
Today, slightly less than half of Friends worldwide practice programmed worship[7]—that is, worship with singing and a prepared message from the Bible, often coordinated by a pastor. Around 11% of Friends[8] practice waiting worship (also known as unprogrammed worship)—that is worship where the order of service is not planned in advance, which is predominantly silent, and which may include unprepared vocal ministry from anyone present, so long as it is credible to those assembled that the speaker is moved to speak by God. Some meetings of both styles have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—these are Friends who have been recognised for their gift of vocal ministry.[9]
The first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, breaking away from the established Church of England. The Quakers, especially the ones known as the Valiant Sixty, attempted to convert others to their understanding of Christianity, traveling both throughout Great Britain and overseas, preaching the gospel of Jesus Christ. Some of these early Quaker ministers were women.[10] They based their message on the religious belief that "Christ has come to teach his people himself," stressing the importance of a direct relationship with God through Jesus Christ, and a direct religious belief in the universal priesthood of all believers.[11] They emphasized a personal and direct religious experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible.[12] Quakers focused their private life on developing behavior and speech reflecting emotional purity and the light of God.[13]
In the past, Quakers were known for their use of thou as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism—the opposition to alcohol. Some Quakers have founded banks and financial institutions including Barclays, Lloyds, and Friends Provident; manufacturing companies including Clarks, Cadbury, Rowntree, and Fry's; and philanthropic efforts, including abolition, prison reform, and social justice projects.


Contents  [hide]
1 History 1.1 Beginnings in England
1.2 Immigration to North America
1.3 Quietism
1.4 Splits 1.4.1 Hicksite–Orthodox split
1.4.2 Beaconite controversy
1.4.3 Rise of Gurneyite Quakerism, and the Gurneyite–Conservative split
1.5 Richmond Declaration
1.6 Missions to Asia and Africa
1.7 Theory of evolution
1.8 Quaker Renaissance
1.9 Conscientious objection
1.10 Formation of Friends World Committee for Consultation
1.11 Evangelical Friends
1.12 Role of women
1.13 Friends in business
1.14 Friends in education
1.15 Friends and slavery
2 Theology 2.1 Conservative
2.2 Evangelical
2.3 Gurneyite
2.4 Holiness
2.5 Liberal
2.6 Universalist
2.7 Non-theist
3 Practical theology 3.1 Calendar and church holidays
4 Worship 4.1 Programmed worship
4.2 Unprogrammed worship
5 Governance and organization 5.1 Church government and polity
5.2 International organization
5.3 Yearly meetings
5.4 Membership
6 Meetings for worship for specific tasks 6.1 Memorial services
6.2 Marriage
7 National and international divisions and organization 7.1 Africa
7.2 Australia and New Zealand
7.3 Asia
7.4 Europe
7.5 Middle East
7.6 North and South America
8 Relations with other churches and faiths 8.1 Ecumenical relations
8.2 Relations with other faiths
9 References
10 Further reading 10.1 Primary sources
10.2 Children's books
11 External links

History[edit]
Main article: History of the Religious Society of Friends
Beginnings in England[edit]

 

James Nayler, a prominent Quaker leader, being pilloried and whipped
During and after the English Civil War (1642–1651) many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied by the teachings of the Church of England and non-conformists. He had a revelation that there is one, even, Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition,[14] and became convinced that it was possible to have a direct experience of Christ without the aid of an ordained clergy. He had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that "the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered".[14] Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands,[15] and Barbados[16] preaching and teaching them with the aim of converting them to his faith. The central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself.[14] His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, after centuries of apostasy in the churches in England.
In 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Fox's autobiography, Bennet "was the first person that called us Quakers, because I bade them tremble at the word of the Lord".[14] It is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66:2[17] or Ezra 9:4[18]. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Fox's admonition, but became widely accepted and is used by some Quakers.[19] Quakers also described themselves using terms such as true Christianity, Saints, Children of the Light, and Friends of the Truth, reflecting terms used in the New Testament by members of the early Christian church.
Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680[20] (1.15% of the population of England and Wales).[20] However the dominant discourse of Protestantism viewed the Quakers as a blasphemous challenge to social and political order,[21] leading to official persecution in England and Wales under the Quaker Act 1662 and the Conventicle Act 1664. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence (1687–1688) and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689.
One modern view of Quakerism at this time was that the relationship with Christ was encouraged through spiritualization of human relations, and "the redefinition of the Quakers as a holy tribe, 'the family and household of God'".[22] Together with Margaret Fell, the wife of Thomas Fell, who was the vice-chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and a pre-eminent judge, Fox developed new conceptions of family and community that emphasized "holy conversation": speech and behavior that reflected piety, faith, and love.[23] With the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women; Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing "holy conversation" in her children and husband.[22] Quaker women were also responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in "meetings" that regulated marriage and domestic behavior.[24]
Immigration to North America[edit]

 

 William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, as a young man
The persecution of Quakers in North America began as early as 1662, when Puritan Richard Waldron of Dover, New Hampshire tortured three Quaker women.[25]
In search of economic opportunities and a more tolerant environment in which to build communities of "holy conversation," some Friends immigrated to what is now the Northeastern region of the United States in the early 1680s.[26]
While in some areas like New England they continued to experience persecution, they were able to establish thriving communities in the Delaware Valley. The only two colonies that tolerated Quakers at this time were Rhode Island and Pennsylvania, where Quakers established themselves politically. In Rhode Island, 36 governors in the first 100 years were Quakers. Pennsylvania was established by affluent Quaker William Penn in 1682, and as an American state run under Quaker principles. William Penn signed a peace treaty with Tammany, leader of the Delaware tribe,[27] and other treaties between Quakers and native Americans followed.
Quietism[edit]
Early Quakerism tolerated boisterous behavior that challenged conventional etiquette, but by 1700, while they continued to encourage spontaneity of expression, they no longer supported disruptive and unruly behavior.[28] During the 18th century, Quakers entered the Quietist period in the history of their church, and they became more inward looking spiritually and less active in converting others. Marrying outside the Society was outlawed. Numbers dwindled, dropping to 19,800 in England and Wales by 1800 (0.21% of population),[20] and 13,859 by 1860 (0.07% of population).[20] The formal name "Religious Society of Friends", dates from this period, and was probably derived from the appellations "Friends of the Light" and "Friends of the Truth".[citation needed] Louis de Jaucourt, in Diderot's Encyclopedie attributed Quietism to Eastern influence stating, "The Brahmins push apathy or indifference to an extreme, to which they tie all holiness; saying that it was necessary to become a stone or statue in order to acquire perfection. It is, they say, the deepest sleep of the spirit, letting all energy rest, this continual suspension of the senses, which leads to man’s happiness and makes him alike unto the god Fo."[29]
Divisions of the Religious Society of Friends


Orthodox
 

Wilburite
Conservative
Conservative Friends
 

 

Gurneyite

Gurneyite
Friends United Meeting
 

Evangelical
Evangelical Friends International
 

 

 

 

 
 

Beaconite
 

 

Hicksite
Friends General Conference
Friends General Conference
 

 

 


Showing the divisions of Quakers occurring in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Splits[edit]
In the 19th century, there was a diversification of theological beliefs in the Religious Society of Friends, and this led to several large splits within the Quaker movement.
Hicksite–Orthodox split[edit]
The Hicksite–Orthodox split arose out of both ideological and socio-economic tensions. Philadelphia Yearly Meeting Hicksites tended to be agrarian and poorer than the more urban, wealthier, Orthodox Quakers. With increasing financial success, Orthodox Quakers wanted to "make the Society a more respectable body—to transform their sect into a church—by adopting mainstream Protestant orthodoxy".[30] Hicksites, though they held a variety of views, generally saw the market economy as corrupting, and believed Orthodox Quakers had sacrificed their orthodox Christian spirituality for material success. Hicksites viewed the Bible as secondary to the individual cultivation of God's light within.[31]
With Gurneyite Quakers shift towards Protestant principles and away from the spiritualization of human relations, women's role as promoters of "holy conversation" decreased. Conversely, within the Hicksite movement the rejection of the market economy and the continuing focus on community and family bonds tended to encourage women to retain their role as powerful arbiters.
Elias Hicks' religious views were claimed to be universalist and to contradict Quakers' historical orthodox Christian beliefs and practices. Elias Hicks' Gospel preaching and teaching precipitated the Great Separation of 1827, which resulted in a parallel system of Yearly Meetings in America, joined by Friends from Philadelphia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Baltimore. They were referred to by their opponents as Hicksites and by others, and sometimes themselves, as orthodox. Quakers in Great Britain only recognized the Orthodox Quakers and refused to correspond with the Hicksites.
Beaconite controversy[edit]
Isaac Crewdson was a Recorded Minister in Manchester, UK. He published a book titled A Beacon to the Society of Friends in 1835, which strongly argued that the inward light could not exist alongside a religious belief in salvation by the atonement of Christ.[32](p155) This Christian controversy led to Isaac Crewdson's resignation from the Religious Society of Friends, along with 48 fellow members of Manchester Meeting and about 250 other British Quakers in 1836–1837. Some of these Quakers joined the Plymouth Brethren Church.
Rise of Gurneyite Quakerism, and the Gurneyite–Conservative split[edit]

 

Joseph John Gurney was a prominent 19th century British Friend and a strong proponent of evangelical views
Orthodox Friends became more evangelical during the 19th century[33] and were influenced by the Second Great Awakening. This movement was led by British Quaker Joseph John Gurney. Christian Friends held Revival meetings in America and became involved in the Holiness movement of churches. Quakers such as Hannah Whitall Smith and Robert Pearsall Smith became speakers in the religious movement and introduced Quaker phrases and practices to it.[32](p157) British Friends became involved with the Higher Life movement, with Robert Wilson from Cockermouth meeting founding the Keswick Convention.[32](p157) From the 1870s it became commonplace in Great Britain to have home mission meetings on a Sunday evening with Christian hymns and a Bible-based sermon alongside the silent meetings for worship on Sunday morning.[32](p155)
The Quaker Yearly Meetings supporting the religious beliefs of Joseph John Gurney were known as Gurneyite yearly meetings. Many eventually collectively became the Five Years Meeting and then Friends United Meeting, although London Yearly Meeting, which had been strongly Gurneyite in the nineteenth century, did not join either of these groups. These Quaker yearly meetings make up the largest proportion of Quakers in the world today.
Some orthodox Quakers in America disliked the move towards evangelical Christianity and saw it as a dilution of Friends' traditional orthodox Christian belief in being inwardly led by the Holy Spirit. These Friends were led by John Wilbur who was expelled from his yearly meeting in 1842. He and his supporters formed their own Conservative Friends Yearly Meeting. In the UK in 1868 some Friends broke away from London Yearly Meeting for the same reason. They formed a separate body of Friends called Fritchley General Meeting, which remained distinct and separate from London Yearly Meeting until 1968. Similar Christian splits took place in Canada. The Yearly Meetings that supported John Wilbur's religious beliefs were known as Conservative Friends.
Richmond Declaration[edit]
In 1887, a Gurneyite Quaker of British descent, Joseph Bevan Braithwaite, proposed to Friends a statement of faith known as the Richmond Declaration. This statement of faith was agreed to by 95 of the representatives at a meeting of Five Years Meeting Friends; but unexpectedly the Richmond Declaration was not adopted by London Yearly Meeting because a vocal minority, including Edward Grubb, opposed it.[34]
Missions to Asia and Africa[edit]

 

 Friends' Syrian Mission, 1874, built this mission house in Ramallah
Following the Christian revivals in the mid-19th century, Friends in Great Britain wanted to start missionary activity overseas. The first missionaries were sent to Benares (Varanasi), in India in 1866. The Friends Foreign Mission Association was formed in 1868, and sent missionaries to Madhya Pradesh, India, forming what is now Mid-India Yearly Meeting; and later to Madagascar from 1867, China from 1896, Sri Lanka from 1896, and Pemba Island from 1897.[35] The Friends Syrian Mission was established in 1874, which among other institutions ran the Ramallah Friends Schools, which still exist today. Swiss missionary Theophilus Waldmeier founded Brummana High School in Lebanon in 1873.[35] Evangelical Friends Churches from Ohio Yearly Meeting sent missionaries to India in 1896,[36] forming what is now Bundelkhand Yearly Meeting. Cleveland Friends went to Mombasa, Kenya, and started what was the most successful Friends' mission. Christian Quakerism spread within Kenya and to Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, and Rwanda.
Theory of evolution[edit]
The theory of evolution described by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859) was opposed by many Quakers in the nineteenth century,[37] particularly by older evangelical Quakers who dominated the Religious Society of Friends in Great Britain. These religious leaders were suspicious of Darwin's theory, and believed that natural selection needed to be supplemented by another process.[38] For example, influential British Quaker scientist Edward Newman[39] stated that this theory was "not compatible with our notions of creation as delivered from the hands of a Creator."
However, some young Friends such as John Wilhelm Rowntree and Edward Grubb supported Darwin's theories adopting a doctrine of progressive revelation with evolutionary ideas.[38] In the USA, Joseph Moore taught the theory of evolution at the Quaker Earlham College as early as 1861[40] and was probably one of the first teachers in the Midwest to do so.[41] Acceptance of the theory of evolution became more widespread in those Yearly Meetings, which moved towards liberal Christianity in the twentieth century, while a belief in creationism exists within evangelical Friends Churches, particularly in East Africa and parts of the USA.
Quaker Renaissance[edit]
In the late 19th century and early 20th century a religious movement known as the Quaker Renaissance movement began within London Yearly Meeting. Young Friends in London Yearly Meeting at this time moved away from evangelicalism and towards liberal Christianity.[42] This Quaker Renaissance movement was particularly influenced by John Wilhelm Rowntree, Edward Grubb, and Rufus Jones. These Liberal Friends promoted the theory of evolution, modern biblical criticism, and the social meaning of Jesus Christ's teaching — encouraging Friends to follow the New Testament example of Christ by performing good works. These Quaker men downplayed the evangelical Quaker belief in the atonement of Christ on the Cross at Calvary.[42] After the Manchester Conference in England in 1895, one thousand British Friends met to consider the future of British Quakerism and, as a result, liberal Quaker thought gradually increased within London Yearly Meeting.[43]
Conscientious objection[edit]

 

 FAU ambulance and driver, Germany, 1945
During World War I and World War II, Friends' opposition to war was put to the test. Many Friends became conscientious objectors and some formed the Friends Ambulance Unit with the aim of co-operating with others to build up a new world rather than fighting to destroy the old, and the American Friends Service Committee. Birmingham, UK had a strong Quaker community during the war (see Conscientious Objectors in Birmingham in WW1).[44] Many British Quakers were conscripted into the Non-Combatant Corps during both world wars.
Formation of Friends World Committee for Consultation[edit]
After the two great wars had brought closer together the different kinds of Quakers; Friends from different yearly meetings — many of whom had served together in the Friends Ambulance Unit, and on the American Friends Service Committee, and in other relief work — later held several Quaker World Conferences; and this subsequently resulted in the creation of a standing body of Friends named Friends World Committee for Consultation.
Evangelical Friends[edit]
After World War I, a growing desire for a more fundamentalist approach among some Friends began a split among Five Years Meetings. In 1926, Oregon Yearly Meeting seceded from Five Years Meeting, bringing together several other yearly meetings and scattered monthly meetings. In 1947, the Association of Evangelical Friends was formed, with triennial meetings until 1970. In 1965, this was replaced by the Evangelical Friends Alliance, which, in 1989, became Evangelical Friends Church International.[45]
Role of women[edit]
From its inception, the Quaker emphasis on family and community relations gave women spiritual power. Through the women's meeting, women oversaw domestic and community life, including marriage.[24] From the beginning, Quaker women, most notably Margaret Fell, played an important role in defining Quakerism.[46][47] Others active in proselytizing included Mary Penington, Mary Mollineux and Barbara Blaugdone.[48] However, within the Quaker movement, some resented the power of women within the community. In the early years of Quakerism, George Fox faced resistance in developing and establishing women's meetings. This resistance culminated in the Wilkinson–Story split, in which a portion of the Quaker community left to worship independently in protest of women's meetings.[49] After several years, the schism became largely resolved, testifying to the resistance of some within the Quaker community, and to the radical spiritual role of women that George Fox and Margaret Fell had encouraged. Also particularly within the relatively prosperous Quaker communities of the eastern United States, the focus on the child and "holy conversation" gave women unusual community power, although they were largely excluded from the market economy. With the Hicksite–Orthodox split of 1827–1828, Orthodox women found their spiritual role decreased, while Hicksite women retained greater influence.
Friends in business[edit]
Dynasties of Quakers were successful in business matters. This included ironmaking by Abraham Darby I[50] and his family; banking, including Lloyds Banking Group (founded by Sampson Lloyd),[50] Barclays PLC,[50] Backhouse's Bank and Gurney's Bank; life assurance (Friends Provident); pharmaceuticals (Allen & Hanburys[50]); chocolate (Cadbury,[50] Terry's, Fry's[50]); confectionery (Rowntree[50]); biscuit manufacturing (Huntley & Palmers[50]); match manufacture (Bryant & May, Francis May and William Bryant) and shoe manufacturing (Clarks). Friends generally did well in the retail business because their religious principles obliged them to charge a uniform retail price—the same for all customers, which attracted many.
Friends in education[edit]
Initially, Quakers had no ordained clergy, and thus needed no seminaries for theological training. In England, Quaker schools sprang up, with Friends School Saffron Walden being the most prominent.[51] Later in America they founded Wilmington Friends School (1748),[52] Haverford College (1833),[53] Guilford College (1837), Pickering College (1842), Earlham College (1847), Swarthmore College (1864), Wilmington College (Ohio) (1870), Bryn Mawr College (1885), Friends Pacific Academy (now George Fox University) (1885), Cleveland Bible College (now Malone University) (1892),[54] Friends University (1898), Training School for Christian Workers (now Azusa Pacific University) (1899)[55] Whittier College (1901), and Friends Bible College (now Barclay College) (1917).[56] In Great Britain, they organized Woodbrooke College in 1903. In Kenya, Quakers founded Friends Bible Institute (now Friends Theological College) in Kaimosi, Kenya, in 1942.
Friends and slavery[edit]
Some Quakers in North America and Great Britain became well known for their involvement in the abolition of slavery. However, prior to the American Revolution, it was fairly common for Friends in British America to own slaves. During the early to mid-1700s a disquiet about this practice arose among Friends, best exemplified by the testimonies of Anthony Benezet and John Woolman; and this resulted in an abolition movement among Friends so powerful that by the time of the American Revolution few Friends owned slaves any longer. Another dramatic reversal of such policies and sentiments took place in the life of Moses Brown, one of four Rhode Island brothers who, in 1764, organized and funded the tragic and fateful voyage of the slave ship named Sally. Moses Brown broke away from his three brothers, became an abolitionist, and converted to Christian Quakerism.
Theology[edit]
The theological beliefs of Quaker yearly meetings vary considerably. Tolerance of dissent widely varies among yearly meetings.[57]

 

Society of Friends
Most Friends believe in continuing revelation, which is the religious belief that truth is continuously revealed directly to individuals from God. George Fox, an "early Friend", described it as "Christ has come to teach His people Himself."[14] Friends often focus on trying to hear God. As Isaac Penington wrote in 1670, "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the thing—to feel him to be my root, my life, and my foundation..."[58] Quakers reject the idea of priests, believing in the priesthood of all believers. Some Friends express their concept of God using various phrases including the inner light, or inward light of Christ, the Holy Spirit or other phrases.
See also: Friends United Meeting, Evangelical Friends Church International and Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
Diverse theological beliefs, understandings of the "leading of the Holy Spirit", and statements of "faith and practice" have always existed among Friends. Due in part to the emphasis on the immediate guidance of the Holy Spirit, Quaker doctrines have only sometimes been codified as statements of faith, confessions or theological texts; those that do exist include the Letter to the Governor of Barbados (Fox, 1671),[59] An Apology for the True Christian Divinity (Barclay, 1678),[60] A Catechism and Confession of Faith (Barclay, 1690),[61] The Testimony of the Society of Friends on the Continent of America (adopted jointly by all orthodox yearly meetings in USA, 1830),[62] the Richmond Declaration of Faith (adopted by Five Years Meeting, 1887),[63] and Essential Truths (Jones and Wood, adopted by Five Years Meeting, 1922).[64] As a public statement of faith, most yearly meetings publish their own Book of Discipline, that expresses Christian discipleship within the experience of Friends in that yearly meeting.
Conservative[edit]

 

 Conservative Friends worshipping in London in 1809. Friends are in traditional plain dress. At the front of the meeting house, the recorded ministers sit on a raised ministers' gallery facing the rest of the meeting, with the elders sitting on the bench in front of them, also facing the meeting. Men and women are segregated, but both are able to minister.
Main article: Conservative Friends
Conservative Friends (also known as "Wilburites" after their founder, John Wilbur), share some of the beliefs of George Fox and the Early Friends. Many Wilburites see themselves as the Quakers whose beliefs are most true to original Quaker doctrine, arguing that the majority of Friends "broke away" from the Wilburite Quakers in the 19th and 20th centuries (rather than the Wilburites being the "breakaway" sect). Conservative Friends place their trust in the immediate guidance of God.[65] Conservative Friends completely reject all forms of religious symbolism and outward sacraments, such as the Eucharist and water baptism. Conservative Friends do not believe in relying upon the practice of outward rites and sacraments, to have a living relationship with God through Christ; believing that holiness can exist in all of the activities of one's daily life — and that all of life is sacred in God. Many Conservative Friends believe that a meal held with others can become a form of communion with God, and with one another.
In the USA, Conservative Friends are part of three small Quaker Yearly Meetings in Ohio, North Carolina and Iowa; Ohio Yearly Meeting (Conservative) is generally considered to be the most Bible-centred of the three Conservative Friends Yearly Meetings, retaining Christian Quakers who use the plain language, who continue to wear plain dress, and who live in small villages or rural areas; more than the Conservative Friends from the other two Conservative Friends Yearly Meetings.[66]
In 2007, total membership of these Yearly Meetings was around 1642,[67] making them around 0.4% of the world family of Quakers.
Evangelical[edit]
See also: Evangelical Friends Church International

 

 Sign at entrance of Phoenix Friends Church
Evangelical Friends regard Jesus Christ as their personal Lord and Saviour,[65] and have similar religious beliefs to other evangelical Christians. They believe in, and hold a high regard for, the penal substitution of the atonement of Christ on the Cross at Calvary, biblical infallibility, and the need for every person to personally experience a relationship with God.[68] They believe that the purpose of the Evangelical Friends Church is to evangelise the unsaved people of the world, to spiritually transform them through God's love, and through social service to others.[68] Evangelical Friends regard the Bible as the infallible and self-authenticating Word of God. The statement of faith of Evangelical Friends International, is comparable to the statement of faith of other Evangelical churches. Evangelical Friends who are members of Evangelical Friends International, are mainly located in the USA, Central America, and Asia. Beginning in the 1880s, some Friends began using outward sacraments in their Sunday services, first in Evangelical Friends Church—Eastern Region (then known as Ohio Yearly Meeting [Damascus]). Friends Church—Southwest Region, has also approved the practice of using the outward sacraments in their Sunday services. In places where Evangelical Friends are engaged in missionary work, such as in Africa, Latin America, and Asia, adult baptism by immersion in water, is carried out. This practice differs from most other Quaker branches of the Religious Society of Friends. As of 2014, EFCI claims to represent more than 140,000 Friends,[69] equalling roughly 39% of the total number of Friends worldwide.
Gurneyite[edit]
See also: Friends United Meeting
Gurneyite Friends (aka Friends United Meeting Friends), are the modern-day followers of the Evangelical Quaker theology which was first proclaimed by Joseph John Gurney, a 19th-century British Friend. They make up 49% of the total number of Quakers worldwide.[57] They regard Jesus Christ as their Teacher and Lord,[65] and favour working closely with other Protestant Christian churches. Gurneyite Friends place more emphasis on the authority of the Bible as the direct Word of God than on personal and direct experience of God in their lives. Both children and adults participate in ongoing religious education which emphasises orthodox Christian teaching from the Bible, and in relationship to both orthodox Christian Quaker history and Quaker testimonies. Gurneyite Friends subscribe to a set of orthodox Christian doctrines, such as those found in the Richmond Declaration of faith. In subsequent years, conflict arose among Gurneyite Friends in relation to the Richmond Declaration of faith. Thus, after a while, the Richmond Declaration of faith was adopted by nearly all of the Gurneyite yearly meetings. The Five Years Meeting of Friends reaffirmed their loyalty to the Richmond Declaration of faith in 1912, but specifically stated that it was not to constitute a Christian creed. Although Gurneyism was the main form of Quakerism in Great Britain in the 19th century, Gurneyite Friends are today located in America, Ireland, Africa and India. Many Gurneyite Friends combine "waiting worship" (unprogrammed worship), with religious practices commonly found in other Protestant Christian churches, such as the reading of the Bible and the singing of Hymns. A small minority of Gurneyite Friends practice entirely unprogrammed worship.[70]
Holiness[edit]
See also: Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
Holiness Friends are heavily influenced by the Holiness movement, in particular John Wesley's doctrine of Christian perfection, also called "entire sanctification." This doctrine states that loving God and humanity totally, as exemplified by Christ, enables believers to rid themselves of voluntary sin. This was a predominant view within Quakerism in the United Kingdom and United States in the 19th century, and it influenced other branches of Quakerism. Holiness Friends argue that early Friends, including George Fox's message of perfection, is the same as holiness.[71]
Today, while there are some Friends who hold holiness beliefs within most yearly meetings, it is the predominant theological view of Central Yearly Meeting of Friends, (founded in 1926 specifically to promote holiness theology), and the Holiness Mission of the Bolivian Evangelical Friends Church (founded by missionaries from that meeting in 1919, the largest group of Friends in Bolivia).[72]
Liberal[edit]
See also: Friends General Conference, Britain Yearly Meeting and Beanite Quakerism
Liberal Quakerism generally refers to Friends who have taken ideas from liberal Christianity, often sharing a similar mix of ideas, such as more critical Biblical hermeneutics, often with a focus on the social gospel. The ideas of That of God in everyone and the inner light were popularised by American Friend Rufus Jones, in the early 20th century. He and John Wilhelm Rowntree originated the movement. Liberal Friends were predominant in Great Britain in the 20th century, and among US meetings affiliated to Friends General Conference; and some meetings in Canada, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa.
These ideas remain an important part of liberal Friends' understanding of God. Liberal Friends highlight the importance of good works, particularly living a life that upholds the virtues preached by Jesus. They often emphasize pacifism, treating others equally, living simply and telling the truth.[57]
Like Conservatives Friends, Liberal Friends reject religious symbolism and sacraments, such as water baptism and the Eucharist. While Liberal Friends recognize the potential of these outward forms for awakening experiences of the Inward Light of Christ, they are not part of their worship, and are unnecessary to authentic Christian spirituality.
The Bible remains central to most Liberal Friends' worship, and almost all meetings make the Holy Bible available in the meeting house, (often on a table in the centre of the room), which attendees may read privately or publicly during worship. However, Liberal Friends, decided that the Scriptures should give way to God's leading, if God leads them in a way that is contrary to the Holy Bible. Many Friends are also influenced by liberal Christian theologians, and modern Biblical criticism. They often adopt non-propositional Biblical hermeneutics, such as believing that the Holy Bible is an anthology of human authors' beliefs and feelings about God, rather than Holy Writ, and that multiple interpretations of the Scriptures are acceptable.
Liberal Friends believe that a corporate confession of faith would be an obstacle—both to authentic listening and to new insight. As a non-creedal form of Christianity, Liberal Quakerism is receptive to a wide range of religious faith understandings. Most Liberal Quaker Yearly Meetings publish a Faith and Practice, a book with a range of religious experiences of what it means to be a Friend in that Yearly Meeting.
Universalist[edit]
Main article: Quaker Universalist Fellowship
Universalist Friends affirm religious pluralism, that there are many different paths to God and that understandings of the divine reached through non-Christian religious experiences are as valid as Christian understandings. This group was founded in the late 1970s by John Linton. Linton had worshipped God with the Delhi Worship Group in India (an independent meeting not affiliated to any yearly meeting or wider Quaker group) with Christians, Muslims and Hindus worshipping together.[73] Following a move to Great Britain, he founded the Quaker Universalist Fellowship in 1978. Later his views spread to the US where the Quaker Universalist Fellowship was founded in 1983.[73] Most of the Friends who joined these two fellowships were Liberal Friends from Britain Yearly Meeting in the United Kingdom, and Liberal Friends from Friends General Conference in the United States. Interest in Quaker Universalism is low among Friends from other Yearly meetings. The views of the Universalists provoked controversy between themselves and Christian Quakers within Britain Yearly Meeting, and within Friends General Conference, during the 1980s. Despite the label, Quaker "Universalists" are not necessarily Christian Universalists, embracing the doctrine of universal reconciliation.
Non-theist[edit]
Main article: Nontheist Friend
These Friends have views similar to other post-Christian non-theists in other churches such as the Sea of Faith within the Anglican church. They are predominantly atheists, agnostics, and humanists who nevertheless value membership in a religious organization. The first organization for non-theist Friends was the Humanistic Society of Friends, founded in Los Angeles in 1939. This organization remained small and was absorbed into the American Humanist Association.[74] More recently, interest in non-theism resurfaced, particularly led by British Friend David Boulton, who founded the 40 member Nontheist Friends Network in 2011.[75] Non-theism is controversial, leading some Christian Quakers from within Britain Yearly Meeting to call for non-theists to be refused membership.[76] In one study of Friends in Britain Yearly Meeting, around 30% of Quakers had views that were described as non-theistic, agnostic, or atheist.[77][78] Another study of British Quakers, found that of the 727 members of the Religious Society of Friends who completed the survey, 75.1% said that they consider themselves to be Christian; 17.6% did not consider themselves Christian; and 7.3% of the members either did not answer or circled both answers.[79]:p.41 A further 22% of Quakers did not consider themselves to be a Christian, but fulfilled a definition of being a Christian in that they said that they devoutly followed the teachings and example of Jesus Christ.[79]:p.52 In the same survey 86.9% said that they believed in God.[79]
Practical theology[edit]

 

 In 1688, at this table in Germantown, Philadelphia, Quakers and Mennonites signed a common declaration denouncing slavery
Quakers bear witness or testify to their religious beliefs in their spiritual lives,[80] drawing on the James advice that faith by itself, if it is not accompanied by action, is dead.[81] This religious witness is rooted in their immediate experience of God and verified by the Bible, especially in Jesus Christ's life and teachings. They may bear witness in many ways, according to how they believe God is leading them. Although Quakers share how they relate to God and the world, mirroring Christian ethical codes, for example the Sermon on the Mount or the Sermon on the Plain, Friends argue that they feel personally moved by God rather than following an ethical code.
Some theologians classify Friends' religious witness into categories—known by some Friends as testimonies. These Friends believe these principles and practices testify to, witness to, or provide evidence for God's truth. No categorization is universally accepted.[82]
In East Africa, Friends teach peace and non-violence, simplicity, honesty, equality, humility, marriage and sexual ethics (defining marriage as lifelong between one man and one woman), sanctity of life (opposition to abortion), cultural conflicts and Christian life.[83]
In the United States, the acronym SPICES is often used (Simplicity, Peace, Integrity, Community, Equality and Stewardship). Rocky Mountain Yearly Meeting Friends put their faith in action through living their lives by the following principles: prayer, personal integrity, stewardship (which includes giving away minimum of 10% income and refraining from lotteries), marriage and family (lifelong commitment), regard for mind and body (refraining from certain amusements, propriety and modesty of dress, abstinence from alcohol, tobacco and drugs), peace and non-violence (including refusing to participate in war), abortion (opposition to abortion, practical ministry to women with unwanted pregnancy and promotion of adoption), human sexuality, the Christian and state (look to God for authority, not the government), capital punishment (find alternatives), human equality, women in ministry (recognising women and men have an equal part to play in ministry).[84]
In the UK, the acronym STEP or PEST is used (peace, equality, simplicity and truth). In his book Quaker Speak, British Friend Alastair Heron, lists the following ways in which British Friends testify to God:[85] Opposition to betting and gambling, capital punishment, conscription, hat honor (the largely historical practice of dipping one's hat toward social superiors), oaths, slavery, times and seasons, tithing and promotion of integrity (or truth), peace, penal reform, plain language, relief of suffering, simplicity, social order, Sunday observance, sustainability, temperance and moderation.
Calendar and church holidays[edit]
Quakers traditionally use numbers to denominate the names of the months and days of the week, something they call the plain calendar. This does not use names of calendar units derived from the names of pagan deities. The days begin with First Day (Sunday) and ends on Seventh Day (Saturday), and months run from First Month (January) to Twelfth Month (December). This is based on the terms used in the Bible: e.g., Jesus Christ's followers went to the tomb early on the First Day of the week.[86][87][88][89] The plain calendar emerged in the 17th century in England in the Puritan movement, but became closely identified with Friends by the end of the 1650s, and was commonly employed into the 20th century. It is less commonly encountered today. The term First Day School is commonly used, for what is called by most churches Sunday School.
In common with other Christian denominations derived from the 16th century Puritanism, many Friends do not observe religious festivals (e.g. Christmas, Lent, or Easter), but instead believe that Christ's birth, crucifixion, and resurrection, should be commemorated every day of the year. For example, many Quakers feel that fasting at Lent, but then eating in excess at other times of the year is hypocrisy and therefore many Quakers, rather than observing Lent, live a simple lifestyle all the year round (see Testimony of Simplicity). These practices are often referred to as the testimony against times and seasons.
Some Friends are non-Sabbatarians, holding that "every day is the Lord's day," and that what should be done on a First Day should be done every day of the week, although Meeting for Worship is usually held on a First Day, which has been advised since the first advice issued by elders in 1656.[90]
Worship[edit]
See also: Meeting for worship
Most groups of Quakers meet for regular worship. There are two main types of worship worldwide: programmed worship and waiting worship.
Programmed worship[edit]
See also: Friends United Meeting, Evangelical Friends Church International and Central Yearly Meeting of Friends

 

 West Mansfield Friends Church, Ohio, affiliated with the Evangelical Friends Church International
In programmed worship there is often a prepared Biblical message, which may be delivered by an individual with theological training from a Bible College. There may be hymns, a sermon, Bible readings, joint prayers and a period of silent worship. The worship resembles the church services of other Protestant denominations, although in most cases does not include any Eucharist service. A paid pastor may be responsible for pastoral care. Worship of this kind is celebrated by about 89% of Friends worldwide.[57](p5–6) It is found in many Yearly Meetings in Africa, Asia and parts of the US (central and southern), and is common in programmed meetings affiliated to Friends United Meeting, (who make up around 49% of worldwide membership[57](p5)), and evangelical meetings, including those affiliated to Evangelical Friends International, (who make up at least 40% of Friends worldwide[57](p5–6)). The religious event is sometimes called a Quaker meeting for worship or sometimes called a Friends church service. This religious tradition arose among Friends in the United States, in the 19th century, and in response to the many converts to Christian Quakerism during the national spiritual revival of the time. Friends meetings in Africa and Latin America were generally started by Orthodox Friends from programmed elements of the Society, therefore most African and Latin American Friends worship in a programmed style.
Some Friends also hold "Semi-Programmed" Worship, which brings programmed elements such as hymns and readings into an otherwise unprogrammed worship service.
Unprogrammed worship[edit]
See also: Conservative Friends, Friends General Conference, Britain Yearly Meeting and Beanite Quakerism

 

 The interior of an old meeting house in the United States
Unprogrammed worship (also known as waiting worship, "silent worship", or holy communion in the manner of Friends) is based on the practices of George Fox and the Early Friends, who based their religious beliefs and practices on their interpretation of how the early Christians worshipped God their Heavenly Father. Friends gather together in "expectant waiting upon God" to experience his still small voice leading them from within. There is no plan on how the meeting will proceed, and actual practice varies widely between Meetings and individual worship services. Friends believe that God plans what will happen, with his spirit leading people to speak. When a participant feels led to speak, he or she will stand and share a spoken message of ("vocal ministry") in front of others. When this happens, Quakers believe that the spirit of God is speaking through the speaker. After someone has spoken, it is generally considered good etiquette to allow a few minutes pass in silence before further vocal ministry is given. Sometimes a meeting is entirely silent, sometimes many speak. These meetings lasted for several hours in George Fox's day. Modern meetings are often limited to an hour, ending when two people (usually the elders) exchange the sign of peace by handshake. This handshake is often shared by the others. This style of worship is the norm in Great Britain, Ireland, the continent of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Southern Africa, Canada, and parts of the United States (particularly yearly meetings associated with Friends General Conference and Beanite Quakerism)—constituting about 11%[57]:page 5 of Quakers. Those who worship in this style hold each person to be equal before God and capable of knowing the light of God directly. Anyone present may speak if they feel led to do so. Traditionally, Recorded Ministers were recognised for their particular gift in vocal ministry. This religious practice continues among Conservative Friends and Liberal Friends (e.g. New York Yearly Meeting[91]). Many meetings where Liberal Friends predominate abolished this religious practice. London Yearly Meeting of Friends abolished the acknowledging and recording of Recorded Ministers in 1924.
Governance and organization[edit]
Church government and polity[edit]

 

 Quaker Business Meeting in York
Governance and decision making is conducted at a special meeting for worship—often called a meeting for worship with a concern for business or meeting for worship for church affairs at which all members can attend, as in a Congregational church. Quakers consider this to be a form of worship, conducted in the manner of meeting for worship. They believe this is the gathering of believers who wait upon the Lord to discover God's will, believing that they are not making their own decisions. They seek to understand God's will for the religious community, via the actions of the Holy Spirit within the meeting.[92]
As in a meeting for worship, each member is expected to listen to God, and, if led by Him, stand up and contribute. In some business meetings, Friends wait for the clerk to acknowledge them before speaking. Direct replies to someone's contribution are not permitted, with an aim of seeking truth rather than of debating. A decision is reached when the meeting, as a whole, feels that the "way forward" has been discerned (also called "coming to unity"). There is no voting. On some occasions a single Friend delays a decision, because they feel the meeting is not following God's will. Because of this, many non-Friends, describe this as consensus decision-making; however Friends are instead determined to continue seeking God's will. It is assumed that if everyone is listening to God's spirit, the way forward will become clear.
International organization[edit]
Main article: Friends World Committee for Consultation
Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC) is the international Quaker organization that loosely unifies the different religious traditions of Quakers; FWCC brings together the largest variety of Friends in the world. Friends World Committee for Consultation is divided into four sections to represent different regions of the world: Africa, Asia West Pacific, Europe and Middle East, and the Americas.[citation needed]
Various organizations associated with Friends include a U.S. lobbying organization based in Washington, D.C. called the Friends Committee on National Legislation (FCNL); service organizations such as the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), the Quaker United Nations Offices, Quaker Peace and Social Witness, Friends Committee on Scouting, the Quaker Peace Centre in Cape Town, South Africa, and the Alternatives to Violence Project.
Yearly meetings[edit]
Main article: Yearly Meeting
Quakers today are organized into independent and regional, national bodies called Yearly Meetings, which have often split from one another because of Christian doctrinal differences. Several associations unite Quakers who share similar religious beliefs — for example Evangelical Friends Church International unites evangelical Christian Friends;[93] Friends United Meeting unites Friends into "fellowships where Jesus Christ is known, loved, and obeyed as Teacher and Lord;"[94] and Friends General Conference links together Quakers that have non-creedal, liberal religious beliefs. Many Quaker Yearly Meetings, are also members of Friends World Committee for Consultation, an international fellowship of Yearly Meetings from different Quaker religious traditions.
Membership[edit]
A Friend is a member of a Yearly Meeting, usually beginning with membership in a local monthly meeting. Methods for acquiring membership vary; for example, in most Kenyan yearly meetings, attenders who wish to become members are required to take part in around two years of adult education, memorising key Bible passages, and learning about the history of orthodox Christianity, and of Christian Quakerism. Within Britain Yearly Meeting, membership is acquired through a process of peer review, where a potential member is visited by several members who present a report to the other members of the monthly meeting before a decision is reached.
Within some Friends Churches in the Evangelical Friends Church, in particular in Rwanda, Burundi, and parts of the USA, an adult believer's baptism by immersion in water, is optional. Within Liberal Friends, Conservative Friends, and Pastoral Friends Churches, Friends do not practice water baptism, Christening, or other initiation ceremonies to admit a new member or a newborn baby. Children are often welcomed into the meeting at their first attendance. Formerly, children born to Quaker parents automatically became members (sometimes called Birthright membership), but this is no longer the case in many areas. Some parents apply for membership on behalf of their children, while others allow the child to decide whether to become a member when they are ready, and older in age. Some meetings adopt a policy that children, some time after becoming young adults, must apply independently for membership.
Meetings for worship for specific tasks[edit]
Memorial services[edit]

 

 The Quaker testimony of simplicity extends to memorialisation as well. Founder George Fox is remembered with a simple grave marker.
Traditional Quaker memorial services are held as a form of worship and are known as memorial meetings. Friends gather for worship and offer remembrances about the deceased. In some Quaker religious traditions, the coffin or ashes are not present. Memorial meetings may be held many weeks after the death, which can enable wider attendance, and can also replace grief with spiritual reflection, and celebration of life to dominate. Memorial meetings can last over an hour, particularly if many people attend. Memorial services give everyone a chance to remember the lost individual in their own way, comforting those present, and re-affirming the love of the people in the wider community.[citation needed]
Marriage[edit]
Main article: Quaker wedding
A meeting for worship for the solemnisation of marriage in an unprogrammed Friends meeting is similar to any other unprogrammed Meeting for Worship.[95] The pair exchange vows before God and gathered witnesses, and the meeting returns to open worship. At the rise of meeting, the witnesses, including the youngest children, are asked to sign the wedding certificate as a record. In Great Britain, Quakers keep a separate record of the union and notify the General Register Office.
In the early days of the United States, there was doubt whether a marriage solemnized in that manner was entitled to legal recognition. Over the years, each state has set rules for the procedure. Most US states, (except Pennsylvania), expect the marriage document to be signed by a single officiant (a priest, rabbi, minister, Justice of the Peace, etc.). Quakers routinely modify the document to allow three or four Friends to sign as the officiant. Often, these are the members of a committee of ministry and oversight, who have helped the couple plan their marriage. Usually, a separate document containing their vows and the signatures of all present is kept by the couple, and often displayed prominently in their home.
In many Friends meetings, the couple meet with a clearness committee prior to the wedding. This committee's purpose is to discuss with the couple the many aspects of marriage and life as a couple. If the couple seems ready, the marriage is recommended to the meeting.
As in the wider society, there is a wide diversity of views on the issue of same-sex marriage, and Friends have varying views on the topic. Various Friends meetings around the world have voiced support for, and have recognised, same-sex marriages. In 1986, Hartford Friends Meeting in Connecticut, USA, reached the decision that "the Meeting recognizes a committed union in a celebration of marriage, under the care of the Meeting. The same loving care and consideration should be given to both homosexual and heterosexual applicants as outlined in Faith and Practice."[96] Since then, some other meetings of liberal and progressive Friends from Australia, Britain, New Zealand, parts of North America, and other countries have recognised marriage between partners of the same sex. In jurisdictions, where same-sex marriage is not recognised by the civil authorities, some meetings follow the practice of early Quakers in overseeing the union without reference to the state. There are also Friends who do not support same-sex marriage, and some Evangelical and Pastoral yearly meetings in the United States have issued public statements stating that homosexuality is a sin.[96]
National and international divisions and organization[edit]
Like many religious movements, the Religious Society of Friends has evolved, changed, and split into subgroups.
Quakerism started in England and Wales, and quickly spread to Ireland, the Netherlands,[15] Barbados[16] and North America. Today Kenya is, by far, the country with the most Quakers. Other countries with over 1,000 Quakers are Burundi, Bolivia, Cambodia, Canada, Guatemala, Ireland, Indonesia, Jamaica, Rwanda, Taiwan, Tanzania, Uganda, United Kingdom, and the United States.[97] Although the total number of Quakers is around 360,000 worldwide,[98] Quaker influence is concentrated in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Kaimosi, Kenya; Newberg, Oregon; Greenleaf, Idaho; Whittier, California; Richmond, Indiana; Friendswood, Texas; Birmingham, England; Ramallah, Palestine, and Greensboro, North Carolina.
Africa[edit]
Quakers in Africa (2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Burundi

12,000
South Africa

144
Congo (Republic of)

10
Kenya

133,825
Madagascar

16
Nigeria

16
Rwanda

3,234
Tanzania

3,100
Uganda

5,000
Main article: Religious Society of Friends in Africa
The highest concentration of Quakers is in Africa.[99] The Friends of East Africa were at one time part of a single East Africa Yearly Meeting, then the world's largest yearly meeting. Today, this region is served by several distinct yearly meetings. Most of these are affiliated with the Friends United Meeting, practice programmed worship and employ pastors. Friends meet in Rwanda and Burundi, as well as new work beginning in North Africa. Small unprogrammed meetings exist also in Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa and Zimbabwe. -

Australia and New Zealand[edit]
Quakers in Australia and New Zealand (2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Australia

1,984
New Zealand

656
Friends in Australia and New Zealand follow the unprogrammed tradition, similar to Britain Yearly Meeting.
Considerable distances between the colonies and small numbers of Quakers meant that Australia Friends were dependent on London until the 20th century. The Society remained unprogrammed and is named Australia Yearly Meeting, with local organizations around seven Regional Meetings: Canberra (which extends into southern New South Wales), New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia (which extends into Northern Territory), Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia.[100] The Friends' School is found in Hobart. An annual meeting each January, is hosted by a different Regional Meeting over a seven-year cycle, with a Standing Committee each July or August. The Australia Yearly Meeting published This We Can Say: Australian Quaker Life, Faith and Thought, in 2003.
Meetings for worship in New Zealand started in Nelson in 1842, and in Auckland in 1885. The New Zealand Yearly Meeting, today consists of nine monthly meetings.[101] The Yearly Meeting published Quaker Faith and Practice in Aotearoa New Zealand, in 2003.

Asia[edit]
Quakers in Asia (2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Cambodia

2,500
China

95
India

712
Indonesia

3,000
Japan

135
Korea

12
Nepal

500
Philippines

850
Taiwan

3,200
Quaker meetings occur in India, Hong Kong, Korea, Philippines, Japan and Nepal.
India has four yearly meetings — the unprogrammed Mid-India Yearly Meeting, programmed Bhopal Yearly Meeting, and the Mahoba Yearly Meeting. Bundelkhand Yearly Meeting is an evangelical Friends Church affiliated to Evangelical Friends International. Other programmed and unprogrammed worship groups are not affiliated with any yearly meeting.
Evangelical Friends Churches exist in the Philippines and Nepal, and are affiliated with Evangelical Friends International.

Europe[edit]
Quakers in Europe (2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Belgium / Luxembourg

42
Britain

15,775
Croatia

2
Czech Republic

12
Denmark

29
Estonia

4
Finland

20
France

71
Georgia

13
Germany

338
Greece

3
Hungary / Romania / Albania

4,306
Ireland

1,591
Latvia

6
Lithuania

2
Netherlands

115
Norway

151
Russia

13
Spain

8
Sweden

100
Switzerland

104
In the United Kingdom, the predominantly liberal and unprogrammed Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain, has 478 local meetings,[102] and a total of 14,260 adult members,[102] and an additional 8,560 non-member adults who attend worship[102] and 2,251 children.[102] The number has declined steadily since the mid-20th century.[102] Programmed meetings occur, including in Wem[103] and London.[104] Small groups of Conservative Friends meet in Ripley and Greenwich in England, and Arbroath in Scotland,[105] who follow Ohio Yearly Meeting's Book of Discipline.[106]
Evangelical Friends Central Europe Yearly Meeting has 4,306 members[97] across six nations,[107] including Albania, Hungary and Romania.[97]
Ireland Yearly Meeting is unprogrammed and is more conservative than Britain Yearly Meeting. They have 1,591 members[97] in 28 meetings[108] across the Republic of Ireland, and in Northern Ireland.
German Yearly Meeting is unprogrammed and liberal, and has 338 members,[97] worshipping in 31 meetings, in Germany and in Austria.
Small groups of Friends in Belgium, Luxembourg, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Greece, Italy, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lebanon, Palestine, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland, attend meetings for worship there.[97]

Middle East[edit]
Quakers in the Middle East(2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Lebanon / Palestine

60
Middle East Yearly Meeting has meetings in Lebanon and Palestine. There has been an active and vibrant Palestinian Quaker community in Ramallah since the late 1800s. In 1910 this community built the Ramallah Friends Meetinghouse and later added another building that was used for community outreach.
The Ramallah Friends Meeting has always played a vital role in the community. In 1948 the buildings and grounds became the home to many Palestinian refugees. Throughout the years, the members of the Ramallah Friends Meeting organized numerous community programs such as the Children’s Play Center, the First Day School, and women’s activities.
By the early 1990s the Meetinghouse and Annex, which housed meeting rooms and bathroom facilities, fell into disrepair as a result of damage inflicted by time and impact of conflict. So serious was the deterioration of the meetinghouse that by the middle 1990’s it was impossible to use the building at all.
A further blow to the Friends and the wider Palestinian community was the high level of emigration brought on by the economic situation and the hardships arising from the continuing Israeli military occupation. The Meetinghouse, which had served as a place of worship for the Friends in Ramallah could no longer be used as such and the Annex could no longer be used for community outreach.
In 2002 a committee consisting of members of the Religious Society of Friends in the US and the Clerk of the Ramallah Meeting began to raise funds for the renovations of the buildings and grounds of the Meetinghouse. By November, 2004 the renovations were complete, and on March 6, 2005, exactly 95 years to the day after the dedication, the Meetinghouse and Annex were rededicated as a Quaker and community resource.
Friends meet every Sunday morning at 10:30 a.m. for unprogrammed Meeting for Worship. Everyone is welcome to attend.

North and South America[edit]
Quakers in the Americas (2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Bolivia

33,000
Canada

1,216
Chile

15
Colombia

8
Costa Rica

72
Cuba

535
El Salvador

472
Guatemala

20,730
Honduras

2,000
Jamaica

330
Mexico

861
Peru

1,700
United States

86,837
Quakers can be found throughout Canada. Some of the largest concentrations are in Southern Ontario.[citation needed]
Friends in the United States have diverse worship styles and differences of theology, vocabulary, and practice.
A local congregation in the unprogrammed tradition is called a meeting, or a monthly meeting (e.g., Smalltown Meeting or Smalltown Monthly Meeting). The reference to "monthly" is because the meeting meets monthly to conduct the group's business. Most "monthly meetings" meet for worship at least once a week; some meetings have several worship meetings during the week. In programmed traditions, local congregations are often referred to as "Friends Churches."
Monthly meetings are often part of a regional group called a quarterly meeting, which is usually part of an even larger group called a yearly meeting; with the adjectives "quarterly" and "yearly" referring specifically to the frequency of meetings for worship with a concern for business.
Some yearly meetings belong to larger organizations to help maintain order and communication within the Society. The three chief ones are Friends General Conference (FGC), Friends United Meeting (FUM), and Evangelical Friends Church International (EFCI). In all three groups, most member organizations, though not necessarily members are from the United States. FGC is theologically the most liberal of the three groups, while EFCI is the most evangelical. FUM is the largest. Friends United Meeting was originally known as "Five Years Meeting." Some monthly meetings belong to more than one larger organization, while others are fully independent.

Relations with other churches and faiths[edit]
Ecumenical relations[edit]
Many Quakers prior to the 20th century, considered the Religious Society of Friends to be a Christian movement, but did not feel that their religious faith fit within the categories of Catholic, Orthodox, or Protestant.[109] Many Conservative Friends, while fully seeing themselves as orthodox Christians, choose to remain separate from other Christian groups.
Many Friends in Liberal Friends' meetings are actively involved in the ecumenical movement, often working closely with other Mainline Protestant and liberal Christian churches, with whom they share common religious ground. A concern for peace and social justice often brings Friends together with other Christian churches and other Christian groups. Some Liberal Quaker yearly meetings are members of ecumenical pan-Christian organizations, which include Protestant, Orthodox, and Anglican churches — for example Philadelphia Yearly Meeting is a member of the National Council of Churches.[110] Britain Yearly Meeting is a member of Churches Together in Britain and Ireland, and Friends General Conference is a member of the World Council of Churches.[111]
Guerneyite Friends would typically see themselves as part of an orthodox Christian movement and work closely with other Christian groups. Friends United Meeting (the international organization of Gurneyite yearly meetings) is a member of the National Council of Churches[110] and the World Council of Churches,[111] which are pan-Christian organizations, which include Protestant, Orthodox, and Anglican churches.
Evangelical Friends work closely with other evangelical churches from other Christian traditions. The North American branch of Evangelical Friends Church International is a member church of the National Association of Evangelicals. Evangelical Friends tend to be less involved with non-evangelical churches and are not members of the World Council of Churches or National Council of Churches.
The majority of other Christian groups recognize Friends among their fellow-Christians.[112] Some people who attend Quaker Meetings assume that Quakers are not Christians, when they do not hear overtly Christian language during the meeting for worship.[113]
Relations with other faiths[edit]
Relationships between Quakers and non-Christians vary considerably, according to sect, geography, and history.
Early Quakers distanced themselves from practices that they saw as pagan, such as by refusing to use the usual names of days of the week, since they derive from names of pagan deities.[114] They refused to celebrate Christmas because they believed it was based on pagan festivities.[115]
Early Friends attempted to convert adherents of other world religions to Christianity. For example, George Fox wrote a number of open letters to Jews and Muslims, in which he encouraged them to turn to Jesus Christ as the only path to salvation (e.g. A Visitation to the Jews,[116] To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria, and all that are under his authority, to read this over, which concerns their salvation[117][118] and To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria.[119] Mary Fisher attempted to convert the Muslim Mehmed IV (the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire) in 1658.
In 1870, Richard Price Hallowell argued that the logical extension of Christian Quakerism is a universal Church, which demands a religion which embraces Jew, Pagan and Christian, and which cannot be limited by the dogmas of one or the other.[120]
Since the late 20th century, some attenders at Liberal Quaker Meetings have actively identified with world faiths other than Christianity, such as Judaism, Islam,[121] Buddhism[122] and Paganism.
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23.Jump up ^ Levy, Barry. Quakers and the American Family. pp. 53, 130.
24.^ Jump up to: a b Levy, Barry. Quakers and the American Family. p. 78.
25.Jump up ^ "Whipping of the Quaker Women", Dover Library, http://www.dover.lib.nh.us/DoverHistory/whippingofthequakerwomen.htm
26.Jump up ^ Levy, Barry. Quakers and the American Family. p. 113.
27.Jump up ^ David Yount (2007). How the Quakers invented America. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 82. ISBN 0-7425-5833-9.
28.Jump up ^ Levy, Barry. Quakers and the American Family. p. 58.
29.Jump up ^ http://quod.lib.umich.edu/ http://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/did/did2222.0000.727/--quietism?rgn=main;view=fulltext;q1=contemplation. Retrieved 1 April 2015. Missing or empty |title= (help)
30.Jump up ^ Crothers, Glenn (2012). Quakers Living in the Lion's Mouth: The Society of Friends in Northern Virginia, 1730–1865. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. p. 145.
31.Jump up ^ Crothers, Glenn. Quakers Living in the Lion's Mouth. p. 145.
32.^ Jump up to: a b c d Bebbington, David William (1989). Evangelicalism in modern Britain: a history from the 1730s to the 1980s. London: Unwin Hyman Ltd. ISBN 0-415-10464-5.
33.Jump up ^ Bronner, Edwin B. (1990). "Moderates in London Yearly Meeting, 1857–1873: Precursors of Quaker Liberals". Church History 59: 356–371. doi:10.2307/3167744.
34.Jump up ^ Kennedy, Thomas C. (2001). British Quakerism 1860–1920: The Transformation of a Religious Community. New York: Oxford University Press.
35.^ Jump up to: a b "Gateway to missionary collections in the United Kingdom". MUNDUS.
36.Jump up ^ Nixon, Eva Anna (1985). A Century of Planting: A history of the American Friends' mission in India. Newburg, OR, USA: Barclay Press. ISBN 0-913342-55-6.
37.Jump up ^ Britain Yearly Meeting. "Quakers and Science".
38.^ Jump up to: a b Cantor, Geoffrey (2005). "Quaker Responses to Evolution". Quakers, Jews, and science religious responses to modernity and the sciences in Britain, 1650–1900. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199276684.
39.Jump up ^ Britain Yearly Meeting. "Edward Newman (1801–1876)".
40.Jump up ^ Cooper, William (June 1976). "Joseph Moore: Quaker Evolutionist". Indiana Magazine of History 72 (2): 123–137.
41.Jump up ^ "Presidential Gallery: Joseph Moore".
42.^ Jump up to: a b Packer, Ian (1 April 2003). "Religion and the New Liberalism: The Rowntree Family, Quakerism and Social Reform". Journal of British Studies 42 (2): 236–257. doi:10.1086/345607. ISSN 0021-9371.
43.Jump up ^ Blamires, David (1996). "The context and character of the 1895 Manchester Conference". Friends Quarterly 30: 50.
44.Jump up ^ Roberts, Sian. Birmingham Remembering 1914-18.
45.Jump up ^ Northwest Yearly Meeting Historical Statement[dead link]
46.Jump up ^ Levy, Barry. Quakers and the American Family. pp. 69, 221.
47.Jump up ^ Bacon, Margaret. Mothers of Feminism. p. 24.
48.Jump up ^ Persecution and Pluralism: Calvinists and Religious Minorities in Early.... By Richard Bonney, David J. B. Trim. [2]
49.Jump up ^ Janney, Samuel (1861). History of the Religious Society of Friends, from its Rise to the Year 1828. Philadelphia: Hayes & Zell. p. 298.
50.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Burns Windsor, D (1980). The Quaker Enterprise: Friends in Business. London: Frederick Muller Ltd. ISBN 0-584-10257-7.
51.Jump up ^ For information about Quaker schools in Great Britain and Ireland see Quaker Schools in Great Britain and Ireland: A selective bibliography of histories and guide to records.
52.Jump up ^ Friends' Intelligencer, Volume 74. Philadelphia: Friends Intelligencer Association, Limited. 1917. p. 613.
53.Jump up ^ David Yount (2007). How the Quakers invented America. pp. 83–84.
54.Jump up ^ "History of Malone". Malone University.
55.Jump up ^ "History of Friends at APU". Azusa Pacific University.
56.Jump up ^ "About Barclay". Barclay College.
57.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Page 5; Introduction from Quaker World Relations Committee
58.Jump up ^ "Isaac Penington to Thomas Walmsley (1670)". Quaker Heritage Press. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
59.Jump up ^ Fox, George. "Letter to the Governor of Barbadoes".
60.Jump up ^ Barclay, Robert (1678). An Apology for the True Christian Divinity.
61.Jump up ^ Barclay, Robert (1690). A Catechism and Confession of Faith.
62.Jump up ^ The Testimony of the Society of Friends on the Continent of America. New York: Richard and George S Wood. 1830.
63.Jump up ^ "Richmond Declaration of Faith". QuakerInfo.com.
64.Jump up ^ "Essential Truths". QuakerInfo.com.
65.^ Jump up to: a b c "Quaker Finder". Friends General Conference. Retrieved 2009-07-26.
66.Jump up ^ anonymous. "A short history of Conservative Friends".
67.Jump up ^ http://fwccamericas.org/find_friends/stats_by_country.shtml
68.^ Jump up to: a b Evangelical Friends Church International. "Friends Beliefs".
69.Jump up ^ "Evangelical Friends Church International".
70.Jump up ^ "Quaker Life – Local Meeting Directory". Friends United Meeting. Retrieved 2014-08-25.
71.Jump up ^ Central Yearly Meeting of Friends. "About Us".
72.Jump up ^ al.], Margery Post Abbott ... [et. Historical Dictionary of the Friends (Quakers) (2nd ed. ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. pp. 327–328. ISBN 0-8108-7088-6.
73.^ Jump up to: a b Rickermann, Sally (2007). "Quaker Universalist Fellowship: Its History". Journal of the Quaker Universalist Fellowship (46).
74.Jump up ^ Cresson, Os. "Roots and Flowers of Quaker Nontheism".
75.Jump up ^ "New Nontheist Friends Network in Britain". nontheistfriends.org.
76.Jump up ^ Heathfield, D (27 May 2011). "Non-theist Friends Network". The Friend 169 (21).
77.Jump up ^ Dandelion, Pink. A Sociological Analysis of the Theology of Quakers: The Silent Revolution, Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston NY,1996.
78.Jump up ^ Heron, Alistair Caring Conviction Commitment: Dilemmas of Quaker membership today, Quaker Home Service, London 1992
79.^ Jump up to: a b c Mellor, Katherine (2009). Christian Belief in the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers): a Response to the Claim That British Friends Are Post-Christian (A dissertation submitted to The University of Birmingham For the degree of Master of Philosophy) (PDF). University of Birmingham.(pp. 39–40)
80.Jump up ^ Testimonies Committee of Quaker Peace and Social Witness (2005). Living What We Believe: Quaker Testimonies: a way of living faithfully (leaflet).
81.Jump up ^ James 2:17
82.Jump up ^ "Quaker Testimonies leaflet" (PDF). Britain Yearly Meeting.
83.Jump up ^ Friends United Meeting in East Africa (2002) Christian Faith and Practice in the Friends Church.
84.Jump up ^ Rocky Mountain Yearly Meeting of the Friends Church (1997) The Faith and Practice http://www.rmym.org/Faith_And_Practice_Print.php
85.Jump up ^ Heron, Alastair (2008). Quaker Speak.
86.Jump up ^ Mark 16:2
87.Jump up ^ Luke 24:1
88.Jump up ^ John 20:1
89.Jump up ^ John 20:19
90.Jump up ^ Dewsbury, William; Farnworth, Richard. "The Epistle from the Elders at Balby, 1656".
91.Jump up ^ New York Yearly Meeting. "Formal Guidelines from New York Yearly Meeting's Faith and Practice".
92.Jump up ^ "Guide to Quaker Business Meetings". Quakers in Scotland.
93.Jump up ^ "Friends Beliefs". Evangelical Friends Church International.
94.Jump up ^ "Friends United Meeting". Retrieved November 2012.
95.Jump up ^ Britain Yearly Meeting (1999). Quaker faith & practice (3rd ed.). London: Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain. ISBN 0-85245-306-X.
96.^ Jump up to: a b "THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS (QUAKERS) AND HOMOSEXUALITY". Retrieved 5 May 2015.
97.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Friends World Committee for Consultation (2007) 'Finding Quakers around the World http://www.fwccamericas.org/publications/images/fwcc_map_2007_sm.gif
98.Jump up ^ "FWCC's map of quaker meetings and churches". Fwccworld.org. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
99.Jump up ^ 43 percent of Quakers worldwide are found in Africa, versus 30 percent in North America, 17 percent in Latin America, and the Caribbean, 6 percent in Europe, and 4 percent in Asia/West Pacific. See Quaker Information Center.
100.Jump up ^ "Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Australia Inc.". Retrieved 5 May 2015.
101.Jump up ^ "Structure of the Society of Friends". Retrieved 5 May 2015.
102.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain. "Tabular Statement as at 31 xii 2010" (PDF).
103.Jump up ^ Wem Quaker Meeting. "Meeting Style – Wem Quaker Meeting".
104.Jump up ^ "NW London Quakers – Friends House Meeting".
105.Jump up ^ "Ripley Quaker Meeting".
106.Jump up ^ "News and Events". Ripley Christian Quakers. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
107.Jump up ^ Evangelical Friends Church International. "Europe".
108.Jump up ^ Ireland Yearly Meeting. "Quakers in Ireland,".
109.Jump up ^ "Quakers—The Religious Society of Friends.". BBC.
110.^ Jump up to: a b "Members of the National Council of Churches". Ncccusa.org. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
111.^ Jump up to: a b "Friends (Quakers)". Oikoumene.org. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
112.Jump up ^ "Quakers – the Religious Society of Friends". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
113.Jump up ^ "If Quakers were more Christian". Guardian. 2008-07-16. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
114.Jump up ^ Yount, David (2007). How the Quakers invented America. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc. p. 11. ISBN 0-7425-5833-9.
115.Jump up ^ Frost, Jerry William (1968). The Quaker family in colonial America: a social history of the Society of Friends, Volume 2. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin. p. 436.
116.Jump up ^ Fox, George. "A Visitation To The Jews. From Them Whom The Lord Hath Visited From On High, Among Whom He Hath Performed His Promise Made To Abraham, Isaac, And Jacob. The Mighty Day Of The Lord Is Come, And Coming, Who Dwells Not In Temples Made With Hands, Nor Is He Worshipped With Men's Hands, But In The Spirit, From Whom The Scripture Was Given Forth". Works of George Fox.
117.Jump up ^ Fox, George (1821). "To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria, and all that are under his Authority, to read this over, which concerns their Salvation". The Works of George Fox: Gospel truth demonstrated, in a collection of doctrinal books, given forth by that faithful minister of Jesus Christ, George Fox: containing principles essential to Christianity and salvation, held among the people called Quakers. Marcus T. C. Gould. pp. 216–221.
118.Jump up ^ Fox, George. To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria, And All That Are Under His Authority, To Read This Over, Which Concerns Their Salvation (in: "Works of George Fox" (volume 4).
119.Jump up ^ Fox, George. "To The Great Turk And King At Algiers in Algeria". Works of George Fox (volume 6).
120.Jump up ^ Richard Price Hollowell (1870). The Quakers in New England: An Essay. Merrihew & Son, Printers. p. 26.
121.Jump up ^ Brett Miller-White (2004) The Journeyman – The Making of a Muslim Quaker Quaker Theology, 10
122.Jump up ^ Valerie Brown (2006) The Mindful Quaker
Further reading[edit]
Vogel, Karen Anna. Christmas Union: Quaker Abolitionists of Chester County, PA. Murray Pura's Cry of Freedom Series, Volume 5.
Abbott, Margery; Chijioke, Mary Ellen; Dandelion, Pink; Oliver, John William, ed. (June 2003). Historical Dictionary of The Friends (Quakers). Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-4483-4.
Bacon, Margaret Hope (April 2000). The Quiet Rebels: The Story of the Quakers in America. Pendle Hill Publications. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-87574-935-8.
Bacon, Margaret Hope. "Quakers and Colonization" Quaker History. 95 (Spring 2006), 26–43.
Barbour, Hugh; Frost, J. William. The Quakers. (1988), 412pp; historical survey, including many capsule biographies online edition
Barbour, Hugh (October 1985). The Quakers in Puritan England. Friends United Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-913408-87-2.
Benjamin, Philip. Philadelphia Quakers in an Age of Industrialism, 1870–1920. (1976),
Bill, J. Brent, Holy Silence: The Gift of Quaker Spirituality. ISBN 1-55725-420-6
Boulton, David (ed.) 2006. Godless for God's Sake: Nontheism in Contemporary Quakerism. Dales Historical Monographs. ISBN 0-9511578-6-8
Birkel, Michael L., Silence and Witness: The Quaker Tradition. ISBN 1-57075-518-3 (in the UK, ISBN 0-232-52448-3)
Braithwaite, William C. The Beginnings of Quakerism. (1912); revised by Henry J. Cadbury (1955) online edition
Braithwaite, William C. Second Period of Quakerism. (1919); revised by Henry Cadbury (1961), covers 1660 to 1720s in Britain
Brinton, Howard H., Friends for 350 Years. ISBN 0-87574-903-8
Brock, Peter. Pioneers of the Peaceable Kingdom. (1968), on Peace Testimony from the 1650s to 1900.
Bronner, Edwin B. William Penn's Holy Experiment. (1962)
Burnet, G. B., Story of Quakerism in Scotland. The Lutterworth Press 2007, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-7188-9176-3
Connerley, Jennifer. Friendly Americans: Representing Quakers in the United States, 1850–1920. PhD dissertation U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 2006. 277 pp. Citation: DAI 2006 67(2): 600-A. DA3207363 online at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Cooper, Wilmer A., A Living Faith: An Historical and Comparative Study of Quaker Beliefs. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-944350-53-4
Crothers, A. Glenn. Quakers Living in the Lion's Mouth: The Society of Friends in Northern Virginia, 1730–1865. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2012.
Dandelion, Pink, A Sociological Analysis of the Theology of the Quakers: The Silent Revolution. (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996) ISBN 0-7734-8807-3
Dandelion, Pink, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction. ISBN 978-0-19-920679-7
Davies, Adrian. The Quakers in English Society, 1655–1725. (2000). 261 pp.
Doherty, Robert. The Hicksite Separation. (1967), uses the new social history to inquire who joined which side
Dunn, Mary Maples. William Penn: Politics and Conscience. (1967)
Frost, J. William. The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends. (1973), emphasis on social structure and family life
Frost, J. William. "The Origins of the Quaker Crusade against Slavery: A Review of Recent Literature," Quaker History'.' 67 (1978): 42–58,
Fryer, Jonathan (Ed.), George Fox and the Children of the Light. (London: Kyle Cathie, 1991) ISBN 1-85626-024-0
Gillman, Harvey, A Light that is Shining: Introduction to the Quakers. ISBN 0-85245-213-6
Gorman, George H., Introducing Quakers. (3rd revised reprint) (London: Quaker Home Service, 1981) ISBN 0-85245-005-2
Guiton, Gerard, The Growth and Development of Quaker Testimony. ISBN 0-7734-6002-0
Hamm, Thomas. The Quakers in America. (2003). 293 pp., strong analysis of current situation, with brief history
Hamm, Thomas. The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800–1907. (1988), looks at the impact of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction
Hamm, Thomas D. Earlham College: A History, 1847–1997. (1997). 448 pp.
Hatton, Jean. Betsy: The Dramatic Biography of Prison Reformer Elizabeth Fry (2005) ISBN 1-85424-705-0 and ISBN 0-8254-6092-1
Hatton, Jean. George Fox: Founder of the Quakers (2007) ISBN 1854247530 and ISBN 978-0-8254-6106-4.
Hubbard, Geoffrey, Quaker by Convincement. ISBN 0-85245-189-X and ISBN 0-14-021663-4
Illick, Joseph E. Colonial Pennsylvania: A History. 1976. online edition
Ingle, H. Larry, First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism. ISBN 0-19-507803-9 and ISBN 0-19-510117-0
Ingle, H. Larry, Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation. ISBN 0-87574-926-7
James, Sydney. A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America. (1963), a broad ranging study that remains the best history in America before 1800
Jones, Rufus M., Amelia M. Gummere and Isaac Sharpless. Quakers in the American Colonies. (1911), history to 1775 online edition
Jones, Rufus M. Later Periods of Quakerism. 2 vols. (1921), covers England and America until World War I.
Jones, Rufus M. The Story of George Fox. (1919) 169 pages online edition
Jones, Rufus M. A Service of Love in War Time: American Friends Relief Work in Europe, 1917–1919. (1922) online edition
Jordan, Ryan. "The Dilemma of Quaker Pacifism in a Slaveholding Republic, 1833–1865," Civil War History. Vol. 53, 2007 online edition
Jordan, Ryan. Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820–1865. (2007) 191 pp.
Kennedy, Thomas C. British Quakerism, 1860–1920: The Transformation of a Religious Community. (2001). 477 pp.
Larson, Rebecca. Daughters of Light: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies and Abroad, 1700–1775. (1999). 399 pp.
LeShana, James David. "'Heavenly Plantations': Quakers in Colonial North Carolina." PhD dissertation: U. of California, Riverside 1998. 362 pp. DAI 2000 61(5): 2005-A. DA9974014 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Minear, Mark., Richmond, 1887: A Quaker Drama Unfolds ISBN (0913408980) ISBN (9780913408988)
Moore, Rosemary, The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain 1646–1666. (2000) 314 pp. ISBN 0-271-01989-1
Moretta, John A., William Penn and the Quaker Legacy. ISBN 0-321-16392-3
Mullet, Michael, editor, New Light on George Fox. ISBN 1-85072-142-4
Nash, Gary. Quakers and Politics: Pennsylvania, 1680–1726. (1968)
Punshon, John, Portrait in Grey : A Short History of the Quakers. (2nd ed.) (London: Quaker Books, 2006) ISBN 0-85245-399-X
Rasmussen, Ane Marie Bak. A History of the Quaker Movement in Africa. (1994). 168 pp.
Russell, Elbert. The History of Quakerism. (1942). online edition
Smuck, Harold. Friends in East Africa. (Richmond, Indiana: 1987)
Steere, Douglas. 1967. On Being Present Where You Are. Wallingford, Pa: Pendle Hill Pamphlet No. 151.
Tolles, Frederick B. Meeting House and Counting House. (1948), on Quaker businessmen in colonial Philadelphia
Tolles, Frederick B. Quakers and the Atlantic Culture. (1960)
Trueblood, D. Elton The People Called Quakers. (1966)
Vlach, John Michael. "Quaker Tradition and the Paintings of Edward Hicks: A Strategy for the Study of Folk Art," Journal of American Folklore. Vol. 94, 1981 online edition
Walvin, James. The Quakers: Money and Morals. (1997). 243 pp.
Yarrow, Clarence H. The Quaker Experience in International Conciliation. (1979), for post-1945
Primary sources[edit]
Bill, J. Brent, Imagination and Spirit: A Contemporary Quaker Reader. ISBN 0-944350-61-5
Gummere, Amelia, ed. The Journal and Essays of John Woolman. (1922) online edition
Jones, Rufus M., ed. The Journal of George Fox: An Autobiography. online edition
Mott, Lucretia Coffin. Selected Letters of Lucretia Coffin Mott. edited by Beverly Wilson Palmer, U. of Illinois Press, 2002. 580 pp
Smith, Robert Lawrence, A Quaker Book of Wisdom. ISBN 0-688-17233-4
West, Jessamyn, editor. The Quaker Reader. (1962) ISBN 0-87574-916-X collection of essays by Fox, Penn and other notable Quakers
Children's books[edit]
De Angeli, Marguerite. Thee, Hannah! ISBN 0-8361-9106-4.
Milhous, Katherine The Egg Tree. ISBN 978-0-689-71568-6.
Appolonia's Valentine. ISBN 978-0-684-92306-2.
Turkle, Brinton The Adventures of Obadiah. ISBN 0-670-10614-3.
Obadiah the Bold. ISBN 1-893103-19-6.
Rachel and Obadiah. ISBN 1-893103-18-8.
Thy Friend, Obadiah. ISBN 0-14-050393-5.

External links[edit]

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Digital Quaker Collection: – a list of Christian Quaker literature
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Works by Society of Friends at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Quakers at Internet Archive
Works by or about Society of Friends at Internet Archive


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Quakers

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

"Quaker" redirects here. For other uses, see Quaker (disambiguation).
"Society of Friends" redirects here. For the Greek movement for independence, see Filiki Eteria.


 It has been suggested that Quaker music be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since April 2015.

Religious Society of Friends
Quaker Star
Symbol used by Friends' service organizations since the late 19th century
 
Classification
Protestant
Theology
Variable; depends on meeting
Polity
Congregational
Distinct fellowships
Friends World Committee for Consultation
Associations
Friends United Meeting, Evangelical Friends International, Central Yearly Meeting of Friends, Conservative Friends, Friends General Conference, Beanite Quakerism
Founder
George Fox
Origin
Mid-17th century
 England
Separated from
Church of England
Separations
Shakers[1]

 

 Heritage-listed Quaker meeting house, Sydney, Australia
Quakers (or Friends, as they refer to themselves) are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is the priesthood of all believers,[2][3] a doctrine derived from a verse in the New Testament, 1 Peter 2:9.[4] Many Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional conservative Quaker understandings of Christianity. Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has actively tried to avoid creeds and hierarchical structures.[5] As of 2007 there were approximately 359,000 adult members of Quaker meetings in the world.[6]
Today, slightly less than half of Friends worldwide practice programmed worship[7]—that is, worship with singing and a prepared message from the Bible, often coordinated by a pastor. Around 11% of Friends[8] practice waiting worship (also known as unprogrammed worship)—that is worship where the order of service is not planned in advance, which is predominantly silent, and which may include unprepared vocal ministry from anyone present, so long as it is credible to those assembled that the speaker is moved to speak by God. Some meetings of both styles have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—these are Friends who have been recognised for their gift of vocal ministry.[9]
The first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, breaking away from the established Church of England. The Quakers, especially the ones known as the Valiant Sixty, attempted to convert others to their understanding of Christianity, traveling both throughout Great Britain and overseas, preaching the gospel of Jesus Christ. Some of these early Quaker ministers were women.[10] They based their message on the religious belief that "Christ has come to teach his people himself," stressing the importance of a direct relationship with God through Jesus Christ, and a direct religious belief in the universal priesthood of all believers.[11] They emphasized a personal and direct religious experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible.[12] Quakers focused their private life on developing behavior and speech reflecting emotional purity and the light of God.[13]
In the past, Quakers were known for their use of thou as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism—the opposition to alcohol. Some Quakers have founded banks and financial institutions including Barclays, Lloyds, and Friends Provident; manufacturing companies including Clarks, Cadbury, Rowntree, and Fry's; and philanthropic efforts, including abolition, prison reform, and social justice projects.


Contents  [hide]
1 History 1.1 Beginnings in England
1.2 Immigration to North America
1.3 Quietism
1.4 Splits 1.4.1 Hicksite–Orthodox split
1.4.2 Beaconite controversy
1.4.3 Rise of Gurneyite Quakerism, and the Gurneyite–Conservative split
1.5 Richmond Declaration
1.6 Missions to Asia and Africa
1.7 Theory of evolution
1.8 Quaker Renaissance
1.9 Conscientious objection
1.10 Formation of Friends World Committee for Consultation
1.11 Evangelical Friends
1.12 Role of women
1.13 Friends in business
1.14 Friends in education
1.15 Friends and slavery
2 Theology 2.1 Conservative
2.2 Evangelical
2.3 Gurneyite
2.4 Holiness
2.5 Liberal
2.6 Universalist
2.7 Non-theist
3 Practical theology 3.1 Calendar and church holidays
4 Worship 4.1 Programmed worship
4.2 Unprogrammed worship
5 Governance and organization 5.1 Church government and polity
5.2 International organization
5.3 Yearly meetings
5.4 Membership
6 Meetings for worship for specific tasks 6.1 Memorial services
6.2 Marriage
7 National and international divisions and organization 7.1 Africa
7.2 Australia and New Zealand
7.3 Asia
7.4 Europe
7.5 Middle East
7.6 North and South America
8 Relations with other churches and faiths 8.1 Ecumenical relations
8.2 Relations with other faiths
9 References
10 Further reading 10.1 Primary sources
10.2 Children's books
11 External links

History[edit]
Main article: History of the Religious Society of Friends
Beginnings in England[edit]

 

James Nayler, a prominent Quaker leader, being pilloried and whipped
During and after the English Civil War (1642–1651) many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied by the teachings of the Church of England and non-conformists. He had a revelation that there is one, even, Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition,[14] and became convinced that it was possible to have a direct experience of Christ without the aid of an ordained clergy. He had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that "the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered".[14] Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands,[15] and Barbados[16] preaching and teaching them with the aim of converting them to his faith. The central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself.[14] His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, after centuries of apostasy in the churches in England.
In 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Fox's autobiography, Bennet "was the first person that called us Quakers, because I bade them tremble at the word of the Lord".[14] It is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66:2[17] or Ezra 9:4[18]. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Fox's admonition, but became widely accepted and is used by some Quakers.[19] Quakers also described themselves using terms such as true Christianity, Saints, Children of the Light, and Friends of the Truth, reflecting terms used in the New Testament by members of the early Christian church.
Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680[20] (1.15% of the population of England and Wales).[20] However the dominant discourse of Protestantism viewed the Quakers as a blasphemous challenge to social and political order,[21] leading to official persecution in England and Wales under the Quaker Act 1662 and the Conventicle Act 1664. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence (1687–1688) and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689.
One modern view of Quakerism at this time was that the relationship with Christ was encouraged through spiritualization of human relations, and "the redefinition of the Quakers as a holy tribe, 'the family and household of God'".[22] Together with Margaret Fell, the wife of Thomas Fell, who was the vice-chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and a pre-eminent judge, Fox developed new conceptions of family and community that emphasized "holy conversation": speech and behavior that reflected piety, faith, and love.[23] With the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women; Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing "holy conversation" in her children and husband.[22] Quaker women were also responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in "meetings" that regulated marriage and domestic behavior.[24]
Immigration to North America[edit]

 

 William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, as a young man
The persecution of Quakers in North America began as early as 1662, when Puritan Richard Waldron of Dover, New Hampshire tortured three Quaker women.[25]
In search of economic opportunities and a more tolerant environment in which to build communities of "holy conversation," some Friends immigrated to what is now the Northeastern region of the United States in the early 1680s.[26]
While in some areas like New England they continued to experience persecution, they were able to establish thriving communities in the Delaware Valley. The only two colonies that tolerated Quakers at this time were Rhode Island and Pennsylvania, where Quakers established themselves politically. In Rhode Island, 36 governors in the first 100 years were Quakers. Pennsylvania was established by affluent Quaker William Penn in 1682, and as an American state run under Quaker principles. William Penn signed a peace treaty with Tammany, leader of the Delaware tribe,[27] and other treaties between Quakers and native Americans followed.
Quietism[edit]
Early Quakerism tolerated boisterous behavior that challenged conventional etiquette, but by 1700, while they continued to encourage spontaneity of expression, they no longer supported disruptive and unruly behavior.[28] During the 18th century, Quakers entered the Quietist period in the history of their church, and they became more inward looking spiritually and less active in converting others. Marrying outside the Society was outlawed. Numbers dwindled, dropping to 19,800 in England and Wales by 1800 (0.21% of population),[20] and 13,859 by 1860 (0.07% of population).[20] The formal name "Religious Society of Friends", dates from this period, and was probably derived from the appellations "Friends of the Light" and "Friends of the Truth".[citation needed] Louis de Jaucourt, in Diderot's Encyclopedie attributed Quietism to Eastern influence stating, "The Brahmins push apathy or indifference to an extreme, to which they tie all holiness; saying that it was necessary to become a stone or statue in order to acquire perfection. It is, they say, the deepest sleep of the spirit, letting all energy rest, this continual suspension of the senses, which leads to man’s happiness and makes him alike unto the god Fo."[29]
Divisions of the Religious Society of Friends


Orthodox
 

Wilburite
Conservative
Conservative Friends
 

 

Gurneyite

Gurneyite
Friends United Meeting
 

Evangelical
Evangelical Friends International
 

 

 

 

 
 

Beaconite
 

 

Hicksite
Friends General Conference
Friends General Conference
 

 

 


Showing the divisions of Quakers occurring in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Splits[edit]
In the 19th century, there was a diversification of theological beliefs in the Religious Society of Friends, and this led to several large splits within the Quaker movement.
Hicksite–Orthodox split[edit]
The Hicksite–Orthodox split arose out of both ideological and socio-economic tensions. Philadelphia Yearly Meeting Hicksites tended to be agrarian and poorer than the more urban, wealthier, Orthodox Quakers. With increasing financial success, Orthodox Quakers wanted to "make the Society a more respectable body—to transform their sect into a church—by adopting mainstream Protestant orthodoxy".[30] Hicksites, though they held a variety of views, generally saw the market economy as corrupting, and believed Orthodox Quakers had sacrificed their orthodox Christian spirituality for material success. Hicksites viewed the Bible as secondary to the individual cultivation of God's light within.[31]
With Gurneyite Quakers shift towards Protestant principles and away from the spiritualization of human relations, women's role as promoters of "holy conversation" decreased. Conversely, within the Hicksite movement the rejection of the market economy and the continuing focus on community and family bonds tended to encourage women to retain their role as powerful arbiters.
Elias Hicks' religious views were claimed to be universalist and to contradict Quakers' historical orthodox Christian beliefs and practices. Elias Hicks' Gospel preaching and teaching precipitated the Great Separation of 1827, which resulted in a parallel system of Yearly Meetings in America, joined by Friends from Philadelphia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Baltimore. They were referred to by their opponents as Hicksites and by others, and sometimes themselves, as orthodox. Quakers in Great Britain only recognized the Orthodox Quakers and refused to correspond with the Hicksites.
Beaconite controversy[edit]
Isaac Crewdson was a Recorded Minister in Manchester, UK. He published a book titled A Beacon to the Society of Friends in 1835, which strongly argued that the inward light could not exist alongside a religious belief in salvation by the atonement of Christ.[32](p155) This Christian controversy led to Isaac Crewdson's resignation from the Religious Society of Friends, along with 48 fellow members of Manchester Meeting and about 250 other British Quakers in 1836–1837. Some of these Quakers joined the Plymouth Brethren Church.
Rise of Gurneyite Quakerism, and the Gurneyite–Conservative split[edit]

 

Joseph John Gurney was a prominent 19th century British Friend and a strong proponent of evangelical views
Orthodox Friends became more evangelical during the 19th century[33] and were influenced by the Second Great Awakening. This movement was led by British Quaker Joseph John Gurney. Christian Friends held Revival meetings in America and became involved in the Holiness movement of churches. Quakers such as Hannah Whitall Smith and Robert Pearsall Smith became speakers in the religious movement and introduced Quaker phrases and practices to it.[32](p157) British Friends became involved with the Higher Life movement, with Robert Wilson from Cockermouth meeting founding the Keswick Convention.[32](p157) From the 1870s it became commonplace in Great Britain to have home mission meetings on a Sunday evening with Christian hymns and a Bible-based sermon alongside the silent meetings for worship on Sunday morning.[32](p155)
The Quaker Yearly Meetings supporting the religious beliefs of Joseph John Gurney were known as Gurneyite yearly meetings. Many eventually collectively became the Five Years Meeting and then Friends United Meeting, although London Yearly Meeting, which had been strongly Gurneyite in the nineteenth century, did not join either of these groups. These Quaker yearly meetings make up the largest proportion of Quakers in the world today.
Some orthodox Quakers in America disliked the move towards evangelical Christianity and saw it as a dilution of Friends' traditional orthodox Christian belief in being inwardly led by the Holy Spirit. These Friends were led by John Wilbur who was expelled from his yearly meeting in 1842. He and his supporters formed their own Conservative Friends Yearly Meeting. In the UK in 1868 some Friends broke away from London Yearly Meeting for the same reason. They formed a separate body of Friends called Fritchley General Meeting, which remained distinct and separate from London Yearly Meeting until 1968. Similar Christian splits took place in Canada. The Yearly Meetings that supported John Wilbur's religious beliefs were known as Conservative Friends.
Richmond Declaration[edit]
In 1887, a Gurneyite Quaker of British descent, Joseph Bevan Braithwaite, proposed to Friends a statement of faith known as the Richmond Declaration. This statement of faith was agreed to by 95 of the representatives at a meeting of Five Years Meeting Friends; but unexpectedly the Richmond Declaration was not adopted by London Yearly Meeting because a vocal minority, including Edward Grubb, opposed it.[34]
Missions to Asia and Africa[edit]

 

 Friends' Syrian Mission, 1874, built this mission house in Ramallah
Following the Christian revivals in the mid-19th century, Friends in Great Britain wanted to start missionary activity overseas. The first missionaries were sent to Benares (Varanasi), in India in 1866. The Friends Foreign Mission Association was formed in 1868, and sent missionaries to Madhya Pradesh, India, forming what is now Mid-India Yearly Meeting; and later to Madagascar from 1867, China from 1896, Sri Lanka from 1896, and Pemba Island from 1897.[35] The Friends Syrian Mission was established in 1874, which among other institutions ran the Ramallah Friends Schools, which still exist today. Swiss missionary Theophilus Waldmeier founded Brummana High School in Lebanon in 1873.[35] Evangelical Friends Churches from Ohio Yearly Meeting sent missionaries to India in 1896,[36] forming what is now Bundelkhand Yearly Meeting. Cleveland Friends went to Mombasa, Kenya, and started what was the most successful Friends' mission. Christian Quakerism spread within Kenya and to Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, and Rwanda.
Theory of evolution[edit]
The theory of evolution described by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859) was opposed by many Quakers in the nineteenth century,[37] particularly by older evangelical Quakers who dominated the Religious Society of Friends in Great Britain. These religious leaders were suspicious of Darwin's theory, and believed that natural selection needed to be supplemented by another process.[38] For example, influential British Quaker scientist Edward Newman[39] stated that this theory was "not compatible with our notions of creation as delivered from the hands of a Creator."
However, some young Friends such as John Wilhelm Rowntree and Edward Grubb supported Darwin's theories adopting a doctrine of progressive revelation with evolutionary ideas.[38] In the USA, Joseph Moore taught the theory of evolution at the Quaker Earlham College as early as 1861[40] and was probably one of the first teachers in the Midwest to do so.[41] Acceptance of the theory of evolution became more widespread in those Yearly Meetings, which moved towards liberal Christianity in the twentieth century, while a belief in creationism exists within evangelical Friends Churches, particularly in East Africa and parts of the USA.
Quaker Renaissance[edit]
In the late 19th century and early 20th century a religious movement known as the Quaker Renaissance movement began within London Yearly Meeting. Young Friends in London Yearly Meeting at this time moved away from evangelicalism and towards liberal Christianity.[42] This Quaker Renaissance movement was particularly influenced by John Wilhelm Rowntree, Edward Grubb, and Rufus Jones. These Liberal Friends promoted the theory of evolution, modern biblical criticism, and the social meaning of Jesus Christ's teaching — encouraging Friends to follow the New Testament example of Christ by performing good works. These Quaker men downplayed the evangelical Quaker belief in the atonement of Christ on the Cross at Calvary.[42] After the Manchester Conference in England in 1895, one thousand British Friends met to consider the future of British Quakerism and, as a result, liberal Quaker thought gradually increased within London Yearly Meeting.[43]
Conscientious objection[edit]

 

 FAU ambulance and driver, Germany, 1945
During World War I and World War II, Friends' opposition to war was put to the test. Many Friends became conscientious objectors and some formed the Friends Ambulance Unit with the aim of co-operating with others to build up a new world rather than fighting to destroy the old, and the American Friends Service Committee. Birmingham, UK had a strong Quaker community during the war (see Conscientious Objectors in Birmingham in WW1).[44] Many British Quakers were conscripted into the Non-Combatant Corps during both world wars.
Formation of Friends World Committee for Consultation[edit]
After the two great wars had brought closer together the different kinds of Quakers; Friends from different yearly meetings — many of whom had served together in the Friends Ambulance Unit, and on the American Friends Service Committee, and in other relief work — later held several Quaker World Conferences; and this subsequently resulted in the creation of a standing body of Friends named Friends World Committee for Consultation.
Evangelical Friends[edit]
After World War I, a growing desire for a more fundamentalist approach among some Friends began a split among Five Years Meetings. In 1926, Oregon Yearly Meeting seceded from Five Years Meeting, bringing together several other yearly meetings and scattered monthly meetings. In 1947, the Association of Evangelical Friends was formed, with triennial meetings until 1970. In 1965, this was replaced by the Evangelical Friends Alliance, which, in 1989, became Evangelical Friends Church International.[45]
Role of women[edit]
From its inception, the Quaker emphasis on family and community relations gave women spiritual power. Through the women's meeting, women oversaw domestic and community life, including marriage.[24] From the beginning, Quaker women, most notably Margaret Fell, played an important role in defining Quakerism.[46][47] Others active in proselytizing included Mary Penington, Mary Mollineux and Barbara Blaugdone.[48] However, within the Quaker movement, some resented the power of women within the community. In the early years of Quakerism, George Fox faced resistance in developing and establishing women's meetings. This resistance culminated in the Wilkinson–Story split, in which a portion of the Quaker community left to worship independently in protest of women's meetings.[49] After several years, the schism became largely resolved, testifying to the resistance of some within the Quaker community, and to the radical spiritual role of women that George Fox and Margaret Fell had encouraged. Also particularly within the relatively prosperous Quaker communities of the eastern United States, the focus on the child and "holy conversation" gave women unusual community power, although they were largely excluded from the market economy. With the Hicksite–Orthodox split of 1827–1828, Orthodox women found their spiritual role decreased, while Hicksite women retained greater influence.
Friends in business[edit]
Dynasties of Quakers were successful in business matters. This included ironmaking by Abraham Darby I[50] and his family; banking, including Lloyds Banking Group (founded by Sampson Lloyd),[50] Barclays PLC,[50] Backhouse's Bank and Gurney's Bank; life assurance (Friends Provident); pharmaceuticals (Allen & Hanburys[50]); chocolate (Cadbury,[50] Terry's, Fry's[50]); confectionery (Rowntree[50]); biscuit manufacturing (Huntley & Palmers[50]); match manufacture (Bryant & May, Francis May and William Bryant) and shoe manufacturing (Clarks). Friends generally did well in the retail business because their religious principles obliged them to charge a uniform retail price—the same for all customers, which attracted many.
Friends in education[edit]
Initially, Quakers had no ordained clergy, and thus needed no seminaries for theological training. In England, Quaker schools sprang up, with Friends School Saffron Walden being the most prominent.[51] Later in America they founded Wilmington Friends School (1748),[52] Haverford College (1833),[53] Guilford College (1837), Pickering College (1842), Earlham College (1847), Swarthmore College (1864), Wilmington College (Ohio) (1870), Bryn Mawr College (1885), Friends Pacific Academy (now George Fox University) (1885), Cleveland Bible College (now Malone University) (1892),[54] Friends University (1898), Training School for Christian Workers (now Azusa Pacific University) (1899)[55] Whittier College (1901), and Friends Bible College (now Barclay College) (1917).[56] In Great Britain, they organized Woodbrooke College in 1903. In Kenya, Quakers founded Friends Bible Institute (now Friends Theological College) in Kaimosi, Kenya, in 1942.
Friends and slavery[edit]
Some Quakers in North America and Great Britain became well known for their involvement in the abolition of slavery. However, prior to the American Revolution, it was fairly common for Friends in British America to own slaves. During the early to mid-1700s a disquiet about this practice arose among Friends, best exemplified by the testimonies of Anthony Benezet and John Woolman; and this resulted in an abolition movement among Friends so powerful that by the time of the American Revolution few Friends owned slaves any longer. Another dramatic reversal of such policies and sentiments took place in the life of Moses Brown, one of four Rhode Island brothers who, in 1764, organized and funded the tragic and fateful voyage of the slave ship named Sally. Moses Brown broke away from his three brothers, became an abolitionist, and converted to Christian Quakerism.
Theology[edit]
The theological beliefs of Quaker yearly meetings vary considerably. Tolerance of dissent widely varies among yearly meetings.[57]

 

Society of Friends
Most Friends believe in continuing revelation, which is the religious belief that truth is continuously revealed directly to individuals from God. George Fox, an "early Friend", described it as "Christ has come to teach His people Himself."[14] Friends often focus on trying to hear God. As Isaac Penington wrote in 1670, "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the thing—to feel him to be my root, my life, and my foundation..."[58] Quakers reject the idea of priests, believing in the priesthood of all believers. Some Friends express their concept of God using various phrases including the inner light, or inward light of Christ, the Holy Spirit or other phrases.
See also: Friends United Meeting, Evangelical Friends Church International and Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
Diverse theological beliefs, understandings of the "leading of the Holy Spirit", and statements of "faith and practice" have always existed among Friends. Due in part to the emphasis on the immediate guidance of the Holy Spirit, Quaker doctrines have only sometimes been codified as statements of faith, confessions or theological texts; those that do exist include the Letter to the Governor of Barbados (Fox, 1671),[59] An Apology for the True Christian Divinity (Barclay, 1678),[60] A Catechism and Confession of Faith (Barclay, 1690),[61] The Testimony of the Society of Friends on the Continent of America (adopted jointly by all orthodox yearly meetings in USA, 1830),[62] the Richmond Declaration of Faith (adopted by Five Years Meeting, 1887),[63] and Essential Truths (Jones and Wood, adopted by Five Years Meeting, 1922).[64] As a public statement of faith, most yearly meetings publish their own Book of Discipline, that expresses Christian discipleship within the experience of Friends in that yearly meeting.
Conservative[edit]

 

 Conservative Friends worshipping in London in 1809. Friends are in traditional plain dress. At the front of the meeting house, the recorded ministers sit on a raised ministers' gallery facing the rest of the meeting, with the elders sitting on the bench in front of them, also facing the meeting. Men and women are segregated, but both are able to minister.
Main article: Conservative Friends
Conservative Friends (also known as "Wilburites" after their founder, John Wilbur), share some of the beliefs of George Fox and the Early Friends. Many Wilburites see themselves as the Quakers whose beliefs are most true to original Quaker doctrine, arguing that the majority of Friends "broke away" from the Wilburite Quakers in the 19th and 20th centuries (rather than the Wilburites being the "breakaway" sect). Conservative Friends place their trust in the immediate guidance of God.[65] Conservative Friends completely reject all forms of religious symbolism and outward sacraments, such as the Eucharist and water baptism. Conservative Friends do not believe in relying upon the practice of outward rites and sacraments, to have a living relationship with God through Christ; believing that holiness can exist in all of the activities of one's daily life — and that all of life is sacred in God. Many Conservative Friends believe that a meal held with others can become a form of communion with God, and with one another.
In the USA, Conservative Friends are part of three small Quaker Yearly Meetings in Ohio, North Carolina and Iowa; Ohio Yearly Meeting (Conservative) is generally considered to be the most Bible-centred of the three Conservative Friends Yearly Meetings, retaining Christian Quakers who use the plain language, who continue to wear plain dress, and who live in small villages or rural areas; more than the Conservative Friends from the other two Conservative Friends Yearly Meetings.[66]
In 2007, total membership of these Yearly Meetings was around 1642,[67] making them around 0.4% of the world family of Quakers.
Evangelical[edit]
See also: Evangelical Friends Church International

 

 Sign at entrance of Phoenix Friends Church
Evangelical Friends regard Jesus Christ as their personal Lord and Saviour,[65] and have similar religious beliefs to other evangelical Christians. They believe in, and hold a high regard for, the penal substitution of the atonement of Christ on the Cross at Calvary, biblical infallibility, and the need for every person to personally experience a relationship with God.[68] They believe that the purpose of the Evangelical Friends Church is to evangelise the unsaved people of the world, to spiritually transform them through God's love, and through social service to others.[68] Evangelical Friends regard the Bible as the infallible and self-authenticating Word of God. The statement of faith of Evangelical Friends International, is comparable to the statement of faith of other Evangelical churches. Evangelical Friends who are members of Evangelical Friends International, are mainly located in the USA, Central America, and Asia. Beginning in the 1880s, some Friends began using outward sacraments in their Sunday services, first in Evangelical Friends Church—Eastern Region (then known as Ohio Yearly Meeting [Damascus]). Friends Church—Southwest Region, has also approved the practice of using the outward sacraments in their Sunday services. In places where Evangelical Friends are engaged in missionary work, such as in Africa, Latin America, and Asia, adult baptism by immersion in water, is carried out. This practice differs from most other Quaker branches of the Religious Society of Friends. As of 2014, EFCI claims to represent more than 140,000 Friends,[69] equalling roughly 39% of the total number of Friends worldwide.
Gurneyite[edit]
See also: Friends United Meeting
Gurneyite Friends (aka Friends United Meeting Friends), are the modern-day followers of the Evangelical Quaker theology which was first proclaimed by Joseph John Gurney, a 19th-century British Friend. They make up 49% of the total number of Quakers worldwide.[57] They regard Jesus Christ as their Teacher and Lord,[65] and favour working closely with other Protestant Christian churches. Gurneyite Friends place more emphasis on the authority of the Bible as the direct Word of God than on personal and direct experience of God in their lives. Both children and adults participate in ongoing religious education which emphasises orthodox Christian teaching from the Bible, and in relationship to both orthodox Christian Quaker history and Quaker testimonies. Gurneyite Friends subscribe to a set of orthodox Christian doctrines, such as those found in the Richmond Declaration of faith. In subsequent years, conflict arose among Gurneyite Friends in relation to the Richmond Declaration of faith. Thus, after a while, the Richmond Declaration of faith was adopted by nearly all of the Gurneyite yearly meetings. The Five Years Meeting of Friends reaffirmed their loyalty to the Richmond Declaration of faith in 1912, but specifically stated that it was not to constitute a Christian creed. Although Gurneyism was the main form of Quakerism in Great Britain in the 19th century, Gurneyite Friends are today located in America, Ireland, Africa and India. Many Gurneyite Friends combine "waiting worship" (unprogrammed worship), with religious practices commonly found in other Protestant Christian churches, such as the reading of the Bible and the singing of Hymns. A small minority of Gurneyite Friends practice entirely unprogrammed worship.[70]
Holiness[edit]
See also: Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
Holiness Friends are heavily influenced by the Holiness movement, in particular John Wesley's doctrine of Christian perfection, also called "entire sanctification." This doctrine states that loving God and humanity totally, as exemplified by Christ, enables believers to rid themselves of voluntary sin. This was a predominant view within Quakerism in the United Kingdom and United States in the 19th century, and it influenced other branches of Quakerism. Holiness Friends argue that early Friends, including George Fox's message of perfection, is the same as holiness.[71]
Today, while there are some Friends who hold holiness beliefs within most yearly meetings, it is the predominant theological view of Central Yearly Meeting of Friends, (founded in 1926 specifically to promote holiness theology), and the Holiness Mission of the Bolivian Evangelical Friends Church (founded by missionaries from that meeting in 1919, the largest group of Friends in Bolivia).[72]
Liberal[edit]
See also: Friends General Conference, Britain Yearly Meeting and Beanite Quakerism
Liberal Quakerism generally refers to Friends who have taken ideas from liberal Christianity, often sharing a similar mix of ideas, such as more critical Biblical hermeneutics, often with a focus on the social gospel. The ideas of That of God in everyone and the inner light were popularised by American Friend Rufus Jones, in the early 20th century. He and John Wilhelm Rowntree originated the movement. Liberal Friends were predominant in Great Britain in the 20th century, and among US meetings affiliated to Friends General Conference; and some meetings in Canada, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa.
These ideas remain an important part of liberal Friends' understanding of God. Liberal Friends highlight the importance of good works, particularly living a life that upholds the virtues preached by Jesus. They often emphasize pacifism, treating others equally, living simply and telling the truth.[57]
Like Conservatives Friends, Liberal Friends reject religious symbolism and sacraments, such as water baptism and the Eucharist. While Liberal Friends recognize the potential of these outward forms for awakening experiences of the Inward Light of Christ, they are not part of their worship, and are unnecessary to authentic Christian spirituality.
The Bible remains central to most Liberal Friends' worship, and almost all meetings make the Holy Bible available in the meeting house, (often on a table in the centre of the room), which attendees may read privately or publicly during worship. However, Liberal Friends, decided that the Scriptures should give way to God's leading, if God leads them in a way that is contrary to the Holy Bible. Many Friends are also influenced by liberal Christian theologians, and modern Biblical criticism. They often adopt non-propositional Biblical hermeneutics, such as believing that the Holy Bible is an anthology of human authors' beliefs and feelings about God, rather than Holy Writ, and that multiple interpretations of the Scriptures are acceptable.
Liberal Friends believe that a corporate confession of faith would be an obstacle—both to authentic listening and to new insight. As a non-creedal form of Christianity, Liberal Quakerism is receptive to a wide range of religious faith understandings. Most Liberal Quaker Yearly Meetings publish a Faith and Practice, a book with a range of religious experiences of what it means to be a Friend in that Yearly Meeting.
Universalist[edit]
Main article: Quaker Universalist Fellowship
Universalist Friends affirm religious pluralism, that there are many different paths to God and that understandings of the divine reached through non-Christian religious experiences are as valid as Christian understandings. This group was founded in the late 1970s by John Linton. Linton had worshipped God with the Delhi Worship Group in India (an independent meeting not affiliated to any yearly meeting or wider Quaker group) with Christians, Muslims and Hindus worshipping together.[73] Following a move to Great Britain, he founded the Quaker Universalist Fellowship in 1978. Later his views spread to the US where the Quaker Universalist Fellowship was founded in 1983.[73] Most of the Friends who joined these two fellowships were Liberal Friends from Britain Yearly Meeting in the United Kingdom, and Liberal Friends from Friends General Conference in the United States. Interest in Quaker Universalism is low among Friends from other Yearly meetings. The views of the Universalists provoked controversy between themselves and Christian Quakers within Britain Yearly Meeting, and within Friends General Conference, during the 1980s. Despite the label, Quaker "Universalists" are not necessarily Christian Universalists, embracing the doctrine of universal reconciliation.
Non-theist[edit]
Main article: Nontheist Friend
These Friends have views similar to other post-Christian non-theists in other churches such as the Sea of Faith within the Anglican church. They are predominantly atheists, agnostics, and humanists who nevertheless value membership in a religious organization. The first organization for non-theist Friends was the Humanistic Society of Friends, founded in Los Angeles in 1939. This organization remained small and was absorbed into the American Humanist Association.[74] More recently, interest in non-theism resurfaced, particularly led by British Friend David Boulton, who founded the 40 member Nontheist Friends Network in 2011.[75] Non-theism is controversial, leading some Christian Quakers from within Britain Yearly Meeting to call for non-theists to be refused membership.[76] In one study of Friends in Britain Yearly Meeting, around 30% of Quakers had views that were described as non-theistic, agnostic, or atheist.[77][78] Another study of British Quakers, found that of the 727 members of the Religious Society of Friends who completed the survey, 75.1% said that they consider themselves to be Christian; 17.6% did not consider themselves Christian; and 7.3% of the members either did not answer or circled both answers.[79]:p.41 A further 22% of Quakers did not consider themselves to be a Christian, but fulfilled a definition of being a Christian in that they said that they devoutly followed the teachings and example of Jesus Christ.[79]:p.52 In the same survey 86.9% said that they believed in God.[79]
Practical theology[edit]

 

 In 1688, at this table in Germantown, Philadelphia, Quakers and Mennonites signed a common declaration denouncing slavery
Quakers bear witness or testify to their religious beliefs in their spiritual lives,[80] drawing on the James advice that faith by itself, if it is not accompanied by action, is dead.[81] This religious witness is rooted in their immediate experience of God and verified by the Bible, especially in Jesus Christ's life and teachings. They may bear witness in many ways, according to how they believe God is leading them. Although Quakers share how they relate to God and the world, mirroring Christian ethical codes, for example the Sermon on the Mount or the Sermon on the Plain, Friends argue that they feel personally moved by God rather than following an ethical code.
Some theologians classify Friends' religious witness into categories—known by some Friends as testimonies. These Friends believe these principles and practices testify to, witness to, or provide evidence for God's truth. No categorization is universally accepted.[82]
In East Africa, Friends teach peace and non-violence, simplicity, honesty, equality, humility, marriage and sexual ethics (defining marriage as lifelong between one man and one woman), sanctity of life (opposition to abortion), cultural conflicts and Christian life.[83]
In the United States, the acronym SPICES is often used (Simplicity, Peace, Integrity, Community, Equality and Stewardship). Rocky Mountain Yearly Meeting Friends put their faith in action through living their lives by the following principles: prayer, personal integrity, stewardship (which includes giving away minimum of 10% income and refraining from lotteries), marriage and family (lifelong commitment), regard for mind and body (refraining from certain amusements, propriety and modesty of dress, abstinence from alcohol, tobacco and drugs), peace and non-violence (including refusing to participate in war), abortion (opposition to abortion, practical ministry to women with unwanted pregnancy and promotion of adoption), human sexuality, the Christian and state (look to God for authority, not the government), capital punishment (find alternatives), human equality, women in ministry (recognising women and men have an equal part to play in ministry).[84]
In the UK, the acronym STEP or PEST is used (peace, equality, simplicity and truth). In his book Quaker Speak, British Friend Alastair Heron, lists the following ways in which British Friends testify to God:[85] Opposition to betting and gambling, capital punishment, conscription, hat honor (the largely historical practice of dipping one's hat toward social superiors), oaths, slavery, times and seasons, tithing and promotion of integrity (or truth), peace, penal reform, plain language, relief of suffering, simplicity, social order, Sunday observance, sustainability, temperance and moderation.
Calendar and church holidays[edit]
Quakers traditionally use numbers to denominate the names of the months and days of the week, something they call the plain calendar. This does not use names of calendar units derived from the names of pagan deities. The days begin with First Day (Sunday) and ends on Seventh Day (Saturday), and months run from First Month (January) to Twelfth Month (December). This is based on the terms used in the Bible: e.g., Jesus Christ's followers went to the tomb early on the First Day of the week.[86][87][88][89] The plain calendar emerged in the 17th century in England in the Puritan movement, but became closely identified with Friends by the end of the 1650s, and was commonly employed into the 20th century. It is less commonly encountered today. The term First Day School is commonly used, for what is called by most churches Sunday School.
In common with other Christian denominations derived from the 16th century Puritanism, many Friends do not observe religious festivals (e.g. Christmas, Lent, or Easter), but instead believe that Christ's birth, crucifixion, and resurrection, should be commemorated every day of the year. For example, many Quakers feel that fasting at Lent, but then eating in excess at other times of the year is hypocrisy and therefore many Quakers, rather than observing Lent, live a simple lifestyle all the year round (see Testimony of Simplicity). These practices are often referred to as the testimony against times and seasons.
Some Friends are non-Sabbatarians, holding that "every day is the Lord's day," and that what should be done on a First Day should be done every day of the week, although Meeting for Worship is usually held on a First Day, which has been advised since the first advice issued by elders in 1656.[90]
Worship[edit]
See also: Meeting for worship
Most groups of Quakers meet for regular worship. There are two main types of worship worldwide: programmed worship and waiting worship.
Programmed worship[edit]
See also: Friends United Meeting, Evangelical Friends Church International and Central Yearly Meeting of Friends

 

 West Mansfield Friends Church, Ohio, affiliated with the Evangelical Friends Church International
In programmed worship there is often a prepared Biblical message, which may be delivered by an individual with theological training from a Bible College. There may be hymns, a sermon, Bible readings, joint prayers and a period of silent worship. The worship resembles the church services of other Protestant denominations, although in most cases does not include any Eucharist service. A paid pastor may be responsible for pastoral care. Worship of this kind is celebrated by about 89% of Friends worldwide.[57](p5–6) It is found in many Yearly Meetings in Africa, Asia and parts of the US (central and southern), and is common in programmed meetings affiliated to Friends United Meeting, (who make up around 49% of worldwide membership[57](p5)), and evangelical meetings, including those affiliated to Evangelical Friends International, (who make up at least 40% of Friends worldwide[57](p5–6)). The religious event is sometimes called a Quaker meeting for worship or sometimes called a Friends church service. This religious tradition arose among Friends in the United States, in the 19th century, and in response to the many converts to Christian Quakerism during the national spiritual revival of the time. Friends meetings in Africa and Latin America were generally started by Orthodox Friends from programmed elements of the Society, therefore most African and Latin American Friends worship in a programmed style.
Some Friends also hold "Semi-Programmed" Worship, which brings programmed elements such as hymns and readings into an otherwise unprogrammed worship service.
Unprogrammed worship[edit]
See also: Conservative Friends, Friends General Conference, Britain Yearly Meeting and Beanite Quakerism

 

 The interior of an old meeting house in the United States
Unprogrammed worship (also known as waiting worship, "silent worship", or holy communion in the manner of Friends) is based on the practices of George Fox and the Early Friends, who based their religious beliefs and practices on their interpretation of how the early Christians worshipped God their Heavenly Father. Friends gather together in "expectant waiting upon God" to experience his still small voice leading them from within. There is no plan on how the meeting will proceed, and actual practice varies widely between Meetings and individual worship services. Friends believe that God plans what will happen, with his spirit leading people to speak. When a participant feels led to speak, he or she will stand and share a spoken message of ("vocal ministry") in front of others. When this happens, Quakers believe that the spirit of God is speaking through the speaker. After someone has spoken, it is generally considered good etiquette to allow a few minutes pass in silence before further vocal ministry is given. Sometimes a meeting is entirely silent, sometimes many speak. These meetings lasted for several hours in George Fox's day. Modern meetings are often limited to an hour, ending when two people (usually the elders) exchange the sign of peace by handshake. This handshake is often shared by the others. This style of worship is the norm in Great Britain, Ireland, the continent of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Southern Africa, Canada, and parts of the United States (particularly yearly meetings associated with Friends General Conference and Beanite Quakerism)—constituting about 11%[57]:page 5 of Quakers. Those who worship in this style hold each person to be equal before God and capable of knowing the light of God directly. Anyone present may speak if they feel led to do so. Traditionally, Recorded Ministers were recognised for their particular gift in vocal ministry. This religious practice continues among Conservative Friends and Liberal Friends (e.g. New York Yearly Meeting[91]). Many meetings where Liberal Friends predominate abolished this religious practice. London Yearly Meeting of Friends abolished the acknowledging and recording of Recorded Ministers in 1924.
Governance and organization[edit]
Church government and polity[edit]

 

 Quaker Business Meeting in York
Governance and decision making is conducted at a special meeting for worship—often called a meeting for worship with a concern for business or meeting for worship for church affairs at which all members can attend, as in a Congregational church. Quakers consider this to be a form of worship, conducted in the manner of meeting for worship. They believe this is the gathering of believers who wait upon the Lord to discover God's will, believing that they are not making their own decisions. They seek to understand God's will for the religious community, via the actions of the Holy Spirit within the meeting.[92]
As in a meeting for worship, each member is expected to listen to God, and, if led by Him, stand up and contribute. In some business meetings, Friends wait for the clerk to acknowledge them before speaking. Direct replies to someone's contribution are not permitted, with an aim of seeking truth rather than of debating. A decision is reached when the meeting, as a whole, feels that the "way forward" has been discerned (also called "coming to unity"). There is no voting. On some occasions a single Friend delays a decision, because they feel the meeting is not following God's will. Because of this, many non-Friends, describe this as consensus decision-making; however Friends are instead determined to continue seeking God's will. It is assumed that if everyone is listening to God's spirit, the way forward will become clear.
International organization[edit]
Main article: Friends World Committee for Consultation
Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC) is the international Quaker organization that loosely unifies the different religious traditions of Quakers; FWCC brings together the largest variety of Friends in the world. Friends World Committee for Consultation is divided into four sections to represent different regions of the world: Africa, Asia West Pacific, Europe and Middle East, and the Americas.[citation needed]
Various organizations associated with Friends include a U.S. lobbying organization based in Washington, D.C. called the Friends Committee on National Legislation (FCNL); service organizations such as the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), the Quaker United Nations Offices, Quaker Peace and Social Witness, Friends Committee on Scouting, the Quaker Peace Centre in Cape Town, South Africa, and the Alternatives to Violence Project.
Yearly meetings[edit]
Main article: Yearly Meeting
Quakers today are organized into independent and regional, national bodies called Yearly Meetings, which have often split from one another because of Christian doctrinal differences. Several associations unite Quakers who share similar religious beliefs — for example Evangelical Friends Church International unites evangelical Christian Friends;[93] Friends United Meeting unites Friends into "fellowships where Jesus Christ is known, loved, and obeyed as Teacher and Lord;"[94] and Friends General Conference links together Quakers that have non-creedal, liberal religious beliefs. Many Quaker Yearly Meetings, are also members of Friends World Committee for Consultation, an international fellowship of Yearly Meetings from different Quaker religious traditions.
Membership[edit]
A Friend is a member of a Yearly Meeting, usually beginning with membership in a local monthly meeting. Methods for acquiring membership vary; for example, in most Kenyan yearly meetings, attenders who wish to become members are required to take part in around two years of adult education, memorising key Bible passages, and learning about the history of orthodox Christianity, and of Christian Quakerism. Within Britain Yearly Meeting, membership is acquired through a process of peer review, where a potential member is visited by several members who present a report to the other members of the monthly meeting before a decision is reached.
Within some Friends Churches in the Evangelical Friends Church, in particular in Rwanda, Burundi, and parts of the USA, an adult believer's baptism by immersion in water, is optional. Within Liberal Friends, Conservative Friends, and Pastoral Friends Churches, Friends do not practice water baptism, Christening, or other initiation ceremonies to admit a new member or a newborn baby. Children are often welcomed into the meeting at their first attendance. Formerly, children born to Quaker parents automatically became members (sometimes called Birthright membership), but this is no longer the case in many areas. Some parents apply for membership on behalf of their children, while others allow the child to decide whether to become a member when they are ready, and older in age. Some meetings adopt a policy that children, some time after becoming young adults, must apply independently for membership.
Meetings for worship for specific tasks[edit]
Memorial services[edit]

 

 The Quaker testimony of simplicity extends to memorialisation as well. Founder George Fox is remembered with a simple grave marker.
Traditional Quaker memorial services are held as a form of worship and are known as memorial meetings. Friends gather for worship and offer remembrances about the deceased. In some Quaker religious traditions, the coffin or ashes are not present. Memorial meetings may be held many weeks after the death, which can enable wider attendance, and can also replace grief with spiritual reflection, and celebration of life to dominate. Memorial meetings can last over an hour, particularly if many people attend. Memorial services give everyone a chance to remember the lost individual in their own way, comforting those present, and re-affirming the love of the people in the wider community.[citation needed]
Marriage[edit]
Main article: Quaker wedding
A meeting for worship for the solemnisation of marriage in an unprogrammed Friends meeting is similar to any other unprogrammed Meeting for Worship.[95] The pair exchange vows before God and gathered witnesses, and the meeting returns to open worship. At the rise of meeting, the witnesses, including the youngest children, are asked to sign the wedding certificate as a record. In Great Britain, Quakers keep a separate record of the union and notify the General Register Office.
In the early days of the United States, there was doubt whether a marriage solemnized in that manner was entitled to legal recognition. Over the years, each state has set rules for the procedure. Most US states, (except Pennsylvania), expect the marriage document to be signed by a single officiant (a priest, rabbi, minister, Justice of the Peace, etc.). Quakers routinely modify the document to allow three or four Friends to sign as the officiant. Often, these are the members of a committee of ministry and oversight, who have helped the couple plan their marriage. Usually, a separate document containing their vows and the signatures of all present is kept by the couple, and often displayed prominently in their home.
In many Friends meetings, the couple meet with a clearness committee prior to the wedding. This committee's purpose is to discuss with the couple the many aspects of marriage and life as a couple. If the couple seems ready, the marriage is recommended to the meeting.
As in the wider society, there is a wide diversity of views on the issue of same-sex marriage, and Friends have varying views on the topic. Various Friends meetings around the world have voiced support for, and have recognised, same-sex marriages. In 1986, Hartford Friends Meeting in Connecticut, USA, reached the decision that "the Meeting recognizes a committed union in a celebration of marriage, under the care of the Meeting. The same loving care and consideration should be given to both homosexual and heterosexual applicants as outlined in Faith and Practice."[96] Since then, some other meetings of liberal and progressive Friends from Australia, Britain, New Zealand, parts of North America, and other countries have recognised marriage between partners of the same sex. In jurisdictions, where same-sex marriage is not recognised by the civil authorities, some meetings follow the practice of early Quakers in overseeing the union without reference to the state. There are also Friends who do not support same-sex marriage, and some Evangelical and Pastoral yearly meetings in the United States have issued public statements stating that homosexuality is a sin.[96]
National and international divisions and organization[edit]
Like many religious movements, the Religious Society of Friends has evolved, changed, and split into subgroups.
Quakerism started in England and Wales, and quickly spread to Ireland, the Netherlands,[15] Barbados[16] and North America. Today Kenya is, by far, the country with the most Quakers. Other countries with over 1,000 Quakers are Burundi, Bolivia, Cambodia, Canada, Guatemala, Ireland, Indonesia, Jamaica, Rwanda, Taiwan, Tanzania, Uganda, United Kingdom, and the United States.[97] Although the total number of Quakers is around 360,000 worldwide,[98] Quaker influence is concentrated in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Kaimosi, Kenya; Newberg, Oregon; Greenleaf, Idaho; Whittier, California; Richmond, Indiana; Friendswood, Texas; Birmingham, England; Ramallah, Palestine, and Greensboro, North Carolina.
Africa[edit]
Quakers in Africa (2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Burundi

12,000
South Africa

144
Congo (Republic of)

10
Kenya

133,825
Madagascar

16
Nigeria

16
Rwanda

3,234
Tanzania

3,100
Uganda

5,000
Main article: Religious Society of Friends in Africa
The highest concentration of Quakers is in Africa.[99] The Friends of East Africa were at one time part of a single East Africa Yearly Meeting, then the world's largest yearly meeting. Today, this region is served by several distinct yearly meetings. Most of these are affiliated with the Friends United Meeting, practice programmed worship and employ pastors. Friends meet in Rwanda and Burundi, as well as new work beginning in North Africa. Small unprogrammed meetings exist also in Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa and Zimbabwe. -

Australia and New Zealand[edit]
Quakers in Australia and New Zealand (2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Australia

1,984
New Zealand

656
Friends in Australia and New Zealand follow the unprogrammed tradition, similar to Britain Yearly Meeting.
Considerable distances between the colonies and small numbers of Quakers meant that Australia Friends were dependent on London until the 20th century. The Society remained unprogrammed and is named Australia Yearly Meeting, with local organizations around seven Regional Meetings: Canberra (which extends into southern New South Wales), New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia (which extends into Northern Territory), Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia.[100] The Friends' School is found in Hobart. An annual meeting each January, is hosted by a different Regional Meeting over a seven-year cycle, with a Standing Committee each July or August. The Australia Yearly Meeting published This We Can Say: Australian Quaker Life, Faith and Thought, in 2003.
Meetings for worship in New Zealand started in Nelson in 1842, and in Auckland in 1885. The New Zealand Yearly Meeting, today consists of nine monthly meetings.[101] The Yearly Meeting published Quaker Faith and Practice in Aotearoa New Zealand, in 2003.

Asia[edit]
Quakers in Asia (2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Cambodia

2,500
China

95
India

712
Indonesia

3,000
Japan

135
Korea

12
Nepal

500
Philippines

850
Taiwan

3,200
Quaker meetings occur in India, Hong Kong, Korea, Philippines, Japan and Nepal.
India has four yearly meetings — the unprogrammed Mid-India Yearly Meeting, programmed Bhopal Yearly Meeting, and the Mahoba Yearly Meeting. Bundelkhand Yearly Meeting is an evangelical Friends Church affiliated to Evangelical Friends International. Other programmed and unprogrammed worship groups are not affiliated with any yearly meeting.
Evangelical Friends Churches exist in the Philippines and Nepal, and are affiliated with Evangelical Friends International.

Europe[edit]
Quakers in Europe (2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Belgium / Luxembourg

42
Britain

15,775
Croatia

2
Czech Republic

12
Denmark

29
Estonia

4
Finland

20
France

71
Georgia

13
Germany

338
Greece

3
Hungary / Romania / Albania

4,306
Ireland

1,591
Latvia

6
Lithuania

2
Netherlands

115
Norway

151
Russia

13
Spain

8
Sweden

100
Switzerland

104
In the United Kingdom, the predominantly liberal and unprogrammed Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain, has 478 local meetings,[102] and a total of 14,260 adult members,[102] and an additional 8,560 non-member adults who attend worship[102] and 2,251 children.[102] The number has declined steadily since the mid-20th century.[102] Programmed meetings occur, including in Wem[103] and London.[104] Small groups of Conservative Friends meet in Ripley and Greenwich in England, and Arbroath in Scotland,[105] who follow Ohio Yearly Meeting's Book of Discipline.[106]
Evangelical Friends Central Europe Yearly Meeting has 4,306 members[97] across six nations,[107] including Albania, Hungary and Romania.[97]
Ireland Yearly Meeting is unprogrammed and is more conservative than Britain Yearly Meeting. They have 1,591 members[97] in 28 meetings[108] across the Republic of Ireland, and in Northern Ireland.
German Yearly Meeting is unprogrammed and liberal, and has 338 members,[97] worshipping in 31 meetings, in Germany and in Austria.
Small groups of Friends in Belgium, Luxembourg, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Greece, Italy, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lebanon, Palestine, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland, attend meetings for worship there.[97]

Middle East[edit]
Quakers in the Middle East(2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Lebanon / Palestine

60
Middle East Yearly Meeting has meetings in Lebanon and Palestine. There has been an active and vibrant Palestinian Quaker community in Ramallah since the late 1800s. In 1910 this community built the Ramallah Friends Meetinghouse and later added another building that was used for community outreach.
The Ramallah Friends Meeting has always played a vital role in the community. In 1948 the buildings and grounds became the home to many Palestinian refugees. Throughout the years, the members of the Ramallah Friends Meeting organized numerous community programs such as the Children’s Play Center, the First Day School, and women’s activities.
By the early 1990s the Meetinghouse and Annex, which housed meeting rooms and bathroom facilities, fell into disrepair as a result of damage inflicted by time and impact of conflict. So serious was the deterioration of the meetinghouse that by the middle 1990’s it was impossible to use the building at all.
A further blow to the Friends and the wider Palestinian community was the high level of emigration brought on by the economic situation and the hardships arising from the continuing Israeli military occupation. The Meetinghouse, which had served as a place of worship for the Friends in Ramallah could no longer be used as such and the Annex could no longer be used for community outreach.
In 2002 a committee consisting of members of the Religious Society of Friends in the US and the Clerk of the Ramallah Meeting began to raise funds for the renovations of the buildings and grounds of the Meetinghouse. By November, 2004 the renovations were complete, and on March 6, 2005, exactly 95 years to the day after the dedication, the Meetinghouse and Annex were rededicated as a Quaker and community resource.
Friends meet every Sunday morning at 10:30 a.m. for unprogrammed Meeting for Worship. Everyone is welcome to attend.

North and South America[edit]
Quakers in the Americas (2007)[97]

Country
Number of Quakers

Bolivia

33,000
Canada

1,216
Chile

15
Colombia

8
Costa Rica

72
Cuba

535
El Salvador

472
Guatemala

20,730
Honduras

2,000
Jamaica

330
Mexico

861
Peru

1,700
United States

86,837
Quakers can be found throughout Canada. Some of the largest concentrations are in Southern Ontario.[citation needed]
Friends in the United States have diverse worship styles and differences of theology, vocabulary, and practice.
A local congregation in the unprogrammed tradition is called a meeting, or a monthly meeting (e.g., Smalltown Meeting or Smalltown Monthly Meeting). The reference to "monthly" is because the meeting meets monthly to conduct the group's business. Most "monthly meetings" meet for worship at least once a week; some meetings have several worship meetings during the week. In programmed traditions, local congregations are often referred to as "Friends Churches."
Monthly meetings are often part of a regional group called a quarterly meeting, which is usually part of an even larger group called a yearly meeting; with the adjectives "quarterly" and "yearly" referring specifically to the frequency of meetings for worship with a concern for business.
Some yearly meetings belong to larger organizations to help maintain order and communication within the Society. The three chief ones are Friends General Conference (FGC), Friends United Meeting (FUM), and Evangelical Friends Church International (EFCI). In all three groups, most member organizations, though not necessarily members are from the United States. FGC is theologically the most liberal of the three groups, while EFCI is the most evangelical. FUM is the largest. Friends United Meeting was originally known as "Five Years Meeting." Some monthly meetings belong to more than one larger organization, while others are fully independent.

Relations with other churches and faiths[edit]
Ecumenical relations[edit]
Many Quakers prior to the 20th century, considered the Religious Society of Friends to be a Christian movement, but did not feel that their religious faith fit within the categories of Catholic, Orthodox, or Protestant.[109] Many Conservative Friends, while fully seeing themselves as orthodox Christians, choose to remain separate from other Christian groups.
Many Friends in Liberal Friends' meetings are actively involved in the ecumenical movement, often working closely with other Mainline Protestant and liberal Christian churches, with whom they share common religious ground. A concern for peace and social justice often brings Friends together with other Christian churches and other Christian groups. Some Liberal Quaker yearly meetings are members of ecumenical pan-Christian organizations, which include Protestant, Orthodox, and Anglican churches — for example Philadelphia Yearly Meeting is a member of the National Council of Churches.[110] Britain Yearly Meeting is a member of Churches Together in Britain and Ireland, and Friends General Conference is a member of the World Council of Churches.[111]
Guerneyite Friends would typically see themselves as part of an orthodox Christian movement and work closely with other Christian groups. Friends United Meeting (the international organization of Gurneyite yearly meetings) is a member of the National Council of Churches[110] and the World Council of Churches,[111] which are pan-Christian organizations, which include Protestant, Orthodox, and Anglican churches.
Evangelical Friends work closely with other evangelical churches from other Christian traditions. The North American branch of Evangelical Friends Church International is a member church of the National Association of Evangelicals. Evangelical Friends tend to be less involved with non-evangelical churches and are not members of the World Council of Churches or National Council of Churches.
The majority of other Christian groups recognize Friends among their fellow-Christians.[112] Some people who attend Quaker Meetings assume that Quakers are not Christians, when they do not hear overtly Christian language during the meeting for worship.[113]
Relations with other faiths[edit]
Relationships between Quakers and non-Christians vary considerably, according to sect, geography, and history.
Early Quakers distanced themselves from practices that they saw as pagan, such as by refusing to use the usual names of days of the week, since they derive from names of pagan deities.[114] They refused to celebrate Christmas because they believed it was based on pagan festivities.[115]
Early Friends attempted to convert adherents of other world religions to Christianity. For example, George Fox wrote a number of open letters to Jews and Muslims, in which he encouraged them to turn to Jesus Christ as the only path to salvation (e.g. A Visitation to the Jews,[116] To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria, and all that are under his authority, to read this over, which concerns their salvation[117][118] and To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria.[119] Mary Fisher attempted to convert the Muslim Mehmed IV (the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire) in 1658.
In 1870, Richard Price Hallowell argued that the logical extension of Christian Quakerism is a universal Church, which demands a religion which embraces Jew, Pagan and Christian, and which cannot be limited by the dogmas of one or the other.[120]
Since the late 20th century, some attenders at Liberal Quaker Meetings have actively identified with world faiths other than Christianity, such as Judaism, Islam,[121] Buddhism[122] and Paganism.
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47.Jump up ^ Bacon, Margaret. Mothers of Feminism. p. 24.
48.Jump up ^ Persecution and Pluralism: Calvinists and Religious Minorities in Early.... By Richard Bonney, David J. B. Trim. [2]
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52.Jump up ^ Friends' Intelligencer, Volume 74. Philadelphia: Friends Intelligencer Association, Limited. 1917. p. 613.
53.Jump up ^ David Yount (2007). How the Quakers invented America. pp. 83–84.
54.Jump up ^ "History of Malone". Malone University.
55.Jump up ^ "History of Friends at APU". Azusa Pacific University.
56.Jump up ^ "About Barclay". Barclay College.
57.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Page 5; Introduction from Quaker World Relations Committee
58.Jump up ^ "Isaac Penington to Thomas Walmsley (1670)". Quaker Heritage Press. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
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60.Jump up ^ Barclay, Robert (1678). An Apology for the True Christian Divinity.
61.Jump up ^ Barclay, Robert (1690). A Catechism and Confession of Faith.
62.Jump up ^ The Testimony of the Society of Friends on the Continent of America. New York: Richard and George S Wood. 1830.
63.Jump up ^ "Richmond Declaration of Faith". QuakerInfo.com.
64.Jump up ^ "Essential Truths". QuakerInfo.com.
65.^ Jump up to: a b c "Quaker Finder". Friends General Conference. Retrieved 2009-07-26.
66.Jump up ^ anonymous. "A short history of Conservative Friends".
67.Jump up ^ http://fwccamericas.org/find_friends/stats_by_country.shtml
68.^ Jump up to: a b Evangelical Friends Church International. "Friends Beliefs".
69.Jump up ^ "Evangelical Friends Church International".
70.Jump up ^ "Quaker Life – Local Meeting Directory". Friends United Meeting. Retrieved 2014-08-25.
71.Jump up ^ Central Yearly Meeting of Friends. "About Us".
72.Jump up ^ al.], Margery Post Abbott ... [et. Historical Dictionary of the Friends (Quakers) (2nd ed. ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. pp. 327–328. ISBN 0-8108-7088-6.
73.^ Jump up to: a b Rickermann, Sally (2007). "Quaker Universalist Fellowship: Its History". Journal of the Quaker Universalist Fellowship (46).
74.Jump up ^ Cresson, Os. "Roots and Flowers of Quaker Nontheism".
75.Jump up ^ "New Nontheist Friends Network in Britain". nontheistfriends.org.
76.Jump up ^ Heathfield, D (27 May 2011). "Non-theist Friends Network". The Friend 169 (21).
77.Jump up ^ Dandelion, Pink. A Sociological Analysis of the Theology of Quakers: The Silent Revolution, Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston NY,1996.
78.Jump up ^ Heron, Alistair Caring Conviction Commitment: Dilemmas of Quaker membership today, Quaker Home Service, London 1992
79.^ Jump up to: a b c Mellor, Katherine (2009). Christian Belief in the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers): a Response to the Claim That British Friends Are Post-Christian (A dissertation submitted to The University of Birmingham For the degree of Master of Philosophy) (PDF). University of Birmingham.(pp. 39–40)
80.Jump up ^ Testimonies Committee of Quaker Peace and Social Witness (2005). Living What We Believe: Quaker Testimonies: a way of living faithfully (leaflet).
81.Jump up ^ James 2:17
82.Jump up ^ "Quaker Testimonies leaflet" (PDF). Britain Yearly Meeting.
83.Jump up ^ Friends United Meeting in East Africa (2002) Christian Faith and Practice in the Friends Church.
84.Jump up ^ Rocky Mountain Yearly Meeting of the Friends Church (1997) The Faith and Practice http://www.rmym.org/Faith_And_Practice_Print.php
85.Jump up ^ Heron, Alastair (2008). Quaker Speak.
86.Jump up ^ Mark 16:2
87.Jump up ^ Luke 24:1
88.Jump up ^ John 20:1
89.Jump up ^ John 20:19
90.Jump up ^ Dewsbury, William; Farnworth, Richard. "The Epistle from the Elders at Balby, 1656".
91.Jump up ^ New York Yearly Meeting. "Formal Guidelines from New York Yearly Meeting's Faith and Practice".
92.Jump up ^ "Guide to Quaker Business Meetings". Quakers in Scotland.
93.Jump up ^ "Friends Beliefs". Evangelical Friends Church International.
94.Jump up ^ "Friends United Meeting". Retrieved November 2012.
95.Jump up ^ Britain Yearly Meeting (1999). Quaker faith & practice (3rd ed.). London: Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain. ISBN 0-85245-306-X.
96.^ Jump up to: a b "THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS (QUAKERS) AND HOMOSEXUALITY". Retrieved 5 May 2015.
97.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Friends World Committee for Consultation (2007) 'Finding Quakers around the World http://www.fwccamericas.org/publications/images/fwcc_map_2007_sm.gif
98.Jump up ^ "FWCC's map of quaker meetings and churches". Fwccworld.org. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
99.Jump up ^ 43 percent of Quakers worldwide are found in Africa, versus 30 percent in North America, 17 percent in Latin America, and the Caribbean, 6 percent in Europe, and 4 percent in Asia/West Pacific. See Quaker Information Center.
100.Jump up ^ "Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Australia Inc.". Retrieved 5 May 2015.
101.Jump up ^ "Structure of the Society of Friends". Retrieved 5 May 2015.
102.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain. "Tabular Statement as at 31 xii 2010" (PDF).
103.Jump up ^ Wem Quaker Meeting. "Meeting Style – Wem Quaker Meeting".
104.Jump up ^ "NW London Quakers – Friends House Meeting".
105.Jump up ^ "Ripley Quaker Meeting".
106.Jump up ^ "News and Events". Ripley Christian Quakers. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
107.Jump up ^ Evangelical Friends Church International. "Europe".
108.Jump up ^ Ireland Yearly Meeting. "Quakers in Ireland,".
109.Jump up ^ "Quakers—The Religious Society of Friends.". BBC.
110.^ Jump up to: a b "Members of the National Council of Churches". Ncccusa.org. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
111.^ Jump up to: a b "Friends (Quakers)". Oikoumene.org. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
112.Jump up ^ "Quakers – the Religious Society of Friends". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
113.Jump up ^ "If Quakers were more Christian". Guardian. 2008-07-16. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
114.Jump up ^ Yount, David (2007). How the Quakers invented America. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc. p. 11. ISBN 0-7425-5833-9.
115.Jump up ^ Frost, Jerry William (1968). The Quaker family in colonial America: a social history of the Society of Friends, Volume 2. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin. p. 436.
116.Jump up ^ Fox, George. "A Visitation To The Jews. From Them Whom The Lord Hath Visited From On High, Among Whom He Hath Performed His Promise Made To Abraham, Isaac, And Jacob. The Mighty Day Of The Lord Is Come, And Coming, Who Dwells Not In Temples Made With Hands, Nor Is He Worshipped With Men's Hands, But In The Spirit, From Whom The Scripture Was Given Forth". Works of George Fox.
117.Jump up ^ Fox, George (1821). "To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria, and all that are under his Authority, to read this over, which concerns their Salvation". The Works of George Fox: Gospel truth demonstrated, in a collection of doctrinal books, given forth by that faithful minister of Jesus Christ, George Fox: containing principles essential to Christianity and salvation, held among the people called Quakers. Marcus T. C. Gould. pp. 216–221.
118.Jump up ^ Fox, George. To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria, And All That Are Under His Authority, To Read This Over, Which Concerns Their Salvation (in: "Works of George Fox" (volume 4).
119.Jump up ^ Fox, George. "To The Great Turk And King At Algiers in Algeria". Works of George Fox (volume 6).
120.Jump up ^ Richard Price Hollowell (1870). The Quakers in New England: An Essay. Merrihew & Son, Printers. p. 26.
121.Jump up ^ Brett Miller-White (2004) The Journeyman – The Making of a Muslim Quaker Quaker Theology, 10
122.Jump up ^ Valerie Brown (2006) The Mindful Quaker
Further reading[edit]
Vogel, Karen Anna. Christmas Union: Quaker Abolitionists of Chester County, PA. Murray Pura's Cry of Freedom Series, Volume 5.
Abbott, Margery; Chijioke, Mary Ellen; Dandelion, Pink; Oliver, John William, ed. (June 2003). Historical Dictionary of The Friends (Quakers). Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-4483-4.
Bacon, Margaret Hope (April 2000). The Quiet Rebels: The Story of the Quakers in America. Pendle Hill Publications. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-87574-935-8.
Bacon, Margaret Hope. "Quakers and Colonization" Quaker History. 95 (Spring 2006), 26–43.
Barbour, Hugh; Frost, J. William. The Quakers. (1988), 412pp; historical survey, including many capsule biographies online edition
Barbour, Hugh (October 1985). The Quakers in Puritan England. Friends United Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-913408-87-2.
Benjamin, Philip. Philadelphia Quakers in an Age of Industrialism, 1870–1920. (1976),
Bill, J. Brent, Holy Silence: The Gift of Quaker Spirituality. ISBN 1-55725-420-6
Boulton, David (ed.) 2006. Godless for God's Sake: Nontheism in Contemporary Quakerism. Dales Historical Monographs. ISBN 0-9511578-6-8
Birkel, Michael L., Silence and Witness: The Quaker Tradition. ISBN 1-57075-518-3 (in the UK, ISBN 0-232-52448-3)
Braithwaite, William C. The Beginnings of Quakerism. (1912); revised by Henry J. Cadbury (1955) online edition
Braithwaite, William C. Second Period of Quakerism. (1919); revised by Henry Cadbury (1961), covers 1660 to 1720s in Britain
Brinton, Howard H., Friends for 350 Years. ISBN 0-87574-903-8
Brock, Peter. Pioneers of the Peaceable Kingdom. (1968), on Peace Testimony from the 1650s to 1900.
Bronner, Edwin B. William Penn's Holy Experiment. (1962)
Burnet, G. B., Story of Quakerism in Scotland. The Lutterworth Press 2007, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-7188-9176-3
Connerley, Jennifer. Friendly Americans: Representing Quakers in the United States, 1850–1920. PhD dissertation U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 2006. 277 pp. Citation: DAI 2006 67(2): 600-A. DA3207363 online at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Cooper, Wilmer A., A Living Faith: An Historical and Comparative Study of Quaker Beliefs. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-944350-53-4
Crothers, A. Glenn. Quakers Living in the Lion's Mouth: The Society of Friends in Northern Virginia, 1730–1865. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2012.
Dandelion, Pink, A Sociological Analysis of the Theology of the Quakers: The Silent Revolution. (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996) ISBN 0-7734-8807-3
Dandelion, Pink, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction. ISBN 978-0-19-920679-7
Davies, Adrian. The Quakers in English Society, 1655–1725. (2000). 261 pp.
Doherty, Robert. The Hicksite Separation. (1967), uses the new social history to inquire who joined which side
Dunn, Mary Maples. William Penn: Politics and Conscience. (1967)
Frost, J. William. The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends. (1973), emphasis on social structure and family life
Frost, J. William. "The Origins of the Quaker Crusade against Slavery: A Review of Recent Literature," Quaker History'.' 67 (1978): 42–58,
Fryer, Jonathan (Ed.), George Fox and the Children of the Light. (London: Kyle Cathie, 1991) ISBN 1-85626-024-0
Gillman, Harvey, A Light that is Shining: Introduction to the Quakers. ISBN 0-85245-213-6
Gorman, George H., Introducing Quakers. (3rd revised reprint) (London: Quaker Home Service, 1981) ISBN 0-85245-005-2
Guiton, Gerard, The Growth and Development of Quaker Testimony. ISBN 0-7734-6002-0
Hamm, Thomas. The Quakers in America. (2003). 293 pp., strong analysis of current situation, with brief history
Hamm, Thomas. The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800–1907. (1988), looks at the impact of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction
Hamm, Thomas D. Earlham College: A History, 1847–1997. (1997). 448 pp.
Hatton, Jean. Betsy: The Dramatic Biography of Prison Reformer Elizabeth Fry (2005) ISBN 1-85424-705-0 and ISBN 0-8254-6092-1
Hatton, Jean. George Fox: Founder of the Quakers (2007) ISBN 1854247530 and ISBN 978-0-8254-6106-4.
Hubbard, Geoffrey, Quaker by Convincement. ISBN 0-85245-189-X and ISBN 0-14-021663-4
Illick, Joseph E. Colonial Pennsylvania: A History. 1976. online edition
Ingle, H. Larry, First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism. ISBN 0-19-507803-9 and ISBN 0-19-510117-0
Ingle, H. Larry, Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation. ISBN 0-87574-926-7
James, Sydney. A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America. (1963), a broad ranging study that remains the best history in America before 1800
Jones, Rufus M., Amelia M. Gummere and Isaac Sharpless. Quakers in the American Colonies. (1911), history to 1775 online edition
Jones, Rufus M. Later Periods of Quakerism. 2 vols. (1921), covers England and America until World War I.
Jones, Rufus M. The Story of George Fox. (1919) 169 pages online edition
Jones, Rufus M. A Service of Love in War Time: American Friends Relief Work in Europe, 1917–1919. (1922) online edition
Jordan, Ryan. "The Dilemma of Quaker Pacifism in a Slaveholding Republic, 1833–1865," Civil War History. Vol. 53, 2007 online edition
Jordan, Ryan. Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820–1865. (2007) 191 pp.
Kennedy, Thomas C. British Quakerism, 1860–1920: The Transformation of a Religious Community. (2001). 477 pp.
Larson, Rebecca. Daughters of Light: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies and Abroad, 1700–1775. (1999). 399 pp.
LeShana, James David. "'Heavenly Plantations': Quakers in Colonial North Carolina." PhD dissertation: U. of California, Riverside 1998. 362 pp. DAI 2000 61(5): 2005-A. DA9974014 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Minear, Mark., Richmond, 1887: A Quaker Drama Unfolds ISBN (0913408980) ISBN (9780913408988)
Moore, Rosemary, The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain 1646–1666. (2000) 314 pp. ISBN 0-271-01989-1
Moretta, John A., William Penn and the Quaker Legacy. ISBN 0-321-16392-3
Mullet, Michael, editor, New Light on George Fox. ISBN 1-85072-142-4
Nash, Gary. Quakers and Politics: Pennsylvania, 1680–1726. (1968)
Punshon, John, Portrait in Grey : A Short History of the Quakers. (2nd ed.) (London: Quaker Books, 2006) ISBN 0-85245-399-X
Rasmussen, Ane Marie Bak. A History of the Quaker Movement in Africa. (1994). 168 pp.
Russell, Elbert. The History of Quakerism. (1942). online edition
Smuck, Harold. Friends in East Africa. (Richmond, Indiana: 1987)
Steere, Douglas. 1967. On Being Present Where You Are. Wallingford, Pa: Pendle Hill Pamphlet No. 151.
Tolles, Frederick B. Meeting House and Counting House. (1948), on Quaker businessmen in colonial Philadelphia
Tolles, Frederick B. Quakers and the Atlantic Culture. (1960)
Trueblood, D. Elton The People Called Quakers. (1966)
Vlach, John Michael. "Quaker Tradition and the Paintings of Edward Hicks: A Strategy for the Study of Folk Art," Journal of American Folklore. Vol. 94, 1981 online edition
Walvin, James. The Quakers: Money and Morals. (1997). 243 pp.
Yarrow, Clarence H. The Quaker Experience in International Conciliation. (1979), for post-1945
Primary sources[edit]
Bill, J. Brent, Imagination and Spirit: A Contemporary Quaker Reader. ISBN 0-944350-61-5
Gummere, Amelia, ed. The Journal and Essays of John Woolman. (1922) online edition
Jones, Rufus M., ed. The Journal of George Fox: An Autobiography. online edition
Mott, Lucretia Coffin. Selected Letters of Lucretia Coffin Mott. edited by Beverly Wilson Palmer, U. of Illinois Press, 2002. 580 pp
Smith, Robert Lawrence, A Quaker Book of Wisdom. ISBN 0-688-17233-4
West, Jessamyn, editor. The Quaker Reader. (1962) ISBN 0-87574-916-X collection of essays by Fox, Penn and other notable Quakers
Children's books[edit]
De Angeli, Marguerite. Thee, Hannah! ISBN 0-8361-9106-4.
Milhous, Katherine The Egg Tree. ISBN 978-0-689-71568-6.
Appolonia's Valentine. ISBN 978-0-684-92306-2.
Turkle, Brinton The Adventures of Obadiah. ISBN 0-670-10614-3.
Obadiah the Bold. ISBN 1-893103-19-6.
Rachel and Obadiah. ISBN 1-893103-18-8.
Thy Friend, Obadiah. ISBN 0-14-050393-5.

External links[edit]

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Quakers at DMOZ
Digital Quaker Collection: – a list of Christian Quaker literature
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Works by Society of Friends at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Quakers at Internet Archive
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Unitarian Universalism

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This article is about the liberal religious movement. For the Christian theology which includes a central belief in the unitary nature of God, see Unitarianism. For other uses, see Unitarian.

Unitarian Universalism
Flaming Chalice.svg
An early version of the flaming chalice, the most widely used symbol of UUism.
 
Abbreviation
UUism, Unitarianism
Type
Liberal religion
Scripture
All sources admissible, none required. Members are free to observe their own personally-favored literature.
Founder
Members of American Unitarian Association and Universalist Church of America via consolidation
Origin
May 1961
Congregations
1,070 worldwide
Number of followers
221,000 members of the Unitarian Universalist Association; 800,000 identify as Unitarian Universalist[1]
Unitarian Universalism[2][3][4] is a liberal religion characterized by a "free and responsible search for truth and meaning".[5][6] Unitarian Universalists do not share a creed but are unified by their shared search for spiritual growth. As such, the Unitarian Universalist Church (UU) includes many agnostics, theists, and atheists among its membership. The roots of UU are in liberal Christianity, specifically Unitarianism and Universalism. Unitarian Universalists state that from these traditions comes a deep regard for intellectual freedom and inclusive love, so that congregations and members seek inspiration and derive insight from all major world religions.[7]
The theology of individual Unitarian Universalists ranges widely, including atheism, agnosticism, pantheism, deism, Judaism, Islam,[8] Christianity, neopaganism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, and many more.[9]
The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) was formed in 1961, a consolidation of the American Unitarian Association, established in 1825, and the Universalist Church of America,[10] established in 1866. It is headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts, and serves churches mostly in the United States. A group of thirty Philippine congregations is represented as a sole member within the UUA. The Canadian Unitarian Council (CUC) became an independent body in 2002.[11] The UUA and CUC are, in turn, two of the seventeen members of the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists.[12]


Contents  [hide]
1 History 1.1 Universalism
1.2 Unitarianism 1.2.1 Britain
1.2.2 United States
1.3 Integration 1825–1961
2 Beliefs 2.1 Seven Principles and Purposes
2.2 Six Sources
2.3 Diversity of practices
2.4 Approach to sacred writings
2.5 Elevator speeches
3 Worship and ritual 3.1 Symbols
3.2 Services of worship
4 Politics 4.1 Historical politics of Unitarians and Universalists
4.2 Politics of UUs
5 Controversies 5.1 External 5.1.1 Lack of formal creed
5.1.2 Confusion with other groups
5.2 Internal 5.2.1 Language of reverence
5.2.2 Borrowing from other religions

6 Organizations
7 Number of members
8 Notable members
9 Notable congregations
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links

History[edit]


 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2011)
Unitarian Universalism was formed from the consolidation in 1961 of two historically Christian denominations, the Universalist Church of America and the American Unitarian Association,[10] both based in the United States; the new organization formed in this merger was the Unitarian Universalist Association.[13] At the time of the North American consolidation, Unitarians and Universalists had expanded beyond their roots in liberal Christian theology. Today they draw from a variety of religious traditions. Individuals may or may not self-identify as Christians or subscribe to Christian beliefs.[14] Unitarian Universalist congregations and fellowships tend to retain some Christian traditions, such as Sunday worship with a sermon and the singing of hymns. The extent to which the elements of any particular faith tradition are incorporated into personal spiritual practice is a matter of individual choice for congregants, in keeping with a creedless, non-dogmatic approach to spirituality and faith development.[15]
New England Unitarians evolved from the Pilgrim fathers' Congregational Christianity, which was originally based on a literal reading of the Bible. Liberalizing Unitarians rejected the Trinitarian belief in the tri-partite godhead: Father, Son, and Holy Ghost/Spirit. Instead, they asserted a unitary notion of God. In addition, they rejected the doctrine of original sin, moving away from the Calvinism of the Congregationalists.[16]
New England Universalists rejected the Puritan forefathers' emphasis on the select few, the Elect, who were reportedly saved from eternal damnation by a just God. Instead Universalists asserted that all people will eventually be reconciled with God.[16] Universalists rejected the hellfire and damnation of the evangelical preachers, who tried to revive the fundamentalist Christianity of the early Pilgrim fathers.[17]
Universalism[edit]
Main articles: Universalism and Christian Universalism
Universalists claim a long history, beginning with Origen and Gregory of Nyssa; however, that either of these church fathers taught the defining doctrine of Universalism (universal salvation), is questioned by some modern scholars.[18][19][20]
This core doctrine asserts that through Christ every single human soul shall be saved, leading to the "restitution of all things" (apocatastasis). In 1793, Universalism emerged as a particular denomination of Christianity in the United States, eventually called the Universalist Church of America.[21] Early American advocates of Universal Salvation such as Elhanan Winchester, Hosea Ballou and John Murray taught that all souls would achieve salvation, sometimes after a period resembling purgatory.[22] Christian Universalism denies the doctrine of everlasting damnation, and proclaims belief in an entirely loving God who will ultimately redeem all human beings.[23][24]
Unitarianism[edit]
Main article: Unitarianism
Historically, various forms of Nontrinitarianism have appeared within Christianity. The term may refer to any belief about the nature of Jesus Christ that affirms God as a singular entity and rejects the doctrine of the Trinity, as affirmed by the mainstream Christianity: a consensus of Christian bishops at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Nontrinitarianism was especially prevalent during the theological turmoils of the Protestant Reformation. A Spanish physician, Michael Servetus, studied the Bible and concluded that the concept of the Trinity, as traditionally conceived, was not biblical. His books On the Errors of the Trinity and Christianismi Restitutio caused much uproar. Servetus was eventually arrested, convicted of heresy, and burned at the stake in Geneva in 1553 under the order of John Calvin.[25]
The term Unitarian entered the English language via Henry Hedworth, who applied it to the teachings of Laelio Sozzini and the Polish Socinians. Unitarian churches were formally established in Transylvania and Poland (by the Socinians) in the second half of the 16th Century.[26] There, the first doctrines of religious freedom in Europe were established under the jurisdiction of John Sigismund, Transylvania's first Unitarian king. The early Unitarian church not only rejected the Trinity, but also the pre-existence of Christ as well as, in many cases, predestination and original sin as put forward by Augustine of Hippo, and the substitutionary atonement of Christ developed by Anselm of Canterbury and John Calvin. There were several different forms of Christology in the beginnings of the Unitarian movement; ultimately, the dominant Christology became psilanthropism: that Jesus was a man, but one with a unique relationship to God.
Britain[edit]
Main article: History of Unitarianism
Influenced by the teachings of the Socinians, Samuel Clarke (1675–1729) revised the Book of Common Prayer, removing the Trinitarian Nicene Creed and references to Jesus as God.[27] Theophilus Lindsey also revised the Book of Common Prayer to allow a more Unitarian interpretation. Neither cleric was charged under the Blasphemy Act 1697 that made it an offense for any person, educated in or having made profession of the Christian religion, by writing, preaching, teaching or advised speaking, to deny the Holy Trinity. The Act of Toleration (1689) gave relief to English Dissenters, but excluded Unitarians. The efforts of Clarke and Lindsey met with substantial criticism from the more conservative clergy and laity of the Church of England. In response, in 1774, Lindsey applied for registration of the Essex House as a Dissenting place of worship with the assistance of barrister Mr. John Lee. On the Sunday following the registration—April 17, 1774—the first true Unitarian congregation discreetly convened in the provisional Essex Street Chapel. In attendance were Mr. Lee, Joseph Priestley and the agent of the Massachusetts Colony, Mr. Benjamin Franklin.[28] Priestley also founded a reform congregation, but, after his home was burned down in the Priestley Riots, fled with his wife to America, where he became a leading figure in the founding of the church on American soil.[29]
Once laity and clergy relaxed their vehement opposition to the Doctrine of the Trinity Act 1813, which finally allowed for protections of dissenting religions, the British and Foreign Unitarian Association was founded in 1825. It has its headquarters in Essex Hall, successor to Lindsey's Essex House.[citation needed]
Unitarian congregations in Britain today meet under the auspices of the General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches. Two that have been significant in national life are the Cross Street Chapel in Manchester and Newington Green Unitarian Church in north London.[citation needed]
United States[edit]
Main article: History of Unitarianism
In the United States, the Unitarian movement began primarily in the Congregational parish churches of New England, which were part of the state church of Massachusetts.[30] These churches, whose buildings may still be seen today in many New England town squares, trace their roots to the division of the Puritan colonies into parishes for the administration of their religious needs.[31] In the late 18th century, conflict grew within some of these churches between Unitarian and Trinitarian factions. In 1805, Unitarians gained key faculty positions at Harvard. In 1819 William Ellery Channing preached the ordination sermon for Jared Sparks in Baltimore, outlining the Unitarian position. The American Unitarian Association was founded as a separate denomination in 1825.[32] By coincidence and unknown to both parties, the AUA was formed on the same day—May 26, 1825—as the British and Foreign Unitarian Association [33]
In the 19th century, under the influence of Ralph Waldo Emerson (who had been a Unitarian minister)[34] and other transcendentalists, Unitarianism began its long journey from liberal Protestantism to its present more pluralist form.[35][citation needed]
Integration 1825–1961[edit]

 

Unitarian Universalist Association logo.
After the schism[which?], some of those churches remained within the Congregational fold, while others voted to become Unitarian. In the aftermath of their various historical circumstances, some of these churches became member congregations of the Congregational organization (later the United Church of Christ), others became Unitarian. Some of them eventually became part of the UUA during a consolidation of the Unitarian and Universalist churches. Universalist churches in contrast followed a different path, having begun as independent congregations beyond the bounds of the established Puritan churches entirely. Today, the UUA and the United Church of Christ cooperate jointly on social justice initiatives such as the Sexuality Education Advocacy Training project.[36]
In 1961, the American Unitarian Association (AUA) was consolidated with the Universalist Church of America (UCA), thus forming the Unitarian Universalist Association.[37] In the same year, the Canadian Unitarian Council (CUC) formed.[38] The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) was also given corporate status in May 1961 under special acts of legislature of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the State of New York.[citation needed]
In 1998, the CUC and UUA dissolved their financial accord, although they continue to cooperate.[clarification needed][38]
Beliefs[edit]


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The defining belief of Unitarian Universalism is that religion is a matter of individual experience, and that, therefore, only the individual can decide what to "believe." The roots of this belief can be found in the Unitarian insistence on freedom of personal conscience in matters of faith. As a result, while Unitarian Universalists have no required creed, they treat as a sacred value complete and responsible freedom of speech, thought, belief, faith, and disposition. Unitarian Universalists believe that each person is free to search for his or her own personal truth on issues, such as the existence, nature, and meaning of life, deities, creation, and afterlife. UUs can come from any religious background, and hold beliefs and adhere to morals from a variety of cultures or religions. They believe that what binds them together as a faith community is not a creed, but a belief in the power and sacredness of covenant based on unconditional love. That love is enough to hold together such variety derives from their Universalist heritage which affirms a God of all-inclusive love.
Current concepts about deity, however, are diverse among UUs. While some are still Monotheistic, often from a Judeo-Christian perspective, many profess Atheism or Agnosticism. UUs see no contradiction in open Atheists and Agnostics being members of their community because of the rich Unitarian legacy of free inquiry and reason in matters of faith. Still other UUs subscribe to Deism, Pantheism, or Polytheism. Many UUs reject the idea of deities and instead speak of the "spirit of life" that binds all life on earth.
Seven Principles and Purposes[edit]
Deliberately without an official creed or dogma (per the principle of freedom of thought), many Unitarian Universalists make use of the Principles and Purposes as a list of principles for guiding behavior. These "Principles and Purposes" are taken from the by-laws which govern the Unitarian Universalist Association. While these were written to govern congregations, not individuals, many UUs use them as guides for living their faith. The "Seven Principles" were created in committee and affirmed democratically by a vote of member congregations at an annual General Assembly (a meeting of delegates from member congregations). Adopted in 1960, the full Principles, Purposes and Sources can be found in the article on the Unitarian Universalist Association. The Principles are as follows:

We, the member congregations of the Unitarian Universalist Association, covenant to affirm and promote
The inherent worth and dignity of every person;
Justice, equity and compassion in human relations;
Acceptance of one another and encouragement to spiritual growth in our congregations;
A free and responsible search for truth and meaning;
The right of conscience and the use of the democratic process within our congregations and in society at large;
The goal of world community with peace, liberty and justice for all;
Respect for the interdependent web of all existence of which we are a part.[39]
Unitarian Universalism is often referred to by its members as a living tradition, and the principles and purposes have been modified over time to reflect changes in spiritual beliefs among the membership. Most recently, the last principle, adopted in 1985 and generally known as the Seventh Principle, "Respect for the interdependent web of all existence of which we are a part", and a sixth source (adopted in 1995), "Spiritual teachings of earth-centered traditions which celebrate the sacred circle of life and instruct us to live in harmony with the rhythms of nature" were added to explicitly include members with Neopagan, Native American, and pantheist spiritualities.[40]
Six Sources[edit]
Unitarian Universalists place emphasis on spiritual growth and development. The official statement of Unitarian Universalist principles describes the "sources" upon which current practice is based:[41]
Direct experience of that transcending mystery and wonder, affirmed in all cultures, which moves us to a renewal of the spirit and an openness to the forces which create and uphold life;
Words and deeds of prophetic women and men which challenge us to confront powers and structures of evil with justice, compassion, and the transforming power of love;
Wisdom from the world's religions which inspires us in our ethical and spiritual life;
Jewish and Christian teachings which call us to respond to God's love by loving our neighbors as ourselves;
Humanist teachings which counsel us to heed the guidance of reason and the results of science, and warn us against idolatries of the mind and spirit.
Spiritual teachings of earth-centered traditions which celebrate the sacred circle of life and instruct us to live in harmony with the rhythms of nature.
Diversity of practices[edit]
The Unitarian belief that reason, and not creed, defines the search for truth, and the Universalist belief that God embraces all people equally has led to the current Unitarian Universalist belief that truth and spiritual meaning can be found in all faiths. This is reflected in the wide-array of spiritual practices found among UUs today. Many Unitarian Universalist congregations include Buddhist-style meditation groups, Jewish Seder, Yom Kipur and Passover dinners, iftaar meals (marking the breaking of Ramadan fast for Muslims), and Christmas Eve/Winter Solstice services. Children's and youth's religious education classes teach about the divinity of the world and the sanctity of world religions. One of its more popular curricula, Neighboring Faiths (formerly Church Across the Street), takes middle and high school participants to visit the places of worship of many faith traditions including a Hindu temple, a Reform or Orthodox synagogue, and a Catholic church.
There is great variety among Unitarian Universalist congregations, with some favoring particular religious beliefs or forms of worship over others, with many more home to an eclectic mix of beliefs. Regardless of their orientation, most congregations are fairly open to differing beliefs, though not always with various faith traditions represented to the same degree.
There is also a wide variety in how congregations conceive of themselves. Congregations call themselves "churches," "societies," "fellowships," "congregations," or eschew the use of any particular descriptor (e.g. "Sierra Foothills Unitarian Universalists"). Whether a congregation is a 'fellowship' or a 'church' sometimes hinges on whether it is led by one (or more) minister(s): those without ministers being fellowships, those with ministers being churches. Many use the name "Unitarian Universalist," (and a few "Universalist Unitarian"), having gradually adopted this formulation since consolidation in 1961. Others use names that reflect their historic roots by keeping simply the designation "Unitarian" or "Universalist" (e.g. "Community Unitarian Church at White Plains"). A few congregations use neither. For some congregations, the name can be a clue to their theological orientation. For others, avoidance of the word "church" indicates a desire to distance itself from traditional Christian theology. Sometimes the use of another term may simply indicate a congregation's lay-led or relatively new status. However, some UU congregations have grown to appreciate alternative terms such as fellowship and retained them even though they have grown much larger or lost features sometimes associated with their use (such as, in the case of fellowships, a traditionally lay-led worship model).[42]
Also of note is that there are many more people who identify as UU on surveys than those who attend UU churches (by a factor of four in a recent survey),[43] reflecting those who have never joined (and lapsed members) but nonetheless consider themselves part of the UU movement.
Approach to sacred writings[edit]
Both Unitarianism and Universalism were originally Christian denominations, and still reference Jewish and Christian texts. Today, Unitarian Universalist approach to the Christian/Jewish Bible and other sacred works is given in Our Unitarian Universalist Faith: Frequently Asked Questions, published by the UUA:

We do not, however, hold the Bible—or any other account of human experience—to be either an infallible guide or the exclusive source of truth. Much biblical material is mythical or legendary. Not that it should be discarded for that reason! Rather, it should be treasured for what it is. We believe that we should read the Bible as we read other books—with imagination and a critical eye. We also respect the sacred literature of other religions. Contemporary works of science, art, and social commentary are valued as well. We hold, in the words of an old liberal formulation, that "revelation is not sealed." Unitarian Universalists aspire to truth as wide as the world—we look to find truth anywhere, universally.
In short, Unitarian Universalists respect the important religious texts of other religions. UUs believe that all religions can coexist if viewed with the concept of love for one's neighbor and for oneself. Other church members who do not believe in a particular text or doctrine are encouraged to respect it as a historically significant literary work that should be viewed with an open mind. It is intended that in this way, individuals from all religions or spiritual backgrounds could live peaceably.
Elevator speeches[edit]
In 2004, UU World magazine asked for contributions of "elevator speeches" explaining Unitarian Universalism.[44] These are short speeches that could be made in the course of an elevator ride to those who knew nothing of the religion. Here are examples of the speeches submitted:

In Unitarian Universalist congregations, we gather in community to support our individual spiritual journeys. We trust that openness to one another's experiences will enhance our understanding of our own links with the divine, with our history, and with one another.
—Rev. Jonalu Johnstone, Oklahoma City, OK[45]

Most Unitarian Universalists believe that nobody has a monopoly on all truth, or ultimate proof of the truth of everything in any one belief. Therefore, one's own truth is unprovable, as is that of others. Consequently, we should respect the beliefs of others, as well as their right to hold those beliefs. Conversely, we expect that others should respect our right to our own beliefs. Several UU's then, would likely hold as many different beliefs. Other beliefs they may hold in common are a respect for others, for nature, and for common decency, leading to a particular caring for the poor, the weak and the downtrodden. As a result, issues of justice, including social justice are held in common among most.
—Gene Douglas, Harrah, OK[46]

It's a blessing each of us was born; It matters what we do with our lives; What each of us knows about God is a piece of the truth; We don't have to do it alone.
—Laila Ibrahim, Berkeley, CA[45]
Worship and ritual[edit]
As in theology, Unitarian Universalist worship and ritual are often a combination of elements derived from other faith traditions alongside original practices and symbols. In form, church services might be difficult to distinguish from those of a Protestant church, but they vary widely among congregations.[37]
Symbols[edit]

 

 Old Unitarian Universalist Association logo.
The most common symbol of Unitarian Universalism is the flaming chalice, often framed by two overlapping rings that many interpret as representing Unitarianism and Universalism (the symbol has no official interpretation). The chalice itself has long been a symbol of liberal religion, and indeed liberal Christianity (the Disciples of Christ also use a chalice as their denomination symbol[47]). The flaming chalice was initially the logo of the Unitarian Service Committee during the Second World War. It was created by Austrian artist Hans Deutsch, inspired by "the kind of chalice which the Greeks and Romans put on their altars. The holy oil burning in it is a symbol of helpfulness and sacrifice."[48]
Nevertheless, other interpretations have been suggested, such as the chalice used by the followers of Czech Jan Hus,[citation needed] or its vague resemblance to a cross in some stylized representations. Many UU congregations light a chalice at the beginning of worship services. Other symbols include a slightly off-center cross within a circle (a Universalist symbol associated with the Humiliati movement in the 1950s, a group of reformist, liturgically minded clergy seeking to revive Universalism).
Other symbols include a pair of open hands releasing a dove.[49]
Services of worship[edit]
Religious services are usually held on Sundays and most closely resemble the form and format of Protestant worship in the Reformed tradition.[37] Services at a vast majority of congregations follow a structure that focuses on a sermon or presentation by a minister, a lay leader of the congregation, or an invited speaker.[50] Sermons may cover a wide range of topics. Since Unitarian Universalists do not recognize a particular text or set of texts as primary or inherently superior, inspiration can be found in many different religious or cultural texts as well as the personal experiences of the minister.
The service also includes hymn-singing, accompanied by organ, piano, or other available instruments, and possibly led by a song leader or choir. The most recent worship songbook published by the denomination, Singing the Journey[51] contains 75 songs and is a supplement to the older Singing the Living Tradition which contains readings as well.[52] Hymns typically sung in UU services come from a variety of sources—traditional hymn tunes with new or adapted lyrics, spirituals, folk songs from various cultures, or original compositions by Unitarian Universalist musicians are just a few. Instrumental music is also a common feature of the typical worship service, including preludes, offertory music, postludes, or music for contemplation.
Pastoral elements of the service may include a time for sharing Joys and Sorrows/Concerns, where individuals in the congregation are invited to light a candle and/or say a few words about important events in their personal lives. Many UU services also include a time of meditation or prayer, led by the minister or service leader, both spoken and silent. Responsive readings and stories for children are also typical. Many congregations also allow for a time at the end of the service, called "talk back", where members of the congregation can respond to the sermon with their own insights and questions, or even disagree with the viewpoint expressed by the minister or invited speaker.
Many UU congregations no longer observe the Christian sacraments of baptism, communion, or confirmation, at least in their traditional forms or under their traditional names. Congregations that continue these practices under their more traditional names are often federated churches or members of the Council of Christian Churches within the Unitarian Universalist Association (CCCUUA), or may have active chapters associated with the Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship or similar covenant groups.[53] "Child dedications" often replace more traditional infant baptisms (though it should be noted that such "dedications" are sometimes practiced even in "orthodox" Christian communities that do not baptize infants for theological reasons). Annual celebrations of Water Communion and Flower Communion may replace or supplement Christian-style communion (though many pluralist and Christian-oriented congregations may celebrate or otherwise make provisions for communion on Christian holy days).[54] Confirmation may be replaced by a "Coming of Age" program, in which teenagers explore their individual religious identity, often developing their own credo. After they have completed exploring their spiritual beliefs, they write a speech about it which they then personally deliver to the congregation.
Politics[edit]


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Historical politics of Unitarians and Universalists[edit]
Main article: Unitarianism
Main article: Universalist Church of America
In the 19th century, Unitarians and Universalists were active in abolitionism, the women's movement, the temperance movement, and other social reform movements. The second woman's rights convention was held at the First Unitarian Church of Rochester, New York. Additionally, four Presidents of the United States were Unitarians: John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Millard Fillmore, and William Howard Taft.[55]
Politics of UUs[edit]

 

 A Unitarian Assembly in Louisville, Kentucky.[56]
Historically, Unitarian Universalists have often been active in political causes, notably the civil rights movement,[57] the LGBT rights movement, the social justice movement, and the feminist movement.
Susan B. Anthony, a Unitarian and Quaker, was extremely influential in the women's suffrage movement. Unitarian Universalists and Quakers still share many principles, notably that they are creedless religions with a long-standing commitment to social justice. It is therefore common to see Unitarian Universalists and Quakers working together.
UU's were and are still very involved in the fight to end racism in the United States. John Haynes Holmes, a Unitarian minister and social activist at The Community Church of New York—Unitarian Universalist was among the founders of both the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), chairing the latter for a time. James J. Reeb, a minister at All Souls Church, Unitarian, in Washington, D.C. and a member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, was clubbed in Selma, Alabama on March 8, 1965, and died two days later of massive head trauma. Two weeks after his death, Viola Liuzzo, a Unitarian Universalist civil rights activist, was murdered by white supremacists after her participation in the protest march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama. The Selma to Montgomery marches for voting rights are best known as Bloody Sunday, although technically that refers only to March 7, the most violent day of the three.
The past head of the Unitarian Universalist Association 2001–2009, Rev. William G. Sinkford, is African-American, making Unitarian Universalism one of the first traditionally white denominations to be headed by a member of a racial minority.[58]
While political liberals make up a clear majority of Unitarian Universalists, the UU movement aspires to diversity, and officially welcomes congregants regardless of their political views. Politically conservative Unitarian Universalists point out that neither religious liberalism nor the Principles and Purposes of the UUA require liberal politics. Like the beliefs of Unitarian Universalists, politics are decided by individuals, not by congregations or the denomination.
Several congregations have undertaken a series of organizational, procedural and practical steps to become acknowledged as a "Welcoming Congregation": a congregation which has taken specific steps to welcome and integrate gay, lesbian, bisexual & transgender (GLBT) members. UU ministers perform same-sex unions and now same-sex marriages where legal (and sometimes when not, as a form of civil protest). On June 29, 1984, the Unitarian Universalists became the first major church "to approve religious blessings on homosexual unions."[59] Unitarian Universalists have been in the forefront of the work to make same-sex marriages legal in their local states and provinces, as well as on the national level. Gay men, bisexuals, and lesbians are also regularly ordained as ministers, and a number of gay, bisexual, and lesbian ministers have, themselves, now become legally married to their partners. In May 2004, Arlington Street Church was the site of the first state-sanctioned same-sex marriage in the United States. The official stance of the UUA is for the legalization of same-sex marriage—"Standing on the Side of Love." In 2004 UU Minister Rev. Debra Haffner of The Religious Institute on Sexual Morality, Justice, and Healing published An Open Letter on Religious Leaders on Marriage Equality to affirm same-sex marriage from a multi-faith perspective. In December 2009, Washington, DC Mayor Adrian Fenty signed the bill to legalize same-sex marriage for the District of Columbia in All Souls Church, Unitarian (Washington, D.C.).
Unitarian Universalists for Polyamory Awareness engages UU ministers and other leaders to educate them on polyamory.[60] At the 2015 UUA General Assembly, the Association's non-discrimination rule was amended to include the category of "family and relationship structures";[61] the UUA has yet to take specific follow-up action on this, however.
Many congregations are heavily involved in projects and efforts aimed at supporting environmental causes and sustainability. These are often termed "seventh principle" activities because of the seventh principle quoted above.
Controversies[edit]
External[edit]
Lack of formal creed[edit]
The lack of formal creed has been a cause for criticism among some who argue that Unitarian Universalism is thus without religious content.[citation needed] In May 2004, Texas Comptroller Carole Keeton Strayhorn ruled that Unitarian Universalism was not a "religion" because it "does not have one system of belief," and stripped the Red River Unitarian Universalist Church in Denison, Texas, of its tax-exempt status. However, within weeks, Strayhorn reversed her decision.[62]
Confusion with other groups[edit]
There are separate movements and organizations of Christians who hold to classical Unitarian or Christian Universalist theology and do not belong to the Unitarian Universalist Association or consider themselves UUs. The American Unitarian Conference and the Christian Universalist Association are the two most significant organizations representing these theological beliefs today. Christians who hold these beliefs tend to consider themselves the true Unitarians or Universalists and heirs of the theological legacy of the original American Unitarian Association or Universalist Church of America, and they do not wish to be confused with UUs and UUism. The Unity Church is another denomination that is often confused with Unitarian Universalism.[63]
Internal[edit]
Language of reverence[edit]
During the presidency of the Rev. William Sinkford, debate within the UU movement has roiled over his call to return to or create an authentic UU "language of reverence." Sinkford has suggested that UUs have abandoned traditional religious language, thereby abandoning words with potential power to others who will then dictate their meanings in the public sphere. He has suggested that Unitarian Universalists regain their proper seat at the interfaith table by making this language their own. Others have reacted to this call by believing it to be part of an effort to return UU congregations to more orthodox Christian worship patterns. Sinkford has denied this, citing the words of UU humanists as examples of what he means by the "language of reverence." The debate seems[original research?] part and parcel of an attendant effort at increasing biblical literacy among Unitarian Universalists, including the publication of a book by the UUA's Beacon Press written by former UUA President John Buehrens.[64] The book is titled Understanding the Bible: An Introduction for Skeptics, Seekers, and Religious Liberals,[65] and is meant as a kind of handbook to be read alongside the Bible itself. It provides interpretative strategies, so that UUs (among others) might be able to engage in public debate about what the Bible says from a liberal religious perspective, rather than relinquishing to religious conservatives, and other more literal interpretations, all control over the book's contents and significance in matters of public and civic import. Also an important work by Rev. Buehrens, along with Forrest Church, is A Chosen Faith: An Introduction to Unitarian Universalism,[66] in which the authors explore the many sources of the living tradition of their chosen faith.
Borrowing from other religions[edit]
The "borrowing" of religious rituals from other faith traditions by Unitarian Universalists was discussed at the UU General Assembly in 2001 during a seminar titled Cultural Appropriation: Reckless Borrowing or Appropriate Cultural Sharing by the Religious Education Dept, UUA.[67][68] Of particular discussion was the borrowing rituals and practices that are sacred to specific tribes or using spiritual practices without real context.

When UUs pick and choose from these things, it trivializes their spiritual practices. The specificity [of their use] is so complete, that visiting Native Americans do not participate in another tribe's rituals, and to do so would be perceived as foolish. I would not even practice the rituals of my own tribe, because I am not an elder or spiritual leader. If this is true of her own people, then the use of these things by others who share no cultural context is seen not only as particularly foolish and inappropriate.
Not all of this usage is inappropriate, though. Some taped music, written prayers, that kind of thing, might be all right, but it's not right to fool around with it. If it's not in context, if the user is not walking with us, if the user is not part of our struggle, then it is presumptuous.
— Reverend Danielle Di Bona, 2001 General Assembly[67]
Organizations[edit]
Church of the Larger Fellowship (CLF) exists to serve UUs remote from any physical congregation.
Canadian Unitarians for Social Justice (CUSJ) is a Canadian UU social justice organization that is an associate member of the CUC.
Canadian Unitarian Council (CUC) is the national body for UU congregations in Canada. They where a member of the UUA up until July 2002.
Canadian Unitarian Universalist Women's Association (CUUWA) is a Canadian UU women's rights organization that is an associate member of the CUC.
Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans (CUUPS) is an association of UUs who define themselves as Pagans or Neopagans.
Faith Architects equips UU young adults (age 18–35, inclusive) with the tools necessary to build and fortify UU young adult communities. They do this through a program called the Scaffold Series which consists of curricula in three different focus areas: Community Building, Social justice, and Worship.
International Council of Unitarians and Universalists (ICUU) represents Unitarian, Universalist, and UU churches worldwide. The UUA and CUC are both members of this organization.
Leather & Grace ~ Unitarian Universalists for BDSM Awareness (L&G) is an organization of UUs who identify with or support the BDSM/kink community.
Promise the Children is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit. Promise the Children's mission is to help UUs advocate for and with children and youth. Promise the Children is also an Independent Affiliate of the UUA.
Religious Youth Empowerment, Inc. (RYE) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit. RYE is a nonprofit created by bridged YRUUers whose goals are to empower and fund the UU youth and help network between UU youth of different UUA districts as well as between UU youth and UU young adults. RYE is currently not yet affiliated with the UUA.
Unitarian Bahai Association (UBA) and Unitarian Bahai Fellowship (UBF) are associations for UUs who define themselves as Bahai.
Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) of Congregations is the largest association of Unitarian, Universalist, and UU congregations in the world, and the most well-known. It operates mainly within the United States. A few Unitarian and UU congregations in other countries, such as San Miguel de Allende (Mexico), Puerto Rico,[69] Auckland (New Zealand),[70] and a few others are also members of the UUA. Currently, the UUA represents 1,078 member congregations[11] that collectively include more than 217,000 members.
Unitarian Universalist Buddhist Fellowship (UUBF) is an association of UUs who define themselves as Buddhists.
Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship (UUCF) is an association of UUs who define themselves as Christians.
Unitarian Universalists for Jewish Awareness (UUJA) is an association of UUs who define themselves as Jews.
Unitarian Universalists for Polyamory Awareness is an association of UUs who support officially recognizing polyamory as a valid lifestyle.
Unitarian Universalist Service Committee is a nonsectarian organization devoted to promoting human rights and social justice worldwide.
UU Humanist Association is an association of UUs who define themselves as Humanists.
Young Religious Unitarian Universalists (YRUU) is a term used within the UUA and CUC. YRUU was an organization at the North American continental level primarily run by youth, ranging in age from 14 to 20, with mentoring adult partners. The North American continental organization of YRUU ended in 2008, but the term is still used by certain active youth groups and conferences at the congregational and regional/district levels. It was created in 1981 and 1982, at two conferences, Common Ground 1 & 2. Common Ground was called to form a UUA-controlled replacement for Liberal Religious Youth (LRY), the UU youth organization that preceded YRUU. LRY was dissolved by the UUA, and its assets absorbed by the them.
Number of members[edit]
As of February 2011, the UUA had 1,018 UU member congregations in the United States and 1,046 UU member congregations when including two congregations in the U.S. Virgin Islands, 19 in Canada, six in other countries,[which?] plus 28 multi-denominational member congregations: 17 in MA, four in IL, three in NH, two in VT, and one each in ME and D.C. Seven of the ten US states with the most congregations are also among the most populous states; the state with the most congregations and members is Massachusetts; Vermont is No. 1 relative to its total population. A map using 2010 U.S. Census data showing the relative number of congregations per 1 million people is posted here.[71] And as of September 2014 there are 46 UU congregations and emerging groups in Canada affiliated with the CUC.[72]
At the time of the merger between Universalists and Unitarians, membership (both US and Canadian) was perhaps half a million.[vague][citation needed] Membership rose after the merger but then fell in the 1970s.[citation needed]
In 1956, Sam Wells wrote that "Unitarians and Universalists are considering merger which would have total U.S. membership of 160,000 (500,000 in world)".[73] In 1965 Conkin wrote that "In 1961, at the time of the merger, membership [in the United States] was 104,821 in 651 congregations, and the joint membership soared to its historically highest level in the mid-1960s (an estimated 250,000) before falling sharply back in the 1970s [...]".[74] According to the 2008 Yearbook of American & Canadian Churches, the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations claimed 214,738 members in 2002.[75]
Estimates from the 1990s put world membership between 120,000 and 600,000.[76]
In the United States, the American Religious Identification Survey reported 629,000 members describing themselves as Unitarian Universalist in 2001, an increase from 502,000 reported in a similar survey in 1990.[77] The highest concentrations are in New England and around Seattle, Washington.[78]
The U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, conducted in 2007 by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life and featuring a sample size of over 35,000, puts the proportion of American adults identifying as Unitarian Universalist at 0.3%.[79]
The 2001 Canadian census done by Statistics Canada put Canadian Unitarians at 17,480,[80] and the September 1, 2007 membership statistics from the CUC show they had at that time 5,150 official members.[81]
Notable members[edit]
For more details on this topic, see List of Unitarians, Universalists, and Unitarian Universalists.
Notable congregations[edit]
Main article: List of Unitarian, Universalist, and Unitarian Universalist churches
See also[edit]

Portal icon Religion portal
Post-Christian
United and uniting churches
United Church of Christ
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ "Unitarian Universalism: Profile of the Unitarian Universalist Association". Retrieved 2013-04-07.
2.Jump up ^ "Believe", Introduction, UK: Unitarian.[dead link]
3.Jump up ^ "Unitarianism and Unitarian congregations". ZA: Unitarian. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
4.Jump up ^ "Unitarian Universalist Principles and Sources". Canadian Unitarian Council. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
5.Jump up ^ The 4th principle of Unitarian Universalism.
6.Jump up ^ 7th Principle: Respect for the Interdependent Web of All Existence of Which We Are a Part, UUA.
7.Jump up ^ "Rastafarianism". Major Religions Ranked by Size. Adherents. Retrieved April 19, 2013.
8.Jump up ^ http://www.uua.org/beliefs/welcome/290746.shtml
9.Jump up ^ Our Minister, Unitarian Universalist Fellowship of Los Gatos.
10.^ Jump up to: a b Harvard Divinity School: Timeline of Significant Events in the Merger of the Unitarian and Universalist Churches During the 1900s
11.Jump up ^ CUC-UUA Transition. Canadian Unitarian Council
12.Jump up ^ Daniel McKanan, "Unitarianism, Universalism, and Unitarian Universalism," Religion Compass 7/1 (2013), 15.
13.Jump up ^ Unitarian Universalist Association: How we Began
14.Jump up ^ John Dart, ed. Surveys: 'UUism' unique Churchgoers from elsewhere. Christian Century
15.Jump up ^ "UUA: Welcome Primer" (PDF). Unitarian Universalist Association, Skinner House Books. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
16.^ Jump up to: a b "UUA: History". Unitarian Universalist Association. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
17.Jump up ^ "UUA: History: Hosea Ballou". Unitarian Universalist History and Heritage Society. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
18.Jump up ^ Westminster Origen Handbook
19.Jump up ^ Ludlow, Morwenna. (2000). "Universal Salvation: Eschatology in the thought of Gregory of Nyssa and Karl Rahner". New York; Oxford University Press.
20.Jump up ^ Stone, Darwell. (1903). "Outline of Christian Dogma". p 341 New York: Longmans, Green & Co. [1]
21.Jump up ^ [2][dead link]
22.Jump up ^ William Latta McCalla Discussion of universalism 1825 Page 105 "THIRD UNIVERSALIST ARGUMENT. As it is a fact that many Universalists advocate a sort of purgatory, a concise notice will be taken of those texts which are erroneously thought to countenance that doctrine."
23.Jump up ^ https://100yearsagotoday.wordpress.com/2012/07/21/church-lays-corner-stone-in-new-hampshire/
24.Jump up ^ https://sites.google.com/site/growinguuism/uu-history
25.Jump up ^ "Michael Servetus Institute; Times that Servetus lived". Miguelservet.org. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
26.Jump up ^ Harris, MW. Unitarian Universalist Origins: Our Historic Faith
27.Jump up ^ "Chris Fisher, ''A Brief History of Unitarian Christianity'', retrieved July 18, 2008". Americanunitarian.org. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
28.Jump up ^ Rowe, Mortimer (1959). "The History of Essex Hall". Chapter 2 – Lindsey's Chapel. Lindsey Press. Archived from the original on March 7, 2012. "...in the early months of 1774 a little group of persons-Lindsey and his chiefpledged supporters -turned the corner out of the Strand into Essex Street and stood looking at a building near the top of the street, a building which alone kept alive the proud name 'Essex House'"
29.Jump up ^ Silverman, Sharon Hernes (September 24, 2011). "Joseph Priestley". Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. Retrieved 2011-09-24. "...eleven homes and two chapels in Birmingham were destroyed ... on April 8, 1794, Joseph and Mary Priestley set sail for America ... his 1796 lectures on "Evidences of Revelation" led to the formation of the First Unitarian Church in Philadelphia"
30.Jump up ^ Paul Erasmus Lauer, Church and state in New England (Johns Hopkins Press, 1892) p. 105. Retrieved September 20, 2009.
31.Jump up ^ Bob Sampson, Seventy-three Years In the Unitarian-Universalist Church of Nashua, July 16, 2006. Retrieved July 18, 2008.
32.Jump up ^ Fisher, Chris (September 1, 2004). "A Brief History of Unitarian Christianity". The 19th Century. American Unitarian Conference. Retrieved 2011-09-24. "Many churches that were Congregationalist split off and became Unitarian. In 1825, the movement grew large enough that an organization, the American Unitarian Association, was formed"
33.Jump up ^ Rowe, Ch. 3: Thus was brought to birth, triumphantly, in 1825, The British And Foreign Unitarian Association. By a happy coincidence, in those days of slow posts, no transatlantic telegraph, telephone or wireless, our American cousins, in complete ignorance as to the details of what was afoot, though moving toward a similar goal, founded the American Unitarian Association on precisely the same day—May 26, 1825.
34.Jump up ^ Ralph Waldo Emerson. Harvardsquarelibrary.org. Retrieved on 2010-09-29.
35.Jump up ^ http://www.uua.org/documents/coa/engagingourtheodiversity.pdf
36.Jump up ^ "Comprehensive Sexuality Education". Social Justice » Reproductive Justice. Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations. August 23, 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-24. "The Unitarian Universalist Association has long been an advocate of age-appropriate, medically accurate, comprehensive sexuality education"
37.^ Jump up to: a b c Sias, John, 100 Questions that Non-Unitarians Ask About Unitarian Universalism (PDF), UU Nashua.
38.^ Jump up to: a b Accord History, CA: CUC, retrieved 2010-09-29.
39.Jump up ^ "The Principles of the Unitarian Universalist Association". Unitarian Universalist Association. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
40.Jump up ^ Warren R. Ross (November–December 2000). "Shared values: How the UUA’s Principles and Purposes were shaped and how they’ve shaped Unitarian Universalism". UUWorld. Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
41.Jump up ^ Principles. UUA (2010-09-09). Retrieved on 2010-09-29.
42.Jump up ^ See for examples: Unitarian Universalist Fellowship of Northern Westchester and Unitarian Universalist Fellowship of Athens.
43.Jump up ^ Largest Religious Groups in the United States of America, Adherents.com
44.Jump up ^ UU World Magazine. Unitarian Universalist Association. July/August 2004. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4071/is_200407/ai_n9458199/
45.^ Jump up to: a b "Affirmations: Elevator speeches". uuaworld.org. Unitarian Universalist Association. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
46.Jump up ^ Rev. Karen Johnson Gustafson (November 2006). "Dear Ones". Unitarian Universalist Congregation of Duluth Newsletter. Retrieved 2007-02-24.[dead link]
47.Jump up ^ "The Chalice". Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Retrieved 2012-01-21.
48.Jump up ^ Adapted from the pamphlet "The Flaming Chalice" by Daniel D. Hotchkiss. "The History of the Flaming Chalice". Unitarian Universalist Association. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
49.Jump up ^ Steve Bridenbaugh. "UU Chalices and Clip Art". Unitarian Universalist Association. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
50.Jump up ^ Commission on Common Worship (1983). "Common Worship: How and Why; The contribution of Von Ogden Vogt". Leading Congregations in Worship: A Guide. Unitarian Universalist Association. Archived from the original on 2007-02-17. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
51.Jump up ^ Singing the Journey. ISBN 1-55896-499-1.
52.Jump up ^ Singing the Living Tradition. ISBN 1-55896-260-3.
53.Jump up ^ Christians 2004[dead link]
54.Jump up ^ Rev. Jan K. Nielsen (October 6, 2002). "Who is My Neighbor? A Homily for World Wide Communion Sunday". Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
55.Jump up ^ "The Religious Affiliations of U.S. Presidents". The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. January 15, 2009. Retrieved 2013-05-23.
56.Jump up ^ "First Unitarian Church of Louisville". Firstulou.org. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
57.Jump up ^ Smith, Amanda, Unitarian Universalist Church Has Rich Civil Rights History
58.Jump up ^ Maxwell, Bill; 11 April 2008; "Leading the Unitarian Universalist Association, a faith without a creed"; St. Petersburg Times
59.Jump up ^ "Unitarians Endorse Homosexual Marriages", UPI, New York Times, 29 June 1984.
60.Jump up ^ "UUPA website".
61.Jump up ^ "Unitarian Universalist Association: Rule II, Section C-2.3.: Non-discrimination".
62.Jump up ^ "News Release From Carole Keeton Strayhorn". Window.state.tx.us. 2004-05-24. News Release at the Wayback Machine (archived January 19, 2008)
63.Jump up ^ See "Why the American Unitarian Conference Had to Be Formed" and "What Is the Difference between Christian Universalism and Unitarian Universalism?"
64.Jump up ^ Buehrens, John A. "Past Unitarian Universalist Association President John A. Buehrens on Why Even Humanists Should Read the Bible". Beliefnet.com. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
65.Jump up ^ ISBN 0-8070-1053-7
66.Jump up ^ ISBN 0-8070-1617-9
67.^ Jump up to: a b Cultural Appropriation: Reckless Borrowing or Appropriate Cultural Sharing Reported for the Web by Dwight Ernest, July 24, 2001, Unitarian Universalist Association
68.Jump up ^ When Worship Becomes Cultural Misappropriation, September 15, 2007, UU Interconnections
69.Jump up ^ Congregation Unitarian Universalist. Uupuertorico.org. Retrieved on 2010-09-29.
70.Jump up ^ "Welcome!". Unitarian.org.nz. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
71.Jump up ^ Walton, Christopher L.; Todd, Kathy (2011). "Unitarian Universalist congregations by state". weekly web magazine. Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations. Archived from the original on March 31, 2012. Retrieved September 24, 2011. "Map includes 1,018 UUA member congregations in the United States using data collected by the UUA through February 2011, but does not include the Church of the Larger Fellowship which is headquartered in Mass. but serves a geographically dispersed community. The map does include multidenominational congregations affiliated with the UUA"
72.Jump up ^ "Congregations". Retrieved September 23, 2014.
73.Jump up ^ Wells, Sam, ed. (1957). The World's Great Religions V.3 Glories of Christiandom. New York: Time Incorporated. p. 205.
74.Jump up ^ Conkin, Paul K. (1997). American Originals: Homemade Varieties of Christianity. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 95. ISBN 0-8078-4649-X.
75.Jump up ^ Lindner, Eileen W., ed. (2008). Yearbook of American & Canadian Churches 2008. Nashville: Abingdon Press. p. 381.
76.Jump up ^ "Adherents.com". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
77.Jump up ^ "The Graduate Center, CUNY". Gc.cuny.edu. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
78.Jump up ^ "Unitarians as a Percentage of All Residents". Glenmary Research Center. Religious Congregations and Membership in the United States, 2000. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
79.Jump up ^ "U.S. Religious Landscape Survey". Religions.pewforum.org. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
80.Jump up ^ 97F0022XCB2001002. 2.statcan.ca (2010-03-09). Retrieved on 2010-09-29.
81.Jump up ^ "Membership – The More It Changes, the More It Stays the Same" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-02-27.
Further reading[edit]
John A. Buehrens and Forrest Church, A Chosen Faith: An Introduction to Unitarian Universalism (Revised edition) by 1998, Beacon Press, ISBN 0-8070-1617-9.
David E. Bumbaugh, Unitarian Universalism: A Narrative History 2001
Richard Grigg, To Re-Enchant the World: A Philosophy of Unitarian Universalism, 2004
Guest, Avery Pete, "Universalism as Liberal Religion and the 1845 Antislavery Protest," Journal of Unitarian Universalist History 38 (2014-2015) pp: 127-53.
Robert B. Tapp, Religion among the Unitarian Universalists; converts in the stepfathers' house by New York: Seminar Press, 1973, ISBN 0-12-914650-1
External links[edit]http://www.uua.org (UUA official website)
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Unitarian Universalism.
 Look up unitarian universalism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Continental Unitarian Universalist Young Adult Network (C*UUYAN)
UU World Magazine
What is Unitarian Universalist? A YouTube video
Unitarian-Universalist Merger Timeline from Harvard Divinity School's website.
Unitarianism and Universalism at DMOZ
DiscoverUU
Creative Commons-licensed Unitarian Universalist sites and resources


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Unitarian Universalism

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This article is about the liberal religious movement. For the Christian theology which includes a central belief in the unitary nature of God, see Unitarianism. For other uses, see Unitarian.

Unitarian Universalism
Flaming Chalice.svg
An early version of the flaming chalice, the most widely used symbol of UUism.
 
Abbreviation
UUism, Unitarianism
Type
Liberal religion
Scripture
All sources admissible, none required. Members are free to observe their own personally-favored literature.
Founder
Members of American Unitarian Association and Universalist Church of America via consolidation
Origin
May 1961
Congregations
1,070 worldwide
Number of followers
221,000 members of the Unitarian Universalist Association; 800,000 identify as Unitarian Universalist[1]
Unitarian Universalism[2][3][4] is a liberal religion characterized by a "free and responsible search for truth and meaning".[5][6] Unitarian Universalists do not share a creed but are unified by their shared search for spiritual growth. As such, the Unitarian Universalist Church (UU) includes many agnostics, theists, and atheists among its membership. The roots of UU are in liberal Christianity, specifically Unitarianism and Universalism. Unitarian Universalists state that from these traditions comes a deep regard for intellectual freedom and inclusive love, so that congregations and members seek inspiration and derive insight from all major world religions.[7]
The theology of individual Unitarian Universalists ranges widely, including atheism, agnosticism, pantheism, deism, Judaism, Islam,[8] Christianity, neopaganism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, and many more.[9]
The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) was formed in 1961, a consolidation of the American Unitarian Association, established in 1825, and the Universalist Church of America,[10] established in 1866. It is headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts, and serves churches mostly in the United States. A group of thirty Philippine congregations is represented as a sole member within the UUA. The Canadian Unitarian Council (CUC) became an independent body in 2002.[11] The UUA and CUC are, in turn, two of the seventeen members of the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists.[12]


Contents  [hide]
1 History 1.1 Universalism
1.2 Unitarianism 1.2.1 Britain
1.2.2 United States
1.3 Integration 1825–1961
2 Beliefs 2.1 Seven Principles and Purposes
2.2 Six Sources
2.3 Diversity of practices
2.4 Approach to sacred writings
2.5 Elevator speeches
3 Worship and ritual 3.1 Symbols
3.2 Services of worship
4 Politics 4.1 Historical politics of Unitarians and Universalists
4.2 Politics of UUs
5 Controversies 5.1 External 5.1.1 Lack of formal creed
5.1.2 Confusion with other groups
5.2 Internal 5.2.1 Language of reverence
5.2.2 Borrowing from other religions

6 Organizations
7 Number of members
8 Notable members
9 Notable congregations
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links

History[edit]


 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2011)
Unitarian Universalism was formed from the consolidation in 1961 of two historically Christian denominations, the Universalist Church of America and the American Unitarian Association,[10] both based in the United States; the new organization formed in this merger was the Unitarian Universalist Association.[13] At the time of the North American consolidation, Unitarians and Universalists had expanded beyond their roots in liberal Christian theology. Today they draw from a variety of religious traditions. Individuals may or may not self-identify as Christians or subscribe to Christian beliefs.[14] Unitarian Universalist congregations and fellowships tend to retain some Christian traditions, such as Sunday worship with a sermon and the singing of hymns. The extent to which the elements of any particular faith tradition are incorporated into personal spiritual practice is a matter of individual choice for congregants, in keeping with a creedless, non-dogmatic approach to spirituality and faith development.[15]
New England Unitarians evolved from the Pilgrim fathers' Congregational Christianity, which was originally based on a literal reading of the Bible. Liberalizing Unitarians rejected the Trinitarian belief in the tri-partite godhead: Father, Son, and Holy Ghost/Spirit. Instead, they asserted a unitary notion of God. In addition, they rejected the doctrine of original sin, moving away from the Calvinism of the Congregationalists.[16]
New England Universalists rejected the Puritan forefathers' emphasis on the select few, the Elect, who were reportedly saved from eternal damnation by a just God. Instead Universalists asserted that all people will eventually be reconciled with God.[16] Universalists rejected the hellfire and damnation of the evangelical preachers, who tried to revive the fundamentalist Christianity of the early Pilgrim fathers.[17]
Universalism[edit]
Main articles: Universalism and Christian Universalism
Universalists claim a long history, beginning with Origen and Gregory of Nyssa; however, that either of these church fathers taught the defining doctrine of Universalism (universal salvation), is questioned by some modern scholars.[18][19][20]
This core doctrine asserts that through Christ every single human soul shall be saved, leading to the "restitution of all things" (apocatastasis). In 1793, Universalism emerged as a particular denomination of Christianity in the United States, eventually called the Universalist Church of America.[21] Early American advocates of Universal Salvation such as Elhanan Winchester, Hosea Ballou and John Murray taught that all souls would achieve salvation, sometimes after a period resembling purgatory.[22] Christian Universalism denies the doctrine of everlasting damnation, and proclaims belief in an entirely loving God who will ultimately redeem all human beings.[23][24]
Unitarianism[edit]
Main article: Unitarianism
Historically, various forms of Nontrinitarianism have appeared within Christianity. The term may refer to any belief about the nature of Jesus Christ that affirms God as a singular entity and rejects the doctrine of the Trinity, as affirmed by the mainstream Christianity: a consensus of Christian bishops at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Nontrinitarianism was especially prevalent during the theological turmoils of the Protestant Reformation. A Spanish physician, Michael Servetus, studied the Bible and concluded that the concept of the Trinity, as traditionally conceived, was not biblical. His books On the Errors of the Trinity and Christianismi Restitutio caused much uproar. Servetus was eventually arrested, convicted of heresy, and burned at the stake in Geneva in 1553 under the order of John Calvin.[25]
The term Unitarian entered the English language via Henry Hedworth, who applied it to the teachings of Laelio Sozzini and the Polish Socinians. Unitarian churches were formally established in Transylvania and Poland (by the Socinians) in the second half of the 16th Century.[26] There, the first doctrines of religious freedom in Europe were established under the jurisdiction of John Sigismund, Transylvania's first Unitarian king. The early Unitarian church not only rejected the Trinity, but also the pre-existence of Christ as well as, in many cases, predestination and original sin as put forward by Augustine of Hippo, and the substitutionary atonement of Christ developed by Anselm of Canterbury and John Calvin. There were several different forms of Christology in the beginnings of the Unitarian movement; ultimately, the dominant Christology became psilanthropism: that Jesus was a man, but one with a unique relationship to God.
Britain[edit]
Main article: History of Unitarianism
Influenced by the teachings of the Socinians, Samuel Clarke (1675–1729) revised the Book of Common Prayer, removing the Trinitarian Nicene Creed and references to Jesus as God.[27] Theophilus Lindsey also revised the Book of Common Prayer to allow a more Unitarian interpretation. Neither cleric was charged under the Blasphemy Act 1697 that made it an offense for any person, educated in or having made profession of the Christian religion, by writing, preaching, teaching or advised speaking, to deny the Holy Trinity. The Act of Toleration (1689) gave relief to English Dissenters, but excluded Unitarians. The efforts of Clarke and Lindsey met with substantial criticism from the more conservative clergy and laity of the Church of England. In response, in 1774, Lindsey applied for registration of the Essex House as a Dissenting place of worship with the assistance of barrister Mr. John Lee. On the Sunday following the registration—April 17, 1774—the first true Unitarian congregation discreetly convened in the provisional Essex Street Chapel. In attendance were Mr. Lee, Joseph Priestley and the agent of the Massachusetts Colony, Mr. Benjamin Franklin.[28] Priestley also founded a reform congregation, but, after his home was burned down in the Priestley Riots, fled with his wife to America, where he became a leading figure in the founding of the church on American soil.[29]
Once laity and clergy relaxed their vehement opposition to the Doctrine of the Trinity Act 1813, which finally allowed for protections of dissenting religions, the British and Foreign Unitarian Association was founded in 1825. It has its headquarters in Essex Hall, successor to Lindsey's Essex House.[citation needed]
Unitarian congregations in Britain today meet under the auspices of the General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches. Two that have been significant in national life are the Cross Street Chapel in Manchester and Newington Green Unitarian Church in north London.[citation needed]
United States[edit]
Main article: History of Unitarianism
In the United States, the Unitarian movement began primarily in the Congregational parish churches of New England, which were part of the state church of Massachusetts.[30] These churches, whose buildings may still be seen today in many New England town squares, trace their roots to the division of the Puritan colonies into parishes for the administration of their religious needs.[31] In the late 18th century, conflict grew within some of these churches between Unitarian and Trinitarian factions. In 1805, Unitarians gained key faculty positions at Harvard. In 1819 William Ellery Channing preached the ordination sermon for Jared Sparks in Baltimore, outlining the Unitarian position. The American Unitarian Association was founded as a separate denomination in 1825.[32] By coincidence and unknown to both parties, the AUA was formed on the same day—May 26, 1825—as the British and Foreign Unitarian Association [33]
In the 19th century, under the influence of Ralph Waldo Emerson (who had been a Unitarian minister)[34] and other transcendentalists, Unitarianism began its long journey from liberal Protestantism to its present more pluralist form.[35][citation needed]
Integration 1825–1961[edit]

 

Unitarian Universalist Association logo.
After the schism[which?], some of those churches remained within the Congregational fold, while others voted to become Unitarian. In the aftermath of their various historical circumstances, some of these churches became member congregations of the Congregational organization (later the United Church of Christ), others became Unitarian. Some of them eventually became part of the UUA during a consolidation of the Unitarian and Universalist churches. Universalist churches in contrast followed a different path, having begun as independent congregations beyond the bounds of the established Puritan churches entirely. Today, the UUA and the United Church of Christ cooperate jointly on social justice initiatives such as the Sexuality Education Advocacy Training project.[36]
In 1961, the American Unitarian Association (AUA) was consolidated with the Universalist Church of America (UCA), thus forming the Unitarian Universalist Association.[37] In the same year, the Canadian Unitarian Council (CUC) formed.[38] The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) was also given corporate status in May 1961 under special acts of legislature of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the State of New York.[citation needed]
In 1998, the CUC and UUA dissolved their financial accord, although they continue to cooperate.[clarification needed][38]
Beliefs[edit]


 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2011)
The defining belief of Unitarian Universalism is that religion is a matter of individual experience, and that, therefore, only the individual can decide what to "believe." The roots of this belief can be found in the Unitarian insistence on freedom of personal conscience in matters of faith. As a result, while Unitarian Universalists have no required creed, they treat as a sacred value complete and responsible freedom of speech, thought, belief, faith, and disposition. Unitarian Universalists believe that each person is free to search for his or her own personal truth on issues, such as the existence, nature, and meaning of life, deities, creation, and afterlife. UUs can come from any religious background, and hold beliefs and adhere to morals from a variety of cultures or religions. They believe that what binds them together as a faith community is not a creed, but a belief in the power and sacredness of covenant based on unconditional love. That love is enough to hold together such variety derives from their Universalist heritage which affirms a God of all-inclusive love.
Current concepts about deity, however, are diverse among UUs. While some are still Monotheistic, often from a Judeo-Christian perspective, many profess Atheism or Agnosticism. UUs see no contradiction in open Atheists and Agnostics being members of their community because of the rich Unitarian legacy of free inquiry and reason in matters of faith. Still other UUs subscribe to Deism, Pantheism, or Polytheism. Many UUs reject the idea of deities and instead speak of the "spirit of life" that binds all life on earth.
Seven Principles and Purposes[edit]
Deliberately without an official creed or dogma (per the principle of freedom of thought), many Unitarian Universalists make use of the Principles and Purposes as a list of principles for guiding behavior. These "Principles and Purposes" are taken from the by-laws which govern the Unitarian Universalist Association. While these were written to govern congregations, not individuals, many UUs use them as guides for living their faith. The "Seven Principles" were created in committee and affirmed democratically by a vote of member congregations at an annual General Assembly (a meeting of delegates from member congregations). Adopted in 1960, the full Principles, Purposes and Sources can be found in the article on the Unitarian Universalist Association. The Principles are as follows:

We, the member congregations of the Unitarian Universalist Association, covenant to affirm and promote
The inherent worth and dignity of every person;
Justice, equity and compassion in human relations;
Acceptance of one another and encouragement to spiritual growth in our congregations;
A free and responsible search for truth and meaning;
The right of conscience and the use of the democratic process within our congregations and in society at large;
The goal of world community with peace, liberty and justice for all;
Respect for the interdependent web of all existence of which we are a part.[39]
Unitarian Universalism is often referred to by its members as a living tradition, and the principles and purposes have been modified over time to reflect changes in spiritual beliefs among the membership. Most recently, the last principle, adopted in 1985 and generally known as the Seventh Principle, "Respect for the interdependent web of all existence of which we are a part", and a sixth source (adopted in 1995), "Spiritual teachings of earth-centered traditions which celebrate the sacred circle of life and instruct us to live in harmony with the rhythms of nature" were added to explicitly include members with Neopagan, Native American, and pantheist spiritualities.[40]
Six Sources[edit]
Unitarian Universalists place emphasis on spiritual growth and development. The official statement of Unitarian Universalist principles describes the "sources" upon which current practice is based:[41]
Direct experience of that transcending mystery and wonder, affirmed in all cultures, which moves us to a renewal of the spirit and an openness to the forces which create and uphold life;
Words and deeds of prophetic women and men which challenge us to confront powers and structures of evil with justice, compassion, and the transforming power of love;
Wisdom from the world's religions which inspires us in our ethical and spiritual life;
Jewish and Christian teachings which call us to respond to God's love by loving our neighbors as ourselves;
Humanist teachings which counsel us to heed the guidance of reason and the results of science, and warn us against idolatries of the mind and spirit.
Spiritual teachings of earth-centered traditions which celebrate the sacred circle of life and instruct us to live in harmony with the rhythms of nature.
Diversity of practices[edit]
The Unitarian belief that reason, and not creed, defines the search for truth, and the Universalist belief that God embraces all people equally has led to the current Unitarian Universalist belief that truth and spiritual meaning can be found in all faiths. This is reflected in the wide-array of spiritual practices found among UUs today. Many Unitarian Universalist congregations include Buddhist-style meditation groups, Jewish Seder, Yom Kipur and Passover dinners, iftaar meals (marking the breaking of Ramadan fast for Muslims), and Christmas Eve/Winter Solstice services. Children's and youth's religious education classes teach about the divinity of the world and the sanctity of world religions. One of its more popular curricula, Neighboring Faiths (formerly Church Across the Street), takes middle and high school participants to visit the places of worship of many faith traditions including a Hindu temple, a Reform or Orthodox synagogue, and a Catholic church.
There is great variety among Unitarian Universalist congregations, with some favoring particular religious beliefs or forms of worship over others, with many more home to an eclectic mix of beliefs. Regardless of their orientation, most congregations are fairly open to differing beliefs, though not always with various faith traditions represented to the same degree.
There is also a wide variety in how congregations conceive of themselves. Congregations call themselves "churches," "societies," "fellowships," "congregations," or eschew the use of any particular descriptor (e.g. "Sierra Foothills Unitarian Universalists"). Whether a congregation is a 'fellowship' or a 'church' sometimes hinges on whether it is led by one (or more) minister(s): those without ministers being fellowships, those with ministers being churches. Many use the name "Unitarian Universalist," (and a few "Universalist Unitarian"), having gradually adopted this formulation since consolidation in 1961. Others use names that reflect their historic roots by keeping simply the designation "Unitarian" or "Universalist" (e.g. "Community Unitarian Church at White Plains"). A few congregations use neither. For some congregations, the name can be a clue to their theological orientation. For others, avoidance of the word "church" indicates a desire to distance itself from traditional Christian theology. Sometimes the use of another term may simply indicate a congregation's lay-led or relatively new status. However, some UU congregations have grown to appreciate alternative terms such as fellowship and retained them even though they have grown much larger or lost features sometimes associated with their use (such as, in the case of fellowships, a traditionally lay-led worship model).[42]
Also of note is that there are many more people who identify as UU on surveys than those who attend UU churches (by a factor of four in a recent survey),[43] reflecting those who have never joined (and lapsed members) but nonetheless consider themselves part of the UU movement.
Approach to sacred writings[edit]
Both Unitarianism and Universalism were originally Christian denominations, and still reference Jewish and Christian texts. Today, Unitarian Universalist approach to the Christian/Jewish Bible and other sacred works is given in Our Unitarian Universalist Faith: Frequently Asked Questions, published by the UUA:

We do not, however, hold the Bible—or any other account of human experience—to be either an infallible guide or the exclusive source of truth. Much biblical material is mythical or legendary. Not that it should be discarded for that reason! Rather, it should be treasured for what it is. We believe that we should read the Bible as we read other books—with imagination and a critical eye. We also respect the sacred literature of other religions. Contemporary works of science, art, and social commentary are valued as well. We hold, in the words of an old liberal formulation, that "revelation is not sealed." Unitarian Universalists aspire to truth as wide as the world—we look to find truth anywhere, universally.
In short, Unitarian Universalists respect the important religious texts of other religions. UUs believe that all religions can coexist if viewed with the concept of love for one's neighbor and for oneself. Other church members who do not believe in a particular text or doctrine are encouraged to respect it as a historically significant literary work that should be viewed with an open mind. It is intended that in this way, individuals from all religions or spiritual backgrounds could live peaceably.
Elevator speeches[edit]
In 2004, UU World magazine asked for contributions of "elevator speeches" explaining Unitarian Universalism.[44] These are short speeches that could be made in the course of an elevator ride to those who knew nothing of the religion. Here are examples of the speeches submitted:

In Unitarian Universalist congregations, we gather in community to support our individual spiritual journeys. We trust that openness to one another's experiences will enhance our understanding of our own links with the divine, with our history, and with one another.
—Rev. Jonalu Johnstone, Oklahoma City, OK[45]

Most Unitarian Universalists believe that nobody has a monopoly on all truth, or ultimate proof of the truth of everything in any one belief. Therefore, one's own truth is unprovable, as is that of others. Consequently, we should respect the beliefs of others, as well as their right to hold those beliefs. Conversely, we expect that others should respect our right to our own beliefs. Several UU's then, would likely hold as many different beliefs. Other beliefs they may hold in common are a respect for others, for nature, and for common decency, leading to a particular caring for the poor, the weak and the downtrodden. As a result, issues of justice, including social justice are held in common among most.
—Gene Douglas, Harrah, OK[46]

It's a blessing each of us was born; It matters what we do with our lives; What each of us knows about God is a piece of the truth; We don't have to do it alone.
—Laila Ibrahim, Berkeley, CA[45]
Worship and ritual[edit]
As in theology, Unitarian Universalist worship and ritual are often a combination of elements derived from other faith traditions alongside original practices and symbols. In form, church services might be difficult to distinguish from those of a Protestant church, but they vary widely among congregations.[37]
Symbols[edit]

 

 Old Unitarian Universalist Association logo.
The most common symbol of Unitarian Universalism is the flaming chalice, often framed by two overlapping rings that many interpret as representing Unitarianism and Universalism (the symbol has no official interpretation). The chalice itself has long been a symbol of liberal religion, and indeed liberal Christianity (the Disciples of Christ also use a chalice as their denomination symbol[47]). The flaming chalice was initially the logo of the Unitarian Service Committee during the Second World War. It was created by Austrian artist Hans Deutsch, inspired by "the kind of chalice which the Greeks and Romans put on their altars. The holy oil burning in it is a symbol of helpfulness and sacrifice."[48]
Nevertheless, other interpretations have been suggested, such as the chalice used by the followers of Czech Jan Hus,[citation needed] or its vague resemblance to a cross in some stylized representations. Many UU congregations light a chalice at the beginning of worship services. Other symbols include a slightly off-center cross within a circle (a Universalist symbol associated with the Humiliati movement in the 1950s, a group of reformist, liturgically minded clergy seeking to revive Universalism).
Other symbols include a pair of open hands releasing a dove.[49]
Services of worship[edit]
Religious services are usually held on Sundays and most closely resemble the form and format of Protestant worship in the Reformed tradition.[37] Services at a vast majority of congregations follow a structure that focuses on a sermon or presentation by a minister, a lay leader of the congregation, or an invited speaker.[50] Sermons may cover a wide range of topics. Since Unitarian Universalists do not recognize a particular text or set of texts as primary or inherently superior, inspiration can be found in many different religious or cultural texts as well as the personal experiences of the minister.
The service also includes hymn-singing, accompanied by organ, piano, or other available instruments, and possibly led by a song leader or choir. The most recent worship songbook published by the denomination, Singing the Journey[51] contains 75 songs and is a supplement to the older Singing the Living Tradition which contains readings as well.[52] Hymns typically sung in UU services come from a variety of sources—traditional hymn tunes with new or adapted lyrics, spirituals, folk songs from various cultures, or original compositions by Unitarian Universalist musicians are just a few. Instrumental music is also a common feature of the typical worship service, including preludes, offertory music, postludes, or music for contemplation.
Pastoral elements of the service may include a time for sharing Joys and Sorrows/Concerns, where individuals in the congregation are invited to light a candle and/or say a few words about important events in their personal lives. Many UU services also include a time of meditation or prayer, led by the minister or service leader, both spoken and silent. Responsive readings and stories for children are also typical. Many congregations also allow for a time at the end of the service, called "talk back", where members of the congregation can respond to the sermon with their own insights and questions, or even disagree with the viewpoint expressed by the minister or invited speaker.
Many UU congregations no longer observe the Christian sacraments of baptism, communion, or confirmation, at least in their traditional forms or under their traditional names. Congregations that continue these practices under their more traditional names are often federated churches or members of the Council of Christian Churches within the Unitarian Universalist Association (CCCUUA), or may have active chapters associated with the Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship or similar covenant groups.[53] "Child dedications" often replace more traditional infant baptisms (though it should be noted that such "dedications" are sometimes practiced even in "orthodox" Christian communities that do not baptize infants for theological reasons). Annual celebrations of Water Communion and Flower Communion may replace or supplement Christian-style communion (though many pluralist and Christian-oriented congregations may celebrate or otherwise make provisions for communion on Christian holy days).[54] Confirmation may be replaced by a "Coming of Age" program, in which teenagers explore their individual religious identity, often developing their own credo. After they have completed exploring their spiritual beliefs, they write a speech about it which they then personally deliver to the congregation.
Politics[edit]


 This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2010)
Historical politics of Unitarians and Universalists[edit]
Main article: Unitarianism
Main article: Universalist Church of America
In the 19th century, Unitarians and Universalists were active in abolitionism, the women's movement, the temperance movement, and other social reform movements. The second woman's rights convention was held at the First Unitarian Church of Rochester, New York. Additionally, four Presidents of the United States were Unitarians: John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Millard Fillmore, and William Howard Taft.[55]
Politics of UUs[edit]

 

 A Unitarian Assembly in Louisville, Kentucky.[56]
Historically, Unitarian Universalists have often been active in political causes, notably the civil rights movement,[57] the LGBT rights movement, the social justice movement, and the feminist movement.
Susan B. Anthony, a Unitarian and Quaker, was extremely influential in the women's suffrage movement. Unitarian Universalists and Quakers still share many principles, notably that they are creedless religions with a long-standing commitment to social justice. It is therefore common to see Unitarian Universalists and Quakers working together.
UU's were and are still very involved in the fight to end racism in the United States. John Haynes Holmes, a Unitarian minister and social activist at The Community Church of New York—Unitarian Universalist was among the founders of both the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), chairing the latter for a time. James J. Reeb, a minister at All Souls Church, Unitarian, in Washington, D.C. and a member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, was clubbed in Selma, Alabama on March 8, 1965, and died two days later of massive head trauma. Two weeks after his death, Viola Liuzzo, a Unitarian Universalist civil rights activist, was murdered by white supremacists after her participation in the protest march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama. The Selma to Montgomery marches for voting rights are best known as Bloody Sunday, although technically that refers only to March 7, the most violent day of the three.
The past head of the Unitarian Universalist Association 2001–2009, Rev. William G. Sinkford, is African-American, making Unitarian Universalism one of the first traditionally white denominations to be headed by a member of a racial minority.[58]
While political liberals make up a clear majority of Unitarian Universalists, the UU movement aspires to diversity, and officially welcomes congregants regardless of their political views. Politically conservative Unitarian Universalists point out that neither religious liberalism nor the Principles and Purposes of the UUA require liberal politics. Like the beliefs of Unitarian Universalists, politics are decided by individuals, not by congregations or the denomination.
Several congregations have undertaken a series of organizational, procedural and practical steps to become acknowledged as a "Welcoming Congregation": a congregation which has taken specific steps to welcome and integrate gay, lesbian, bisexual & transgender (GLBT) members. UU ministers perform same-sex unions and now same-sex marriages where legal (and sometimes when not, as a form of civil protest). On June 29, 1984, the Unitarian Universalists became the first major church "to approve religious blessings on homosexual unions."[59] Unitarian Universalists have been in the forefront of the work to make same-sex marriages legal in their local states and provinces, as well as on the national level. Gay men, bisexuals, and lesbians are also regularly ordained as ministers, and a number of gay, bisexual, and lesbian ministers have, themselves, now become legally married to their partners. In May 2004, Arlington Street Church was the site of the first state-sanctioned same-sex marriage in the United States. The official stance of the UUA is for the legalization of same-sex marriage—"Standing on the Side of Love." In 2004 UU Minister Rev. Debra Haffner of The Religious Institute on Sexual Morality, Justice, and Healing published An Open Letter on Religious Leaders on Marriage Equality to affirm same-sex marriage from a multi-faith perspective. In December 2009, Washington, DC Mayor Adrian Fenty signed the bill to legalize same-sex marriage for the District of Columbia in All Souls Church, Unitarian (Washington, D.C.).
Unitarian Universalists for Polyamory Awareness engages UU ministers and other leaders to educate them on polyamory.[60] At the 2015 UUA General Assembly, the Association's non-discrimination rule was amended to include the category of "family and relationship structures";[61] the UUA has yet to take specific follow-up action on this, however.
Many congregations are heavily involved in projects and efforts aimed at supporting environmental causes and sustainability. These are often termed "seventh principle" activities because of the seventh principle quoted above.
Controversies[edit]
External[edit]
Lack of formal creed[edit]
The lack of formal creed has been a cause for criticism among some who argue that Unitarian Universalism is thus without religious content.[citation needed] In May 2004, Texas Comptroller Carole Keeton Strayhorn ruled that Unitarian Universalism was not a "religion" because it "does not have one system of belief," and stripped the Red River Unitarian Universalist Church in Denison, Texas, of its tax-exempt status. However, within weeks, Strayhorn reversed her decision.[62]
Confusion with other groups[edit]
There are separate movements and organizations of Christians who hold to classical Unitarian or Christian Universalist theology and do not belong to the Unitarian Universalist Association or consider themselves UUs. The American Unitarian Conference and the Christian Universalist Association are the two most significant organizations representing these theological beliefs today. Christians who hold these beliefs tend to consider themselves the true Unitarians or Universalists and heirs of the theological legacy of the original American Unitarian Association or Universalist Church of America, and they do not wish to be confused with UUs and UUism. The Unity Church is another denomination that is often confused with Unitarian Universalism.[63]
Internal[edit]
Language of reverence[edit]
During the presidency of the Rev. William Sinkford, debate within the UU movement has roiled over his call to return to or create an authentic UU "language of reverence." Sinkford has suggested that UUs have abandoned traditional religious language, thereby abandoning words with potential power to others who will then dictate their meanings in the public sphere. He has suggested that Unitarian Universalists regain their proper seat at the interfaith table by making this language their own. Others have reacted to this call by believing it to be part of an effort to return UU congregations to more orthodox Christian worship patterns. Sinkford has denied this, citing the words of UU humanists as examples of what he means by the "language of reverence." The debate seems[original research?] part and parcel of an attendant effort at increasing biblical literacy among Unitarian Universalists, including the publication of a book by the UUA's Beacon Press written by former UUA President John Buehrens.[64] The book is titled Understanding the Bible: An Introduction for Skeptics, Seekers, and Religious Liberals,[65] and is meant as a kind of handbook to be read alongside the Bible itself. It provides interpretative strategies, so that UUs (among others) might be able to engage in public debate about what the Bible says from a liberal religious perspective, rather than relinquishing to religious conservatives, and other more literal interpretations, all control over the book's contents and significance in matters of public and civic import. Also an important work by Rev. Buehrens, along with Forrest Church, is A Chosen Faith: An Introduction to Unitarian Universalism,[66] in which the authors explore the many sources of the living tradition of their chosen faith.
Borrowing from other religions[edit]
The "borrowing" of religious rituals from other faith traditions by Unitarian Universalists was discussed at the UU General Assembly in 2001 during a seminar titled Cultural Appropriation: Reckless Borrowing or Appropriate Cultural Sharing by the Religious Education Dept, UUA.[67][68] Of particular discussion was the borrowing rituals and practices that are sacred to specific tribes or using spiritual practices without real context.

When UUs pick and choose from these things, it trivializes their spiritual practices. The specificity [of their use] is so complete, that visiting Native Americans do not participate in another tribe's rituals, and to do so would be perceived as foolish. I would not even practice the rituals of my own tribe, because I am not an elder or spiritual leader. If this is true of her own people, then the use of these things by others who share no cultural context is seen not only as particularly foolish and inappropriate.
Not all of this usage is inappropriate, though. Some taped music, written prayers, that kind of thing, might be all right, but it's not right to fool around with it. If it's not in context, if the user is not walking with us, if the user is not part of our struggle, then it is presumptuous.
— Reverend Danielle Di Bona, 2001 General Assembly[67]
Organizations[edit]
Church of the Larger Fellowship (CLF) exists to serve UUs remote from any physical congregation.
Canadian Unitarians for Social Justice (CUSJ) is a Canadian UU social justice organization that is an associate member of the CUC.
Canadian Unitarian Council (CUC) is the national body for UU congregations in Canada. They where a member of the UUA up until July 2002.
Canadian Unitarian Universalist Women's Association (CUUWA) is a Canadian UU women's rights organization that is an associate member of the CUC.
Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans (CUUPS) is an association of UUs who define themselves as Pagans or Neopagans.
Faith Architects equips UU young adults (age 18–35, inclusive) with the tools necessary to build and fortify UU young adult communities. They do this through a program called the Scaffold Series which consists of curricula in three different focus areas: Community Building, Social justice, and Worship.
International Council of Unitarians and Universalists (ICUU) represents Unitarian, Universalist, and UU churches worldwide. The UUA and CUC are both members of this organization.
Leather & Grace ~ Unitarian Universalists for BDSM Awareness (L&G) is an organization of UUs who identify with or support the BDSM/kink community.
Promise the Children is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit. Promise the Children's mission is to help UUs advocate for and with children and youth. Promise the Children is also an Independent Affiliate of the UUA.
Religious Youth Empowerment, Inc. (RYE) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit. RYE is a nonprofit created by bridged YRUUers whose goals are to empower and fund the UU youth and help network between UU youth of different UUA districts as well as between UU youth and UU young adults. RYE is currently not yet affiliated with the UUA.
Unitarian Bahai Association (UBA) and Unitarian Bahai Fellowship (UBF) are associations for UUs who define themselves as Bahai.
Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) of Congregations is the largest association of Unitarian, Universalist, and UU congregations in the world, and the most well-known. It operates mainly within the United States. A few Unitarian and UU congregations in other countries, such as San Miguel de Allende (Mexico), Puerto Rico,[69] Auckland (New Zealand),[70] and a few others are also members of the UUA. Currently, the UUA represents 1,078 member congregations[11] that collectively include more than 217,000 members.
Unitarian Universalist Buddhist Fellowship (UUBF) is an association of UUs who define themselves as Buddhists.
Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship (UUCF) is an association of UUs who define themselves as Christians.
Unitarian Universalists for Jewish Awareness (UUJA) is an association of UUs who define themselves as Jews.
Unitarian Universalists for Polyamory Awareness is an association of UUs who support officially recognizing polyamory as a valid lifestyle.
Unitarian Universalist Service Committee is a nonsectarian organization devoted to promoting human rights and social justice worldwide.
UU Humanist Association is an association of UUs who define themselves as Humanists.
Young Religious Unitarian Universalists (YRUU) is a term used within the UUA and CUC. YRUU was an organization at the North American continental level primarily run by youth, ranging in age from 14 to 20, with mentoring adult partners. The North American continental organization of YRUU ended in 2008, but the term is still used by certain active youth groups and conferences at the congregational and regional/district levels. It was created in 1981 and 1982, at two conferences, Common Ground 1 & 2. Common Ground was called to form a UUA-controlled replacement for Liberal Religious Youth (LRY), the UU youth organization that preceded YRUU. LRY was dissolved by the UUA, and its assets absorbed by the them.
Number of members[edit]
As of February 2011, the UUA had 1,018 UU member congregations in the United States and 1,046 UU member congregations when including two congregations in the U.S. Virgin Islands, 19 in Canada, six in other countries,[which?] plus 28 multi-denominational member congregations: 17 in MA, four in IL, three in NH, two in VT, and one each in ME and D.C. Seven of the ten US states with the most congregations are also among the most populous states; the state with the most congregations and members is Massachusetts; Vermont is No. 1 relative to its total population. A map using 2010 U.S. Census data showing the relative number of congregations per 1 million people is posted here.[71] And as of September 2014 there are 46 UU congregations and emerging groups in Canada affiliated with the CUC.[72]
At the time of the merger between Universalists and Unitarians, membership (both US and Canadian) was perhaps half a million.[vague][citation needed] Membership rose after the merger but then fell in the 1970s.[citation needed]
In 1956, Sam Wells wrote that "Unitarians and Universalists are considering merger which would have total U.S. membership of 160,000 (500,000 in world)".[73] In 1965 Conkin wrote that "In 1961, at the time of the merger, membership [in the United States] was 104,821 in 651 congregations, and the joint membership soared to its historically highest level in the mid-1960s (an estimated 250,000) before falling sharply back in the 1970s [...]".[74] According to the 2008 Yearbook of American & Canadian Churches, the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations claimed 214,738 members in 2002.[75]
Estimates from the 1990s put world membership between 120,000 and 600,000.[76]
In the United States, the American Religious Identification Survey reported 629,000 members describing themselves as Unitarian Universalist in 2001, an increase from 502,000 reported in a similar survey in 1990.[77] The highest concentrations are in New England and around Seattle, Washington.[78]
The U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, conducted in 2007 by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life and featuring a sample size of over 35,000, puts the proportion of American adults identifying as Unitarian Universalist at 0.3%.[79]
The 2001 Canadian census done by Statistics Canada put Canadian Unitarians at 17,480,[80] and the September 1, 2007 membership statistics from the CUC show they had at that time 5,150 official members.[81]
Notable members[edit]
For more details on this topic, see List of Unitarians, Universalists, and Unitarian Universalists.
Notable congregations[edit]
Main article: List of Unitarian, Universalist, and Unitarian Universalist churches
See also[edit]

Portal icon Religion portal
Post-Christian
United and uniting churches
United Church of Christ
References[edit]
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54.Jump up ^ Rev. Jan K. Nielsen (October 6, 2002). "Who is My Neighbor? A Homily for World Wide Communion Sunday". Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
55.Jump up ^ "The Religious Affiliations of U.S. Presidents". The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. January 15, 2009. Retrieved 2013-05-23.
56.Jump up ^ "First Unitarian Church of Louisville". Firstulou.org. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
57.Jump up ^ Smith, Amanda, Unitarian Universalist Church Has Rich Civil Rights History
58.Jump up ^ Maxwell, Bill; 11 April 2008; "Leading the Unitarian Universalist Association, a faith without a creed"; St. Petersburg Times
59.Jump up ^ "Unitarians Endorse Homosexual Marriages", UPI, New York Times, 29 June 1984.
60.Jump up ^ "UUPA website".
61.Jump up ^ "Unitarian Universalist Association: Rule II, Section C-2.3.: Non-discrimination".
62.Jump up ^ "News Release From Carole Keeton Strayhorn". Window.state.tx.us. 2004-05-24. News Release at the Wayback Machine (archived January 19, 2008)
63.Jump up ^ See "Why the American Unitarian Conference Had to Be Formed" and "What Is the Difference between Christian Universalism and Unitarian Universalism?"
64.Jump up ^ Buehrens, John A. "Past Unitarian Universalist Association President John A. Buehrens on Why Even Humanists Should Read the Bible". Beliefnet.com. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
65.Jump up ^ ISBN 0-8070-1053-7
66.Jump up ^ ISBN 0-8070-1617-9
67.^ Jump up to: a b Cultural Appropriation: Reckless Borrowing or Appropriate Cultural Sharing Reported for the Web by Dwight Ernest, July 24, 2001, Unitarian Universalist Association
68.Jump up ^ When Worship Becomes Cultural Misappropriation, September 15, 2007, UU Interconnections
69.Jump up ^ Congregation Unitarian Universalist. Uupuertorico.org. Retrieved on 2010-09-29.
70.Jump up ^ "Welcome!". Unitarian.org.nz. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
71.Jump up ^ Walton, Christopher L.; Todd, Kathy (2011). "Unitarian Universalist congregations by state". weekly web magazine. Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations. Archived from the original on March 31, 2012. Retrieved September 24, 2011. "Map includes 1,018 UUA member congregations in the United States using data collected by the UUA through February 2011, but does not include the Church of the Larger Fellowship which is headquartered in Mass. but serves a geographically dispersed community. The map does include multidenominational congregations affiliated with the UUA"
72.Jump up ^ "Congregations". Retrieved September 23, 2014.
73.Jump up ^ Wells, Sam, ed. (1957). The World's Great Religions V.3 Glories of Christiandom. New York: Time Incorporated. p. 205.
74.Jump up ^ Conkin, Paul K. (1997). American Originals: Homemade Varieties of Christianity. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 95. ISBN 0-8078-4649-X.
75.Jump up ^ Lindner, Eileen W., ed. (2008). Yearbook of American & Canadian Churches 2008. Nashville: Abingdon Press. p. 381.
76.Jump up ^ "Adherents.com". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
77.Jump up ^ "The Graduate Center, CUNY". Gc.cuny.edu. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
78.Jump up ^ "Unitarians as a Percentage of All Residents". Glenmary Research Center. Religious Congregations and Membership in the United States, 2000. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
79.Jump up ^ "U.S. Religious Landscape Survey". Religions.pewforum.org. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
80.Jump up ^ 97F0022XCB2001002. 2.statcan.ca (2010-03-09). Retrieved on 2010-09-29.
81.Jump up ^ "Membership – The More It Changes, the More It Stays the Same" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-02-27.
Further reading[edit]
John A. Buehrens and Forrest Church, A Chosen Faith: An Introduction to Unitarian Universalism (Revised edition) by 1998, Beacon Press, ISBN 0-8070-1617-9.
David E. Bumbaugh, Unitarian Universalism: A Narrative History 2001
Richard Grigg, To Re-Enchant the World: A Philosophy of Unitarian Universalism, 2004
Guest, Avery Pete, "Universalism as Liberal Religion and the 1845 Antislavery Protest," Journal of Unitarian Universalist History 38 (2014-2015) pp: 127-53.
Robert B. Tapp, Religion among the Unitarian Universalists; converts in the stepfathers' house by New York: Seminar Press, 1973, ISBN 0-12-914650-1
External links[edit]http://www.uua.org (UUA official website)
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Unitarian Universalism.
 Look up unitarian universalism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Continental Unitarian Universalist Young Adult Network (C*UUYAN)
UU World Magazine
What is Unitarian Universalist? A YouTube video
Unitarian-Universalist Merger Timeline from Harvard Divinity School's website.
Unitarianism and Universalism at DMOZ
DiscoverUU
Creative Commons-licensed Unitarian Universalist sites and resources


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