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Biphobia

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Biphobia is aversion toward bisexuality and bisexual people as a social group or as individuals. People of any sexual orientation can experience such feelings of aversion. Biphobia is a source of discrimination against bisexuals, and may be based on negative bisexual stereotypes or irrational fear.


Contents  [hide]
1 Etymology and use
2 Negative stereotypes 2.1 Denialism
2.2 Promiscuity
3 Bisexual erasure
4 Monosexism
5 Criticism of a study
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links

Etymology and use[edit]
Biphobia is a portmanteau word patterned on the term homophobia. It derives from the English neo-classical prefix bi- (meaning "two") from bisexual and the root -phobia (from the Greek: φόβος, phóbos, "fear") found in homophobia. Along with transphobia, homophobia and biphobia are members of the family of terms used when intolerance and discrimination is directed toward LGBT people.
Biphobia need not be a phobia as defined in clinical psychology (i.e., an anxiety disorder). Its meaning and use typically parallel those of xenophobia.
The adjectival form biphobic describes things or qualities related to biphobia, whereas the noun biphobe is a label for people thought to harbor biphobia.[1]
Negative stereotypes[edit]
While biphobia and homophobia are distinct phenomena, they do share some traits: with attraction to one's own gender being a part of bisexuality, the heterosexist view of heterosexuality being the only true attraction applies to bisexual people as well as to gay people. However, bisexuals are also stigmatized in other ways.
Denialism[edit]
The belief that bisexuality does not exist stems from binary views of sexuality, that people are assumed to be exclusively homosexual (gay/lesbian) or heterosexual (straight), with bisexuals either closeted gay people wishing to appear heterosexual,[2] or experimenting with their sexuality,[3][4][5] and cannot be bisexual unless they are equally attracted towards men and women.[6] Maxims such as "People are either gay, straight or lying" embody this dichotomous view of sexual orientations.[6]
Resulting negative stereotypes represent bisexuals as confused, undecided, dabblers, insecure, experimenting or "just going through a phase".[7] Attractions toward both sexes are considered fashionable as in "bisexual chic" or gender bending. Relations are dismissed as a substitute for sex with members of the "right" sex or as a more accessible source of sexual gratification. Situational homosexuality due to sex-segregated environments or groups such as the armed forces, schools, sports teams, religious orders, and prisons is another facet of explaining why someone is allegedly temporarily gay.
Promiscuity[edit]
The strict association of bisexuality with promiscuity stems from a variety of negative stereotypes targeting bisexuals as mentally or socially unstable people for whom sexual relations only with men, only with women or only with one person is not enough. These stereotypes may result from cultural assumptions that "men and women are so different that desire for one is an entirely different beast from desire for the other" ("a defining feature of heterosexism"), and that "verbalizing a sexual desire inevitably leads to attempts to satisfy that desire."[8]
As a result, bisexuals bear a social stigma from accusations of cheating on or betraying their partners, leading a double life, being "on the down-low", and spreading sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS. They are characterized as being "slutty", insatiable, "easy", indiscriminate, and in the case of women, nymphomaniacs. Furthermore, they are strongly associated with polyamory, swinging, and polygamy,[9] the last being an established heterosexual tradition sanctioned by some religions and legal in several countries. People of any sexual orientation can change partners, practice serial monogamy or have multiple casual sex partners or multiple romantic relationships. The fact that bisexuals are potentially sexually attracted to both men and women does not mean that they must simultaneously engage in sexual relationships with both men and women to be satisfied.
Bisexual erasure[edit]
Bisexual erasure or bisexual invisibility is the tendency to ignore, remove, falsify, or reexplain evidence of bisexuality in history, academia, the news media, and other primary sources.[10][11] In its most extreme form, bisexual erasure can include denying that bisexuality exists.[12][13] It is often a manifestation of biphobia, although it does not necessarily involve overt antagonism.
However, there is also increasing support, inclusion, and visibility in both bisexual and non-bisexual communities, especially in the LGBT community.[14][15][16][17][18][19]
Monosexism[edit]
Monosexism is a term used to refer to beliefs, structures, and actions that promote monosexuality (either exclusive heterosexuality or homosexuality) as the only legitimate or right sexual orientation, excluding bisexual or other non-monosexual orientations.[20][21] The term may be considered analogous to biphobia.[21]
The term is primarily used in discussions of sexual orientation to denote aversion towards all non-monosexual people as a social group or as individuals. It was likely adopted in place of unisexual, which is already used in biology and would produce confusion. It is sometimes considered derogatory by the people to whom it is applied.[22]
The proportion of people who fit into the category depends on how one uses the word. If the term is used to mean exclusively monosexual in behavior, then according to Alfred Kinsey's studies, 63% of men and 87% of women are what may now be termed "monosexual" as determined by experiences leading to orgasm.[23] Freud thought that no one was born monosexual and that it had to be taught by parents or society, though most people appear to believe that monosexuals are in fact the majority and identify as such.[24]
Criticism of a study[edit]
An 2005 article in the The New York Times used the word "biphobic" when criticising a study.[25][26][27] The study, which took place in 2002, reported levels of arousal in men self-identifying as bisexual when viewing pornography involving only men and only women. The article also criticised the method of measurement of arousal.
See also[edit]

Portal icon LGBT portal
Bisexual American history
Bisexual community
Duclod Man
Heteronormativity
History of bisexuality
International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia (biphobia was added to the name of the day in 2015)
List of media portrayals of bisexuality
List of phobias
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Eliason, MJ (1997). "The prevalence and nature of biphobia in heterosexual undergraduate students". Archives of Sexual Behavior 26 (3): 317–26. doi:10.1023/A:1024527032040. PMID 9146816.
2.Jump up ^ Michael Musto, April 7, 2009. Ever Meet a Real Bisexual?, The Village Voice
3.Jump up ^ Yoshino, Kenji (January 2000). "The Epistemic Contract of Bisexual Erasure" (PDF). Stanford Law Review (Stanford Law School) 52 (2): 353–461. doi:10.2307/1229482. JSTOR 1229482.
4.Jump up ^ "Why Do Lesbians Hate Bisexuals?". lesbilicious.co.uk. April 11, 2008. Retrieved March 26, 2011.
5.Jump up ^ Geen, Jessica (October 28, 2009). "Bisexual workers 'excluded by lesbian and gay colleagues'". Retrieved March 26, 2011.
6.^ Jump up to: a b Dworkin, SH (2001). "Treating the bisexual client". Journal of Clinical Psychology 57 (5): 671–80. doi:10.1002/jclp.1036. PMID 11304706.
7.Jump up ^ "It's Just A Phase" Is Just A Phrase, The Bisexual Index
8.Jump up ^ "Bisexuals and the Slut Myth", presented at the 9th International Conference on Bisexuality
9.Jump up ^ GLAAD: Cultural Interest Media Archived April 19, 2006 at the Wayback Machine
10.Jump up ^ Word Of The Gay: BisexualErasure May 16, 2008 "Queers United"
11.Jump up ^ The B Word Suresha, Ron. "The B Word," Options (Rhode Island), November 2004
12.Jump up ^ Hutchins, Loraine (2005). "Sexual Prejudice: The erasure of bisexuals in academia and the media". American Sexuality magazine (National Sexuality Resource Center) 3 (4).
13.Jump up ^ Hutchins, Loraine. "Sexual Prejudice - The erasure of bisexuals in academia and the media". American Sexuality Magazine. San Francisco, CA 94103, United States: National Sexuality Resource Center, San Francisco State University. Archived from the original on 2007-12-16. Retrieved 2007-07-19.
14.Jump up ^ "Queers United".
15.Jump up ^ "Task Force Report On Bisexuality".
16.Jump up ^ "HRC article on bisexuality".
17.Jump up ^ "GLAAD TV Report" (PDF).
18.Jump up ^ Maria, September 24, 2009. How Far Have We Come?, BiSocial News
19.Jump up ^ "Thirteen On House".
20.Jump up ^ Highleyman, Liz (1995). "Identities and Ideas: Strategies for Bisexuals", from the anthology Bisexual Politics: Theories, Queries, and Visions. Haworth Press. Black Rose Web Pages.
21.^ Jump up to: a b Rust, Paula C Rodriguez (2002). "Bisexuality: The state of the union, Annual Review of Sex Research, 2002", BNET.[dead link]
22.Jump up ^ Hamilton, Alan (2000). Archived August 5, 2007 at the Wayback Machine of "LesBiGay and Transgender Glossary", Bisexual Resource Center.
23.Jump up ^ (1999). "Prevalence of Homosexuality", The Kinsey Institute. Note that Kinsey did not use the term "bisexual", but that he uses "exclusively homosexual" and "exclusively heterosexual".
24.Jump up ^ Rethinking Marxism: A Journal of Economics, Culture & Society, Volume 8, Issue 3, 1995, Feminist Economies, DOI:10.1080/08935699508685453, Margaret Nash, pages 66-78.
25.Jump up ^ Carey, Benedict (5 July 2005). "Straight, Gay or Lying? Bisexuality Revisited". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 February 2007.
26.Jump up ^ National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (July 2005). The Problems with "Gay, Straight, or Lying?" (PDF) Retrieved 24 July 2006.
27.Jump up ^ "New York Times Suggests Bisexuals Are 'Lying.' Paper fails to disclose study author's controversial history". Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting. July 8, 2005. Retrieved June 22, 2013.
Further reading[edit]
Garber, Marjorie (1995). Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life, pp. 20–21, 28, 39.
Fraser, M., Identity Without Selfhood: Simone de Beauvoir and Bisexuality, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 1999. p. 124–140.
External links[edit]
Bialogue/GLAAD Bisexuality Packet for Mental Health Professionals
Fairy Tales, by Job Brother in The Advocate September 21, 2007
Curiouser and curiouser by Mark Simpson
Bisexuality Basics, UC Riverside LGBT Resource Center, Riverside, CA


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Biphobia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Part of a series on
Discrimination


General forms[show]



















Specific forms
 

Social[show]







































Manifestations[show]





















































Policies[show]































Other forms[show]








Countermeasures[show]














Related topics[show]




















Portal icon Discrimination portal
v ·
 t ·
 e
   
Biphobia is aversion toward bisexuality and bisexual people as a social group or as individuals. People of any sexual orientation can experience such feelings of aversion. Biphobia is a source of discrimination against bisexuals, and may be based on negative bisexual stereotypes or irrational fear.


Contents  [hide]
1 Etymology and use
2 Negative stereotypes 2.1 Denialism
2.2 Promiscuity
3 Bisexual erasure
4 Monosexism
5 Criticism of a study
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links

Etymology and use[edit]
Biphobia is a portmanteau word patterned on the term homophobia. It derives from the English neo-classical prefix bi- (meaning "two") from bisexual and the root -phobia (from the Greek: φόβος, phóbos, "fear") found in homophobia. Along with transphobia, homophobia and biphobia are members of the family of terms used when intolerance and discrimination is directed toward LGBT people.
Biphobia need not be a phobia as defined in clinical psychology (i.e., an anxiety disorder). Its meaning and use typically parallel those of xenophobia.
The adjectival form biphobic describes things or qualities related to biphobia, whereas the noun biphobe is a label for people thought to harbor biphobia.[1]
Negative stereotypes[edit]
While biphobia and homophobia are distinct phenomena, they do share some traits: with attraction to one's own gender being a part of bisexuality, the heterosexist view of heterosexuality being the only true attraction applies to bisexual people as well as to gay people. However, bisexuals are also stigmatized in other ways.
Denialism[edit]
The belief that bisexuality does not exist stems from binary views of sexuality, that people are assumed to be exclusively homosexual (gay/lesbian) or heterosexual (straight), with bisexuals either closeted gay people wishing to appear heterosexual,[2] or experimenting with their sexuality,[3][4][5] and cannot be bisexual unless they are equally attracted towards men and women.[6] Maxims such as "People are either gay, straight or lying" embody this dichotomous view of sexual orientations.[6]
Resulting negative stereotypes represent bisexuals as confused, undecided, dabblers, insecure, experimenting or "just going through a phase".[7] Attractions toward both sexes are considered fashionable as in "bisexual chic" or gender bending. Relations are dismissed as a substitute for sex with members of the "right" sex or as a more accessible source of sexual gratification. Situational homosexuality due to sex-segregated environments or groups such as the armed forces, schools, sports teams, religious orders, and prisons is another facet of explaining why someone is allegedly temporarily gay.
Promiscuity[edit]
The strict association of bisexuality with promiscuity stems from a variety of negative stereotypes targeting bisexuals as mentally or socially unstable people for whom sexual relations only with men, only with women or only with one person is not enough. These stereotypes may result from cultural assumptions that "men and women are so different that desire for one is an entirely different beast from desire for the other" ("a defining feature of heterosexism"), and that "verbalizing a sexual desire inevitably leads to attempts to satisfy that desire."[8]
As a result, bisexuals bear a social stigma from accusations of cheating on or betraying their partners, leading a double life, being "on the down-low", and spreading sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS. They are characterized as being "slutty", insatiable, "easy", indiscriminate, and in the case of women, nymphomaniacs. Furthermore, they are strongly associated with polyamory, swinging, and polygamy,[9] the last being an established heterosexual tradition sanctioned by some religions and legal in several countries. People of any sexual orientation can change partners, practice serial monogamy or have multiple casual sex partners or multiple romantic relationships. The fact that bisexuals are potentially sexually attracted to both men and women does not mean that they must simultaneously engage in sexual relationships with both men and women to be satisfied.
Bisexual erasure[edit]
Bisexual erasure or bisexual invisibility is the tendency to ignore, remove, falsify, or reexplain evidence of bisexuality in history, academia, the news media, and other primary sources.[10][11] In its most extreme form, bisexual erasure can include denying that bisexuality exists.[12][13] It is often a manifestation of biphobia, although it does not necessarily involve overt antagonism.
However, there is also increasing support, inclusion, and visibility in both bisexual and non-bisexual communities, especially in the LGBT community.[14][15][16][17][18][19]
Monosexism[edit]
Monosexism is a term used to refer to beliefs, structures, and actions that promote monosexuality (either exclusive heterosexuality or homosexuality) as the only legitimate or right sexual orientation, excluding bisexual or other non-monosexual orientations.[20][21] The term may be considered analogous to biphobia.[21]
The term is primarily used in discussions of sexual orientation to denote aversion towards all non-monosexual people as a social group or as individuals. It was likely adopted in place of unisexual, which is already used in biology and would produce confusion. It is sometimes considered derogatory by the people to whom it is applied.[22]
The proportion of people who fit into the category depends on how one uses the word. If the term is used to mean exclusively monosexual in behavior, then according to Alfred Kinsey's studies, 63% of men and 87% of women are what may now be termed "monosexual" as determined by experiences leading to orgasm.[23] Freud thought that no one was born monosexual and that it had to be taught by parents or society, though most people appear to believe that monosexuals are in fact the majority and identify as such.[24]
Criticism of a study[edit]
An 2005 article in the The New York Times used the word "biphobic" when criticising a study.[25][26][27] The study, which took place in 2002, reported levels of arousal in men self-identifying as bisexual when viewing pornography involving only men and only women. The article also criticised the method of measurement of arousal.
See also[edit]

Portal icon LGBT portal
Bisexual American history
Bisexual community
Duclod Man
Heteronormativity
History of bisexuality
International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia (biphobia was added to the name of the day in 2015)
List of media portrayals of bisexuality
List of phobias
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Eliason, MJ (1997). "The prevalence and nature of biphobia in heterosexual undergraduate students". Archives of Sexual Behavior 26 (3): 317–26. doi:10.1023/A:1024527032040. PMID 9146816.
2.Jump up ^ Michael Musto, April 7, 2009. Ever Meet a Real Bisexual?, The Village Voice
3.Jump up ^ Yoshino, Kenji (January 2000). "The Epistemic Contract of Bisexual Erasure" (PDF). Stanford Law Review (Stanford Law School) 52 (2): 353–461. doi:10.2307/1229482. JSTOR 1229482.
4.Jump up ^ "Why Do Lesbians Hate Bisexuals?". lesbilicious.co.uk. April 11, 2008. Retrieved March 26, 2011.
5.Jump up ^ Geen, Jessica (October 28, 2009). "Bisexual workers 'excluded by lesbian and gay colleagues'". Retrieved March 26, 2011.
6.^ Jump up to: a b Dworkin, SH (2001). "Treating the bisexual client". Journal of Clinical Psychology 57 (5): 671–80. doi:10.1002/jclp.1036. PMID 11304706.
7.Jump up ^ "It's Just A Phase" Is Just A Phrase, The Bisexual Index
8.Jump up ^ "Bisexuals and the Slut Myth", presented at the 9th International Conference on Bisexuality
9.Jump up ^ GLAAD: Cultural Interest Media Archived April 19, 2006 at the Wayback Machine
10.Jump up ^ Word Of The Gay: BisexualErasure May 16, 2008 "Queers United"
11.Jump up ^ The B Word Suresha, Ron. "The B Word," Options (Rhode Island), November 2004
12.Jump up ^ Hutchins, Loraine (2005). "Sexual Prejudice: The erasure of bisexuals in academia and the media". American Sexuality magazine (National Sexuality Resource Center) 3 (4).
13.Jump up ^ Hutchins, Loraine. "Sexual Prejudice - The erasure of bisexuals in academia and the media". American Sexuality Magazine. San Francisco, CA 94103, United States: National Sexuality Resource Center, San Francisco State University. Archived from the original on 2007-12-16. Retrieved 2007-07-19.
14.Jump up ^ "Queers United".
15.Jump up ^ "Task Force Report On Bisexuality".
16.Jump up ^ "HRC article on bisexuality".
17.Jump up ^ "GLAAD TV Report" (PDF).
18.Jump up ^ Maria, September 24, 2009. How Far Have We Come?, BiSocial News
19.Jump up ^ "Thirteen On House".
20.Jump up ^ Highleyman, Liz (1995). "Identities and Ideas: Strategies for Bisexuals", from the anthology Bisexual Politics: Theories, Queries, and Visions. Haworth Press. Black Rose Web Pages.
21.^ Jump up to: a b Rust, Paula C Rodriguez (2002). "Bisexuality: The state of the union, Annual Review of Sex Research, 2002", BNET.[dead link]
22.Jump up ^ Hamilton, Alan (2000). Archived August 5, 2007 at the Wayback Machine of "LesBiGay and Transgender Glossary", Bisexual Resource Center.
23.Jump up ^ (1999). "Prevalence of Homosexuality", The Kinsey Institute. Note that Kinsey did not use the term "bisexual", but that he uses "exclusively homosexual" and "exclusively heterosexual".
24.Jump up ^ Rethinking Marxism: A Journal of Economics, Culture & Society, Volume 8, Issue 3, 1995, Feminist Economies, DOI:10.1080/08935699508685453, Margaret Nash, pages 66-78.
25.Jump up ^ Carey, Benedict (5 July 2005). "Straight, Gay or Lying? Bisexuality Revisited". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 February 2007.
26.Jump up ^ National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (July 2005). The Problems with "Gay, Straight, or Lying?" (PDF) Retrieved 24 July 2006.
27.Jump up ^ "New York Times Suggests Bisexuals Are 'Lying.' Paper fails to disclose study author's controversial history". Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting. July 8, 2005. Retrieved June 22, 2013.
Further reading[edit]
Garber, Marjorie (1995). Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life, pp. 20–21, 28, 39.
Fraser, M., Identity Without Selfhood: Simone de Beauvoir and Bisexuality, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 1999. p. 124–140.
External links[edit]
Bialogue/GLAAD Bisexuality Packet for Mental Health Professionals
Fairy Tales, by Job Brother in The Advocate September 21, 2007
Curiouser and curiouser by Mark Simpson
Bisexuality Basics, UC Riverside LGBT Resource Center, Riverside, CA


[show] 
Links to related articles






































































































































































































































































LGBT pride flag








































































































































































































































































































































































Category
Portal




  


Categories: Bisexuality
Discrimination
Hatred
LGBT terms
Phobias
Prejudices
Sexual and gender prejudices
Sexual orientation and society






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This page was last modified on 16 June 2015, at 01:29.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biphobia












Transphobia

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Transgender topics

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Transphobia (or much less commonly transprejudice) is a range of antagonistic attitudes and feelings against transsexuality and transsexual or transgender people, based on the expression of their internal gender identity (see Phobia – Terms for prejudice). Researchers describe transphobia as emotional disgust, fear, anger or discomfort felt or expressed towards people who do not conform to society's gender expectations,[1][2] and say that although it is an aspect of homophobia,[3][4] and is similar to racism and sexism, those attitudes are becoming generally unacceptable in modern society, whereas significantly more individuals still maintain transphobic views without fear of censure.[5]
The related term cissexism (or cissexual assumption, which is occasionally used synonymously with transphobia or, more rarely, cisgenderism) is the appeal to norms that enforce the gender binary and gender essentialism, resulting in the oppression of gender variant, non-binary, and trans identities.[6] Cisgenderism refers to the assumption that, due to human sexual differentiation, one's gender is determined solely by a biological sex of male or female (based on the assumption that all people must have either an XX or XY sex-chromosome pair, or, in the case of cisgenderism, a bivalent male or female expression), and that trans people are inferior to cisgender people due to being in "defiance of nature".[7]
Whether intentional or not, transphobia and cissexism have severe consequences for the target of the negative attitude. As homophobia and transphobia are correlated, many trans people experience homophobia and heterosexism; this is due to people who associate trans people's gender identity with homosexuality, or because trans people also have a sexual orientation that is non-heterosexual.[3][8][9] Attacking someone on the basis of a perception of their gender identity rather than a perception of their sexual orientation is known as "trans bashing", as opposed to "gay bashing".


Contents  [hide]
1 Etymology and use
2 Origins
3 Manifestations 3.1 Harassment and violence
3.2 Misgendering and exclusion
3.3 As users of healthcare
3.4 In the workplace
3.5 From government
3.6 In social conservatism
3.7 In feminism
3.8 In the gay, lesbian, and bisexual communities 3.8.1 Gay and lesbian communities
3.8.2 Bisexual communities and binarism

4 Consequences
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links

Etymology and use[edit]
Transphobia is a portmanteau word patterned on the term homophobia. It derives from the English neo-classical prefix trans- (meaning "across, on the far side, beyond") from transgender and the root -phobia (from the Greek: φόβος, phóbos, "fear") found in homophobia. Along with biphobia, homophobia and transphobia are members of the family of terms used when intolerance and discrimination is directed toward LGBT people.
Transphobia need not be a phobia as defined in clinical psychology (i.e., an anxiety disorder). Its meaning and use typically parallel those of xenophobia.
The adjectival form transphobic describes things or qualities related to transphobia, whereas the noun transphobe is a label for people thought to harbor transphobia.
Origins[edit]
The transfeminist theorist and author Julia Serano argues in her book Whipping Girl that transphobia is rooted in sexism. She locates the origins of both transphobia and homophobia in what she calls "oppositional sexism", the belief that male and female are "rigid, mutually exclusive categories, each possessing a unique and nonoverlapping set of attributes, aptitudes, abilities, and desires". Serano contrasts oppositional sexism with "traditional sexism", the belief that males and masculinity are superior to females and femininity. Furthermore, she writes that transphobia is fueled by insecurities people have about gender and gender norms.[10]
The transgender author and critic Jody Norton believes that transphobia is an extension of homophobia and misogyny. She argues that transgender people, like gays and lesbians, are hated and feared for challenging and undermining gender norms and the gender binary. Norton writes that the "male-to-female transgender incites transphobia through her implicit challenge to the binary division of gender upon which male cultural and political hegemony depends".[11]
Manifestations[edit]
Harassment and violence[edit]
See also: Violence against LGBT people
Harassment and violence directed against transgender people is often called trans bashing, and can be physical, sexual or verbal. Whereas gay bashing is directed against a target's real or perceived sexual orientation, trans bashing is directed against the target's real or perceived expressed gender identity. The term has also been applied to hate speech directed at transgender people[12] and to depictions of transgender people in the media that reinforce negative stereotypes about them.[13] Notable victims of violent crimes motivated by transphobia include Brandon Teena, Gwen Araujo, Angie Zapata, Nizah Morris, and Lauren Harries.[14]
According to the American Psychological Association, transgender children are likelier than other children to experience harassment and violence in school, foster care, residential treatment centers, homeless centers and juvenile justice programs.[15] Researchers say trans youth routinely experience taunting, teasing and bullying at school, and that nearly all trans youth say they were verbally or physically harassed in school, particularly during gym class, at school events, or when using single-sex restrooms. Three-quarters report having felt unsafe.[2]
As adults, transgender people are frequently subjected to ridicule, stares, taunting and threats of violence, even when just walking down the street or walking into a store.[16] A U.S. survey of 402 older, employed, high-income transgender people found that 60% reported violence or harassment because of their gender identity. 56% had been harassed or verbally abused, 30% had been assaulted, 17% had had objects thrown at them, 14% had been robbed and 8% had experienced what they characterized as an unjustified arrest.[8]
A study of 81 transgender people in Philadelphia found 30% reported feeling unsafe in public because they were transgender, with 19% feeling uncomfortable for the same reason. When asked if they had ever been forced to have sex, experienced violence in their home, or been physically abused, the majority answered yes to each question.[17]
A review of American studies on sexual violence towards transgender people found that around 50% of transgender people have been sexually assaulted.[18]
When transgender people are murdered, they are often shot or stabbed repeatedly, riddled with bullets or bludgeoned beyond recognition.[7]
Misgendering and exclusion[edit]
Misgendering is a word coined by transgender American writer and biologist Julia Serano to refer to the experience of being labeled by someone as having a gender other than the one you identify with.[citation needed] Misgendering can be deliberate or accidental. It ordinarily takes the form of a person using pronouns (including "it") to describe someone that are not the ones that person prefers,[19][20][21][22][23] calling a person "ma'am" or "sir" in contradiction to the person's gender identity,[21][24][25] using a pre-transition name for someone instead of a post-transition one[23][26][27][28] (called "deadnaming" in the transgender community),[29] or insisting that a person behave consistently with their assigned rather than self-identified gender, for example by using a bathroom designated for males even though the person identifies as female. The experience of being misgendered is common for all transgender people before they transition, and for many afterwards as well.[30] Transgender people are regularly misgendered by doctors,[15] police, media and peers, experiences that they have described as mortifying,[31] hurtful, especially to transgender youth,[32] cruel,[33] and "only making our lives harder".[32] Knowingly and deliberately misgendering a transgender person is considered extremely offensive by transgender individuals.[32][33]
In 2008, Allen Andrade beat to death Colorado transgender teenager Angie Zapata, whom he later described to police as "it."[32]
In August 2013, after murdered 21-year-old New York trans woman Islan Nettles was referred to as "he" by a speaker at her memorial service, transgender actress Laverne Cox characterized misgendering as "part of the violence that led to Islan's death."[32]
In 2014, a Connecticut trans girl known only as Jane Doe (due to her status as a minor) has several times been placed in facilities for men and boys during her continuing imprisonment without charges. She has also been misgendered by the writers of some letters to the editor of the Hartford Courant.[34]
Transgender people often are excluded from entitlements or privileges reserved for people whose gender identity they share, but whose assigned gender they do not. It is very common, for example, for transgender women to be stopped or questioned when they use public bathrooms designated for women.[16][23]
Homeless shelters, hospitals and prisons have denied trans women admission to women's areas and forced them to sleep and bathe in the presence of men.[35] This situation has been changing in some areas, however. For example, on February 8, 2006, New York City's Department of Homeless Services announced an overhaul of its housing policy with the goal of specifically ending discrimination against transgender people in its shelters.[36]
As users of healthcare[edit]
See also: Healthcare and the LGBT community
A study of 81 transgender people in Philadelphia found 14% said they had been refused routine medical care because they were transgender. 18% answered yes when asked if, when they went in for a check-up, "being transgendered create[d] a problem" for them.[17]
Transgender people depend largely on the medical profession to receive not only hormone replacement therapy, but also vital care. In one case, Robert Eads died of ovarian cancer after being refused treatment by more than two dozen doctors.[37] In the US-based National Center For Transgender Equality's 2011 survey, 19% had been refused medical care due to their transgender or gender non-conforming status,[38] showing that refusal of treatment due to transphobia is not uncommon. Another example of this is the case of Tyra Hunter. Hunter was involved in an automobile accident, and when rescue workers discovered she was transgender, they backed away and stopped administering treatment. She later died in a hospital.[39]
In many European countries, any transgender person who wishes to change their legal gender must first be sterilized. Several countries are reviewing this law; Sweden repealed it in December 2012.[40]
In the workplace[edit]
Transphobia also manifests itself in the workplace. Some transgender people lose their jobs when they begin to transition. A study from Willamette University stated that a transsexual person fired for following the recommended course of treatment rarely wins it back through federal or state statutes.[41]
News stories from the San Francisco Chronicle and Associated Press cite a 1999 study by the San Francisco Department of Public Health finding a 70 percent unemployment rate amongst the city's transgender population. On February 18, 1999, the San Francisco Department of Public Health issued the results of a 1997 survey of 392 trans women and 123 trans men, which found that 40 percent of those trans women surveyed had earned money from full or part-time employment over the preceding six months. For trans men, the equivalent statistic was 81 percent. The survey also found that 46 percent of trans women and 57 percent of trans men reported employment discrimination.[42]
A 2002 American study found that among educators, trans educators are 10-20% likelier to experience workplace harassment than their gay and lesbian colleagues.[2]
In the hiring process, discrimination may be either open or covert, with employers finding other ostensible reasons not to hire a candidate or just not informing prospective employees at all as to why they are not being hired. Additionally, when an employer fires or otherwise discriminates against a transgender employee, it may be a "mixed motive" case, with the employer openly citing obvious wrongdoing, job performance issues or the like (such as excessive tardiness, for example) while keeping silent in regards to transphobia.[citation needed]
Employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity and expression is illegal in some U.S. cities, towns and states. Such discrimination is outlawed by specific legislation in the State of New Jersey and might be in other states (as it is in the states of California, Illinois, Maine, Minnesota, New Mexico and Washington) or city ordinances; additionally, it is covered by case law in some other states. (For example, Massachusetts is covered by cases such as Lie vs. Sky Publishing Co. and Jette vs. Honey Farms.) Several other states and cities prohibit such discrimination in public employment. Sweden and the United Kingdom has also legislated against employment discrimination on the grounds of gender identity. Sometimes, however, employers discriminate against transgender employees in spite of such legal protections.[43]
There is at least one high-profile employment-related court case unfavorable to transgender people. In 2000, the southern U.S. grocery chain Winn-Dixie fired longtime employee Peter Oiler, despite a history of repeatedly earning raises and promotions, after management learned that the married, heterosexual truck driver occasionally cross-dressed off the job. Management argued that this hurt Winn-Dixie's corporate image. The American Civil Liberties Union filed a lawsuit against Winn-Dixie on behalf of Oiler but a judge dismissed it.[44]
Sometimes transgender people facing employment discrimination turn to sex work to survive,[45] placing them at additional risk of such things as encountering troubles with the law, including arrest and criminal prosecution; enduring workplace violence; and possibly contracting sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV.[42]
From government[edit]
Transgender people also face the denial of right of asylum or inhuman treatment in process of asylum-seeking. For example, Fernada Milan, a transsexual woman from Guatemala was placed in an asylum center for males in Denmark and while there, was raped by several men. She was in danger of deportation into Guatemala where transgender people have no rights and face possible execution, but has since been granted entry.[46]
Transgender disenfranchisement is the practice of creating or upholding barriers that keep transgender individuals from voting and therefore restrict the principles of universal suffrage.
See also: Transgender disenfranchisement in the United States
In social conservatism[edit]
The Christian Right has become increasingly involved in campaigning against transgender-inclusive antidiscrimination legislation. Much of this transphobia is based on conservative Catholic natural law theory, derived from the work of Saint Augustine and Thomas Aquinas and then modified by John Finnis, Robert P. George and other conservative Catholics to posit human 'essences' that are 'immutable' (like 'biological sex' or 'genetical or chromosomal sex') to discourage government funding for reassignment surgery, or inclusion within anti-discrimination legislation, such as Canada's contemporary Bill C-279, intended to outlaw discrimination on the basis of gender identity.[citation needed]
According to the Ontario Consultants for Religious Tolerance website, under Pope John Paul II, the Vatican adopted its current opposition to reassignment surgery in 2000, although it was not made official until 2003. Other Christian Right opponents of transgender rights include the US Family Research Council, the late Charles Socarides and the American Family Association, REAL Women of Canada, Focus on the Family, Canada's Lifesite and Family First New Zealand. Transgender rights activists and LGB and other supporters question why a sectarian religious philosophy, such as "natural law" theory, should be binding on those who do not share these a priori religious conservative perceptions of gender identity and the morality of reassignment surgery or transsexuality, citing religious freedom, freedom from religion and religious compulsion and separation of church and state as benchmarks of healthy democratic societies.[47][48]
In feminism[edit]
See also: Feminist views on transgenderism and transsexualism
Radical feminist Janice Raymond's 1979 book, The Transsexual Empire, was and still is controversial due to its unequivocal condemnation of transsexual surgeries. In the book Raymond says, "All transsexuals rape women's bodies by reducing the real female form to an artifact, appropriating this body for themselves .... Transsexuals merely cut off the most obvious means of invading women, so that they seem non-invasive."[49]
Perhaps the most visible site of conflict between feminists and trans women has been the Michigan Womyn's Music Festival. The festival ejected a transsexual woman, Nancy Burkholder, in the early 1990s.[50] Since then, the festival has maintained an intention that it is for "womyn-born-womyn" only.[51] The activist group Camp Trans formed to protest the "womyn-born-womyn" intention and to advocate for greater acceptance of trans women within the feminist community. A number of prominent transgender activists and transfeminists were involved in Camp Trans including Riki Wilchins, Jessica Xavier, and Leslie Feinberg.[citation needed] The festival considered allowing only post-operative trans women to attend, however this was criticized as classist, as many trans women cannot afford sex reassignment surgery.[52]
Kimberly Nixon is a trans woman who volunteered for training as a rape crisis counselor at Vancouver Rape Relief & Women's Shelter in Vancouver, British Columbia in 1995. When Nixon's transsexual status was determined, she was expelled. The staff decided that Nixon's status made it impossible for her to understand the experiences of their clients, and also required their clients to be genetically female. Nixon disagreed, disclosing her own history of partner abuse and sued for discrimination. Nixon's attorneys argued that there was no basis for the dismissal, citing Diana Courvant's experiences as the first publicly transsexual woman to work in a women-only domestic violence shelter. In 2007 the Canadian Supreme Court refused to hear Nixon's appeal, ending the case.[53][54][55]
Outside Canada, not all rape survivors organisations refuse to support transsexual rape survivors. Wellington Independent Rape Crisis featured former sex worker, New Zealand Labour Party MP and the world's first transsexual elected national representative Georgina Beyer on one of its "Take Back the Night" marches as a rape survivor herself, and Beyer has also assisted the Auckland-based HELP Foundation for sexual abuse counselling, prevention and support, appearing in a poster campaign to call for higher levels of government funding.[citation needed]
Transsexual women such as Sandy Stone challenged the feminist conception of "biological woman". Stone worked as a sound engineer for Olivia Records from about 1974 to 1978, resigning as the controversy over a trans woman working for a lesbian-identified enterprise increased.[56] The debate continued in Raymond's book,[49] which devoted a chapter to criticism of "the transsexually constructed lesbian-feminist." Groups like Lesbian Organization of Toronto then voted to exclude trans lesbians.[57] Sheila Jeffreys labeled transgenderism "deeply problematic from a feminist perspective and [stated] that transsexualism should be seen as a violation of human rights."[58]
However, Andrea Dworkin, a noted anti-pornography feminist supported the right of trans women to be considered authentic women in her book Women-Hating (1978). Other cisgender feminist support came from the work of poststructuralist feminist Judith Butler, particularly her books Gender Trouble (1990) and Bodies That Matter (1993), which argue that the violent "inscription" of gender as a social construct on human bodies leads to violence against those that violate such binaristic gender dichotomies.[59][60] Butler is lesbian. Most younger lesbian and other cisgender feminists strongly dissent from feminist transphobia. The latter is now generally regarded as archaic, rooted in feminists' historical distrust of patriarchal medical definitions of and interventions into women's physicality.[citation needed]
In the gay, lesbian, and bisexual communities[edit]
Transphobia is documented in the lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) communities, despite historic cooperation between these communities in campaigns for equality, such as in the Stonewall Riots.[61][62][63][64]
Authors and observers, such as transgender author Jillian Todd Weiss, have written that "there are social and political forces that have created a split between gay/lesbian communities and bisexual/transgender communities, and these forces have consequences for civil rights and community inclusion. 'Biphobia' and 'transphobia' are a result of these social and political forces, not psychological forces causing irrational fears in aberrant individuals."[65][66][67]
Gay and lesbian communities[edit]



 Protesters outside the 2010 premiere of Ticked-Off Trannies With Knives, written and directed by gay filmmaker Israel Luna, objecting to what they considered to be transphobic portrayals in the film and its trailer, which referred to several notable real-life murders of transgender people before being taken down.[68]
Historian Joanne Meyerowitz documented transphobia within the gay rights movement in the mid 20th century in response to publicity surrounding the transition of Christine Jorgensen. Jorgensen, who made frequent homophobic remarks and insisted she was not connected to or identified with gay men, was a polarizing figure among activists:

In 1953, for example, ONE magazine published a debate among its readers as to whether gay men should denounce Jorgensen. In the opening salvo, the author Jeff Winters accused Jorgensen of a "sweeping disservice" to gay men. "As far as the public knows," Winters wrote, "you were merely another unhappy homosexual who decided to get drastic about it." For Winters, Jorgensen's story simply confirmed the false belief that all men attracted to other men must be basically feminine," which, he said, "they are not." Jorgensen's precedent, he thought, encouraged the "reasoning" that led "to legal limitations upon the homosexual, mandatory injections, psychiatric treatment – and worse." In the not-so-distant past, scientists had experimented with castrating gay men.[69]
Several prominent figures in second wave feminism have also been accused of transphobic attitudes, culminating in 1979 with the publication of The Transsexual Empire by radical lesbian feminist Janice Raymond, who popularized the term shemale as derogatory slur referring to trans women in 1994,[49] and her statements on transsexuality and transsexuals have been criticized by many in the LGBT and feminist communities as extremely transphobic and as constituting hate speech.[70][71][72][73]
Kay Brown of transhistory.net (website no longer online) compiled a long chronology of trans people being ejected from gay organizations since the 1970s. Her work was cited by Jillian Todd Weiss, who also wrote that "[t]here was a vigorous debate in the U.S. homophile movement of the 1950s [...] Some gay men and lesbians denounced those who felt themselves to be of the opposite sex, criticizing them for acting like "freaks," bringing disrepute to those gays and lesbians trying to live quietly within heterosexual society. Such attitudes were prevalent within the gay and lesbian community at the time."[74]
Some trans men face rejection from lesbian communities they had been part of prior to transition. Journalist Louise Rafkin writes, "[t]here are those who are feeling curiously uncomfortable standing by as friends morph into men. Sometimes there is a generational flavor to this discomfort; many in the over-40 crowd feel particular unease", stating that this was "shaking the foundation of the lesbian-feminist world".[75] Trans men were part of the protest at the 2000 Michigan Womyn's Music Festival, the first time the 'womyn-born womyn only' policy has been used against trans males, women supporting the transsexual community and young gender-variant women.[76]
In the early 1970s, conflicts began to emerge due to different syntheses of lesbian, feminist and transgender political movements, particularly in the United States. San Francisco trans activist and entertainer Beth Elliott became the focus of debate over whether to include transgender lesbians in the movement, and she was eventually blacklisted by her own movement.[77][78]
Bisexual communities and binarism[edit]
One view is that the word bisexual is transphobic, as "bi" means "two" (thus implying a belief in the binary view of gender). Some people, such as scholar Shiri Eisner, say that some make the claim that the term "erases nonbinary genders and sexes out of existence",[79] as many dictionaries define bisexuality as "[o]f, relating to, or having a sexual orientation to persons of either sex",[80] "[s]exually attracted to both men and women"[81] and other similar definitions.[82][83]
However, some bisexual individuals and scholars object to the notion that bisexuality means sexual attraction to only two genders, arguing that since bisexual is not simply about attraction to two sexes and encompasses gender as well, it can include attraction to more than one[84] or more than two genders[85] and is occasionally defined as such.[79] Others, such as the American Institute of Bisexuality, say that the term "is an open and inclusive term for many kinds of people with same-sex and different-sex attractions"[86] and that "the scientific classification bisexual only addresses the physical, biological sex of the people involved, not the gender-presentation."[85]
In order to deal with issues related to transphobia and the gender binary, many individuals have taken on terms such as pansexual, omnisexual (an alternative word for pansexual) or polysexual in place of the term bisexual. The American Institute of Bisexuality argues that these terms "describe a person with homosexual and heterosexual attractions, and therefore people with these labels are also bisexual"[86] and that the notion that bisexuality is a reinforcement of a gender binary is a concept that is founded upon "anti-science, anti-Enlightenment philosophy that has ironically found a home within many Queer Studies departments at universities across the Anglophone world".[85] Eisner agrees with this view, stating that "allegations of binarism have little to do with bisexuality's actual attributes or bisexual people's behavior in real life" and that the allegations are an attempt to separate the bisexual and transgender communities politically.[79]
Consequences[edit]
Transphobia creates significant stresses for transgender people which can lead them to feel shame, low self-esteem, alienation and inadequacy. Transgender youth often try to cope with the stress by running away from home, dropping out of school, using drugs or cutting.[2][87] Although it is difficult to obtain accurate statistics, suicide rates among transgender people are thought to be especially high, because of how they are treated by their families and by society.[7] Suicide attempts reported by transgender and gender non-conforming adults vastly exceed the rate of the general U.S. population, 41 percent versus 4.6 percent.[88]
See also[edit]

Portal icon Transgender portal
Cissexism
Genderism
Global Action for Trans Equality
Hate crime
Corrective rape
Legal aspects of transsexualism
LGBT people in prison
LGBT rights opposition
List of transgender-related topics
List of unlawfully killed transgender people
Non-binary discrimination
Press for Change - UK law organisation for transgender people
Transgender Day of Remembrance
Transgender Europe
Transgender Law Center
Transgender youth
Transmisogyny
Transracial identity
Yogyakarta Principles
References[edit]

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58.Jump up ^ Jeffreys, Sheila (1997). Transgender Activism: A Lesbian Feminist Perspective. "Journal of Lesbian Studies", Vol. 1(3/4) 1997
59.Jump up ^ Judith Butler (1990). Gender Trouble. New York: Routledge.
60.Jump up ^ Judith Butler (1993). Bodies That Matter. New York: Routledge.
61.Jump up ^ Williams, Christian. "Interview With an Actual Stonewall Riot Veteran: The Ciswashing of Stonewall Must End!". transadvocate.com. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
62.Jump up ^ Talusan, Meridith. "45 Years After Stonewall, the LGBT Movement Has a Transphobia Problem". prospect.org. Prospect. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
63.Jump up ^ Brink, Rebecca Vipond. "The Soapbox: On The Stonewall Rebellion's Trans History". thefrisky.com. Spin Entertainment. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
64.Jump up ^ Cara. "Yet Another News Outlet Fails Queer History 101 by Erasing Trans* People from Stonewall". autostraddle.com. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
65.Jump up ^ Weiss, JT (2004). "GL vs BT The archaeology of biphobia and transphobia within U.S. gay and lesbian community". Journal of Bisexuality 3: 25–55. doi:10.1300/j159v03n03_02.
66.Jump up ^ Sears, J.T., and Williams, W.L. (1997). Overcoming Heterosexism and Homophobia. New York: Columbia University Press.
67.Jump up ^ Fone, B.R.S. (1998). The Columbia Anthology of Gay Literature: Readings from Western Antiquity to the Present Day. Columbia University Press, ISBN 9780231096706.
68.Jump up ^ "Ticked-Off Trannies," and detractors, take on Tribeca, Edith Honan, Reuters, April 25, 2010; accessed October 5, 2010.
69.Jump up ^ Meyerowitz, Joanne (2002). How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Harvard University Press ISBN 9780674009257.
70.Jump up ^ Rose, Katrina C. (2004) "The Man Who Would be Janice Raymond." Transgender Tapestry 104, Winter 2004
71.Jump up ^ Julia Serano (2007) Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity, pp. 233-234
72.Jump up ^ Namaste, Viviane K. (2000) Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgendered People, pp. 33-34.
73.Jump up ^ Hayes, Cressida J (2003). "Feminist Solidarity after Queer Theory: The Case of Transgender". Signs 28 (4): 1093–1120.
74.Jump up ^ Weiss, Jillian Todd. "GL vs. BT: The Archaeology of Biphobia and Transphobia Within the U.S. Gay and Lesbian Community". Retrieved 7 July 2006.
75.Jump up ^ Rafkin, Louise (June 22, 2003) Straddling Sexes: Young lesbians transitioning into men are shaking the foundation of the lesbian-feminist world. San Francisco Chronicle.
76.Jump up ^ Mantilla, Karla (October 1, 2000). Michigan: transgender controversy. Off Our Backs.
77.Jump up ^ Henry Rubin (2003). Self-made Men: Identity and Embodiment Among Transsexual Men. Vanderbilt University Press, ISBN 978-0-8265-1435-6.
78.Jump up ^ Geri Nettick, Beth Elliot (1996). "Mirrors: Portrait of a Lesbian Transexual." Badboy Books ISBN 978-1-56333-435-1.
79.^ Jump up to: a b c Eisner, Shiri (2 July 2013). Bi: Notes for a Bisexual Revolution. Seal Press, 2013. p. 27. ISBN 9781580054751. Retrieved 28 December 2014. "Yet another way in which bisexuality has been recently imagined is as inherently binary. and therefore intrinsically transphobic. [...] As the argument classically goes, since he word bisexuality has bi (literally: two) in it, it inherently refers to a two-gender structure. This means it erases nonbinary genders and sexes out of existence."
80.Jump up ^ "bisexual - definition of Bisexual by the Free Dictionary". thefreedictionary.com. The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
81.Jump up ^ "bisexual: definition of bisexual in Oxford dictionary (British & World English)". oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford Dictionaies. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
82.Jump up ^ "Merriam-Webster - Biseual Define". merriam-webster.com. Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved 28 December 2014. "sexually attracted to both men and women"
83.Jump up ^ "Google Search: Bisexual definition". google.co.uk. "sexually attracted to both men and women."
84.Jump up ^ "BRC Brochure 2010" (PDF). http://www.biresource.net/. Bisexual Resource Council/Bisexual Resource Center. 2010. Retrieved July 8, 2013.
85.^ Jump up to: a b c "Doesn't identifying as bisexual reinforce a false gender binary?". American Institute of Bisexuality. 2014. Retrieved May 27, 2014.
86.^ Jump up to: a b "What is the difference between bisexual and terms like pansexual, polysexual, omnisexual, ambisexual, and fluid?". American Institute of Bisexuality. 2014. Retrieved May 27, 2014.
87.Jump up ^ Ruiz MD, Pedro (2009). Disparities in Psychiatric Care: Clinical and Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 111. ISBN 0781796393.
88.Jump up ^ Haas, Ann H.; Philip Rodgers (2014). Suicide Attempts Among Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Adults (PDF) (Technical report). American Foundation for Suicide Prevention and Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law.
Further reading[edit]
Thematic report on Discrimination against trans and intersex people on the grounds of sex, gender identity and gender expression, The European Commission, 2012.
External links[edit]
Remembering our Dead
Survivor bashing – bias motivated hate crimes
Translatina documentary (2010)





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Transphobia

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Transphobia (or much less commonly transprejudice) is a range of antagonistic attitudes and feelings against transsexuality and transsexual or transgender people, based on the expression of their internal gender identity (see Phobia – Terms for prejudice). Researchers describe transphobia as emotional disgust, fear, anger or discomfort felt or expressed towards people who do not conform to society's gender expectations,[1][2] and say that although it is an aspect of homophobia,[3][4] and is similar to racism and sexism, those attitudes are becoming generally unacceptable in modern society, whereas significantly more individuals still maintain transphobic views without fear of censure.[5]
The related term cissexism (or cissexual assumption, which is occasionally used synonymously with transphobia or, more rarely, cisgenderism) is the appeal to norms that enforce the gender binary and gender essentialism, resulting in the oppression of gender variant, non-binary, and trans identities.[6] Cisgenderism refers to the assumption that, due to human sexual differentiation, one's gender is determined solely by a biological sex of male or female (based on the assumption that all people must have either an XX or XY sex-chromosome pair, or, in the case of cisgenderism, a bivalent male or female expression), and that trans people are inferior to cisgender people due to being in "defiance of nature".[7]
Whether intentional or not, transphobia and cissexism have severe consequences for the target of the negative attitude. As homophobia and transphobia are correlated, many trans people experience homophobia and heterosexism; this is due to people who associate trans people's gender identity with homosexuality, or because trans people also have a sexual orientation that is non-heterosexual.[3][8][9] Attacking someone on the basis of a perception of their gender identity rather than a perception of their sexual orientation is known as "trans bashing", as opposed to "gay bashing".


Contents  [hide]
1 Etymology and use
2 Origins
3 Manifestations 3.1 Harassment and violence
3.2 Misgendering and exclusion
3.3 As users of healthcare
3.4 In the workplace
3.5 From government
3.6 In social conservatism
3.7 In feminism
3.8 In the gay, lesbian, and bisexual communities 3.8.1 Gay and lesbian communities
3.8.2 Bisexual communities and binarism

4 Consequences
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links

Etymology and use[edit]
Transphobia is a portmanteau word patterned on the term homophobia. It derives from the English neo-classical prefix trans- (meaning "across, on the far side, beyond") from transgender and the root -phobia (from the Greek: φόβος, phóbos, "fear") found in homophobia. Along with biphobia, homophobia and transphobia are members of the family of terms used when intolerance and discrimination is directed toward LGBT people.
Transphobia need not be a phobia as defined in clinical psychology (i.e., an anxiety disorder). Its meaning and use typically parallel those of xenophobia.
The adjectival form transphobic describes things or qualities related to transphobia, whereas the noun transphobe is a label for people thought to harbor transphobia.
Origins[edit]
The transfeminist theorist and author Julia Serano argues in her book Whipping Girl that transphobia is rooted in sexism. She locates the origins of both transphobia and homophobia in what she calls "oppositional sexism", the belief that male and female are "rigid, mutually exclusive categories, each possessing a unique and nonoverlapping set of attributes, aptitudes, abilities, and desires". Serano contrasts oppositional sexism with "traditional sexism", the belief that males and masculinity are superior to females and femininity. Furthermore, she writes that transphobia is fueled by insecurities people have about gender and gender norms.[10]
The transgender author and critic Jody Norton believes that transphobia is an extension of homophobia and misogyny. She argues that transgender people, like gays and lesbians, are hated and feared for challenging and undermining gender norms and the gender binary. Norton writes that the "male-to-female transgender incites transphobia through her implicit challenge to the binary division of gender upon which male cultural and political hegemony depends".[11]
Manifestations[edit]
Harassment and violence[edit]
See also: Violence against LGBT people
Harassment and violence directed against transgender people is often called trans bashing, and can be physical, sexual or verbal. Whereas gay bashing is directed against a target's real or perceived sexual orientation, trans bashing is directed against the target's real or perceived expressed gender identity. The term has also been applied to hate speech directed at transgender people[12] and to depictions of transgender people in the media that reinforce negative stereotypes about them.[13] Notable victims of violent crimes motivated by transphobia include Brandon Teena, Gwen Araujo, Angie Zapata, Nizah Morris, and Lauren Harries.[14]
According to the American Psychological Association, transgender children are likelier than other children to experience harassment and violence in school, foster care, residential treatment centers, homeless centers and juvenile justice programs.[15] Researchers say trans youth routinely experience taunting, teasing and bullying at school, and that nearly all trans youth say they were verbally or physically harassed in school, particularly during gym class, at school events, or when using single-sex restrooms. Three-quarters report having felt unsafe.[2]
As adults, transgender people are frequently subjected to ridicule, stares, taunting and threats of violence, even when just walking down the street or walking into a store.[16] A U.S. survey of 402 older, employed, high-income transgender people found that 60% reported violence or harassment because of their gender identity. 56% had been harassed or verbally abused, 30% had been assaulted, 17% had had objects thrown at them, 14% had been robbed and 8% had experienced what they characterized as an unjustified arrest.[8]
A study of 81 transgender people in Philadelphia found 30% reported feeling unsafe in public because they were transgender, with 19% feeling uncomfortable for the same reason. When asked if they had ever been forced to have sex, experienced violence in their home, or been physically abused, the majority answered yes to each question.[17]
A review of American studies on sexual violence towards transgender people found that around 50% of transgender people have been sexually assaulted.[18]
When transgender people are murdered, they are often shot or stabbed repeatedly, riddled with bullets or bludgeoned beyond recognition.[7]
Misgendering and exclusion[edit]
Misgendering is a word coined by transgender American writer and biologist Julia Serano to refer to the experience of being labeled by someone as having a gender other than the one you identify with.[citation needed] Misgendering can be deliberate or accidental. It ordinarily takes the form of a person using pronouns (including "it") to describe someone that are not the ones that person prefers,[19][20][21][22][23] calling a person "ma'am" or "sir" in contradiction to the person's gender identity,[21][24][25] using a pre-transition name for someone instead of a post-transition one[23][26][27][28] (called "deadnaming" in the transgender community),[29] or insisting that a person behave consistently with their assigned rather than self-identified gender, for example by using a bathroom designated for males even though the person identifies as female. The experience of being misgendered is common for all transgender people before they transition, and for many afterwards as well.[30] Transgender people are regularly misgendered by doctors,[15] police, media and peers, experiences that they have described as mortifying,[31] hurtful, especially to transgender youth,[32] cruel,[33] and "only making our lives harder".[32] Knowingly and deliberately misgendering a transgender person is considered extremely offensive by transgender individuals.[32][33]
In 2008, Allen Andrade beat to death Colorado transgender teenager Angie Zapata, whom he later described to police as "it."[32]
In August 2013, after murdered 21-year-old New York trans woman Islan Nettles was referred to as "he" by a speaker at her memorial service, transgender actress Laverne Cox characterized misgendering as "part of the violence that led to Islan's death."[32]
In 2014, a Connecticut trans girl known only as Jane Doe (due to her status as a minor) has several times been placed in facilities for men and boys during her continuing imprisonment without charges. She has also been misgendered by the writers of some letters to the editor of the Hartford Courant.[34]
Transgender people often are excluded from entitlements or privileges reserved for people whose gender identity they share, but whose assigned gender they do not. It is very common, for example, for transgender women to be stopped or questioned when they use public bathrooms designated for women.[16][23]
Homeless shelters, hospitals and prisons have denied trans women admission to women's areas and forced them to sleep and bathe in the presence of men.[35] This situation has been changing in some areas, however. For example, on February 8, 2006, New York City's Department of Homeless Services announced an overhaul of its housing policy with the goal of specifically ending discrimination against transgender people in its shelters.[36]
As users of healthcare[edit]
See also: Healthcare and the LGBT community
A study of 81 transgender people in Philadelphia found 14% said they had been refused routine medical care because they were transgender. 18% answered yes when asked if, when they went in for a check-up, "being transgendered create[d] a problem" for them.[17]
Transgender people depend largely on the medical profession to receive not only hormone replacement therapy, but also vital care. In one case, Robert Eads died of ovarian cancer after being refused treatment by more than two dozen doctors.[37] In the US-based National Center For Transgender Equality's 2011 survey, 19% had been refused medical care due to their transgender or gender non-conforming status,[38] showing that refusal of treatment due to transphobia is not uncommon. Another example of this is the case of Tyra Hunter. Hunter was involved in an automobile accident, and when rescue workers discovered she was transgender, they backed away and stopped administering treatment. She later died in a hospital.[39]
In many European countries, any transgender person who wishes to change their legal gender must first be sterilized. Several countries are reviewing this law; Sweden repealed it in December 2012.[40]
In the workplace[edit]
Transphobia also manifests itself in the workplace. Some transgender people lose their jobs when they begin to transition. A study from Willamette University stated that a transsexual person fired for following the recommended course of treatment rarely wins it back through federal or state statutes.[41]
News stories from the San Francisco Chronicle and Associated Press cite a 1999 study by the San Francisco Department of Public Health finding a 70 percent unemployment rate amongst the city's transgender population. On February 18, 1999, the San Francisco Department of Public Health issued the results of a 1997 survey of 392 trans women and 123 trans men, which found that 40 percent of those trans women surveyed had earned money from full or part-time employment over the preceding six months. For trans men, the equivalent statistic was 81 percent. The survey also found that 46 percent of trans women and 57 percent of trans men reported employment discrimination.[42]
A 2002 American study found that among educators, trans educators are 10-20% likelier to experience workplace harassment than their gay and lesbian colleagues.[2]
In the hiring process, discrimination may be either open or covert, with employers finding other ostensible reasons not to hire a candidate or just not informing prospective employees at all as to why they are not being hired. Additionally, when an employer fires or otherwise discriminates against a transgender employee, it may be a "mixed motive" case, with the employer openly citing obvious wrongdoing, job performance issues or the like (such as excessive tardiness, for example) while keeping silent in regards to transphobia.[citation needed]
Employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity and expression is illegal in some U.S. cities, towns and states. Such discrimination is outlawed by specific legislation in the State of New Jersey and might be in other states (as it is in the states of California, Illinois, Maine, Minnesota, New Mexico and Washington) or city ordinances; additionally, it is covered by case law in some other states. (For example, Massachusetts is covered by cases such as Lie vs. Sky Publishing Co. and Jette vs. Honey Farms.) Several other states and cities prohibit such discrimination in public employment. Sweden and the United Kingdom has also legislated against employment discrimination on the grounds of gender identity. Sometimes, however, employers discriminate against transgender employees in spite of such legal protections.[43]
There is at least one high-profile employment-related court case unfavorable to transgender people. In 2000, the southern U.S. grocery chain Winn-Dixie fired longtime employee Peter Oiler, despite a history of repeatedly earning raises and promotions, after management learned that the married, heterosexual truck driver occasionally cross-dressed off the job. Management argued that this hurt Winn-Dixie's corporate image. The American Civil Liberties Union filed a lawsuit against Winn-Dixie on behalf of Oiler but a judge dismissed it.[44]
Sometimes transgender people facing employment discrimination turn to sex work to survive,[45] placing them at additional risk of such things as encountering troubles with the law, including arrest and criminal prosecution; enduring workplace violence; and possibly contracting sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV.[42]
From government[edit]
Transgender people also face the denial of right of asylum or inhuman treatment in process of asylum-seeking. For example, Fernada Milan, a transsexual woman from Guatemala was placed in an asylum center for males in Denmark and while there, was raped by several men. She was in danger of deportation into Guatemala where transgender people have no rights and face possible execution, but has since been granted entry.[46]
Transgender disenfranchisement is the practice of creating or upholding barriers that keep transgender individuals from voting and therefore restrict the principles of universal suffrage.
See also: Transgender disenfranchisement in the United States
In social conservatism[edit]
The Christian Right has become increasingly involved in campaigning against transgender-inclusive antidiscrimination legislation. Much of this transphobia is based on conservative Catholic natural law theory, derived from the work of Saint Augustine and Thomas Aquinas and then modified by John Finnis, Robert P. George and other conservative Catholics to posit human 'essences' that are 'immutable' (like 'biological sex' or 'genetical or chromosomal sex') to discourage government funding for reassignment surgery, or inclusion within anti-discrimination legislation, such as Canada's contemporary Bill C-279, intended to outlaw discrimination on the basis of gender identity.[citation needed]
According to the Ontario Consultants for Religious Tolerance website, under Pope John Paul II, the Vatican adopted its current opposition to reassignment surgery in 2000, although it was not made official until 2003. Other Christian Right opponents of transgender rights include the US Family Research Council, the late Charles Socarides and the American Family Association, REAL Women of Canada, Focus on the Family, Canada's Lifesite and Family First New Zealand. Transgender rights activists and LGB and other supporters question why a sectarian religious philosophy, such as "natural law" theory, should be binding on those who do not share these a priori religious conservative perceptions of gender identity and the morality of reassignment surgery or transsexuality, citing religious freedom, freedom from religion and religious compulsion and separation of church and state as benchmarks of healthy democratic societies.[47][48]
In feminism[edit]
See also: Feminist views on transgenderism and transsexualism
Radical feminist Janice Raymond's 1979 book, The Transsexual Empire, was and still is controversial due to its unequivocal condemnation of transsexual surgeries. In the book Raymond says, "All transsexuals rape women's bodies by reducing the real female form to an artifact, appropriating this body for themselves .... Transsexuals merely cut off the most obvious means of invading women, so that they seem non-invasive."[49]
Perhaps the most visible site of conflict between feminists and trans women has been the Michigan Womyn's Music Festival. The festival ejected a transsexual woman, Nancy Burkholder, in the early 1990s.[50] Since then, the festival has maintained an intention that it is for "womyn-born-womyn" only.[51] The activist group Camp Trans formed to protest the "womyn-born-womyn" intention and to advocate for greater acceptance of trans women within the feminist community. A number of prominent transgender activists and transfeminists were involved in Camp Trans including Riki Wilchins, Jessica Xavier, and Leslie Feinberg.[citation needed] The festival considered allowing only post-operative trans women to attend, however this was criticized as classist, as many trans women cannot afford sex reassignment surgery.[52]
Kimberly Nixon is a trans woman who volunteered for training as a rape crisis counselor at Vancouver Rape Relief & Women's Shelter in Vancouver, British Columbia in 1995. When Nixon's transsexual status was determined, she was expelled. The staff decided that Nixon's status made it impossible for her to understand the experiences of their clients, and also required their clients to be genetically female. Nixon disagreed, disclosing her own history of partner abuse and sued for discrimination. Nixon's attorneys argued that there was no basis for the dismissal, citing Diana Courvant's experiences as the first publicly transsexual woman to work in a women-only domestic violence shelter. In 2007 the Canadian Supreme Court refused to hear Nixon's appeal, ending the case.[53][54][55]
Outside Canada, not all rape survivors organisations refuse to support transsexual rape survivors. Wellington Independent Rape Crisis featured former sex worker, New Zealand Labour Party MP and the world's first transsexual elected national representative Georgina Beyer on one of its "Take Back the Night" marches as a rape survivor herself, and Beyer has also assisted the Auckland-based HELP Foundation for sexual abuse counselling, prevention and support, appearing in a poster campaign to call for higher levels of government funding.[citation needed]
Transsexual women such as Sandy Stone challenged the feminist conception of "biological woman". Stone worked as a sound engineer for Olivia Records from about 1974 to 1978, resigning as the controversy over a trans woman working for a lesbian-identified enterprise increased.[56] The debate continued in Raymond's book,[49] which devoted a chapter to criticism of "the transsexually constructed lesbian-feminist." Groups like Lesbian Organization of Toronto then voted to exclude trans lesbians.[57] Sheila Jeffreys labeled transgenderism "deeply problematic from a feminist perspective and [stated] that transsexualism should be seen as a violation of human rights."[58]
However, Andrea Dworkin, a noted anti-pornography feminist supported the right of trans women to be considered authentic women in her book Women-Hating (1978). Other cisgender feminist support came from the work of poststructuralist feminist Judith Butler, particularly her books Gender Trouble (1990) and Bodies That Matter (1993), which argue that the violent "inscription" of gender as a social construct on human bodies leads to violence against those that violate such binaristic gender dichotomies.[59][60] Butler is lesbian. Most younger lesbian and other cisgender feminists strongly dissent from feminist transphobia. The latter is now generally regarded as archaic, rooted in feminists' historical distrust of patriarchal medical definitions of and interventions into women's physicality.[citation needed]
In the gay, lesbian, and bisexual communities[edit]
Transphobia is documented in the lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) communities, despite historic cooperation between these communities in campaigns for equality, such as in the Stonewall Riots.[61][62][63][64]
Authors and observers, such as transgender author Jillian Todd Weiss, have written that "there are social and political forces that have created a split between gay/lesbian communities and bisexual/transgender communities, and these forces have consequences for civil rights and community inclusion. 'Biphobia' and 'transphobia' are a result of these social and political forces, not psychological forces causing irrational fears in aberrant individuals."[65][66][67]
Gay and lesbian communities[edit]



 Protesters outside the 2010 premiere of Ticked-Off Trannies With Knives, written and directed by gay filmmaker Israel Luna, objecting to what they considered to be transphobic portrayals in the film and its trailer, which referred to several notable real-life murders of transgender people before being taken down.[68]
Historian Joanne Meyerowitz documented transphobia within the gay rights movement in the mid 20th century in response to publicity surrounding the transition of Christine Jorgensen. Jorgensen, who made frequent homophobic remarks and insisted she was not connected to or identified with gay men, was a polarizing figure among activists:

In 1953, for example, ONE magazine published a debate among its readers as to whether gay men should denounce Jorgensen. In the opening salvo, the author Jeff Winters accused Jorgensen of a "sweeping disservice" to gay men. "As far as the public knows," Winters wrote, "you were merely another unhappy homosexual who decided to get drastic about it." For Winters, Jorgensen's story simply confirmed the false belief that all men attracted to other men must be basically feminine," which, he said, "they are not." Jorgensen's precedent, he thought, encouraged the "reasoning" that led "to legal limitations upon the homosexual, mandatory injections, psychiatric treatment – and worse." In the not-so-distant past, scientists had experimented with castrating gay men.[69]
Several prominent figures in second wave feminism have also been accused of transphobic attitudes, culminating in 1979 with the publication of The Transsexual Empire by radical lesbian feminist Janice Raymond, who popularized the term shemale as derogatory slur referring to trans women in 1994,[49] and her statements on transsexuality and transsexuals have been criticized by many in the LGBT and feminist communities as extremely transphobic and as constituting hate speech.[70][71][72][73]
Kay Brown of transhistory.net (website no longer online) compiled a long chronology of trans people being ejected from gay organizations since the 1970s. Her work was cited by Jillian Todd Weiss, who also wrote that "[t]here was a vigorous debate in the U.S. homophile movement of the 1950s [...] Some gay men and lesbians denounced those who felt themselves to be of the opposite sex, criticizing them for acting like "freaks," bringing disrepute to those gays and lesbians trying to live quietly within heterosexual society. Such attitudes were prevalent within the gay and lesbian community at the time."[74]
Some trans men face rejection from lesbian communities they had been part of prior to transition. Journalist Louise Rafkin writes, "[t]here are those who are feeling curiously uncomfortable standing by as friends morph into men. Sometimes there is a generational flavor to this discomfort; many in the over-40 crowd feel particular unease", stating that this was "shaking the foundation of the lesbian-feminist world".[75] Trans men were part of the protest at the 2000 Michigan Womyn's Music Festival, the first time the 'womyn-born womyn only' policy has been used against trans males, women supporting the transsexual community and young gender-variant women.[76]
In the early 1970s, conflicts began to emerge due to different syntheses of lesbian, feminist and transgender political movements, particularly in the United States. San Francisco trans activist and entertainer Beth Elliott became the focus of debate over whether to include transgender lesbians in the movement, and she was eventually blacklisted by her own movement.[77][78]
Bisexual communities and binarism[edit]
One view is that the word bisexual is transphobic, as "bi" means "two" (thus implying a belief in the binary view of gender). Some people, such as scholar Shiri Eisner, say that some make the claim that the term "erases nonbinary genders and sexes out of existence",[79] as many dictionaries define bisexuality as "[o]f, relating to, or having a sexual orientation to persons of either sex",[80] "[s]exually attracted to both men and women"[81] and other similar definitions.[82][83]
However, some bisexual individuals and scholars object to the notion that bisexuality means sexual attraction to only two genders, arguing that since bisexual is not simply about attraction to two sexes and encompasses gender as well, it can include attraction to more than one[84] or more than two genders[85] and is occasionally defined as such.[79] Others, such as the American Institute of Bisexuality, say that the term "is an open and inclusive term for many kinds of people with same-sex and different-sex attractions"[86] and that "the scientific classification bisexual only addresses the physical, biological sex of the people involved, not the gender-presentation."[85]
In order to deal with issues related to transphobia and the gender binary, many individuals have taken on terms such as pansexual, omnisexual (an alternative word for pansexual) or polysexual in place of the term bisexual. The American Institute of Bisexuality argues that these terms "describe a person with homosexual and heterosexual attractions, and therefore people with these labels are also bisexual"[86] and that the notion that bisexuality is a reinforcement of a gender binary is a concept that is founded upon "anti-science, anti-Enlightenment philosophy that has ironically found a home within many Queer Studies departments at universities across the Anglophone world".[85] Eisner agrees with this view, stating that "allegations of binarism have little to do with bisexuality's actual attributes or bisexual people's behavior in real life" and that the allegations are an attempt to separate the bisexual and transgender communities politically.[79]
Consequences[edit]
Transphobia creates significant stresses for transgender people which can lead them to feel shame, low self-esteem, alienation and inadequacy. Transgender youth often try to cope with the stress by running away from home, dropping out of school, using drugs or cutting.[2][87] Although it is difficult to obtain accurate statistics, suicide rates among transgender people are thought to be especially high, because of how they are treated by their families and by society.[7] Suicide attempts reported by transgender and gender non-conforming adults vastly exceed the rate of the general U.S. population, 41 percent versus 4.6 percent.[88]
See also[edit]

Portal icon Transgender portal
Cissexism
Genderism
Global Action for Trans Equality
Hate crime
Corrective rape
Legal aspects of transsexualism
LGBT people in prison
LGBT rights opposition
List of transgender-related topics
List of unlawfully killed transgender people
Non-binary discrimination
Press for Change - UK law organisation for transgender people
Transgender Day of Remembrance
Transgender Europe
Transgender Law Center
Transgender youth
Transmisogyny
Transracial identity
Yogyakarta Principles
References[edit]

Text document with red question mark.svg
 This section uses citations that link to broken or outdated sources. Please improve the article or discuss this issue on the talk page. Help on using footnotes is available. (January 2013)
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4.Jump up ^ Kerri Durnell Schuiling, Frances E. Likis (2011). Women's Gynecologic Health. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 187–188. ISBN 0763756377. Retrieved December 27, 2014. "Homophobia is an individual's irrational fear or hate of homosexual people. This may include bisexual or transgender persons, but sometimes the more distinct terms of biphobia or transphobia, respectively, are used."
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36.Jump up ^ "NYC's Department of Homeless Services Issues a Trans-Affirmative Housing Policy". The Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Center. 5 February 2006. Archived from the original on 15 June 2006. Retrieved 6 September 2006..
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42.^ Jump up to: a b The Transgender Community Health Project (18 February 1999). "Sociodemographics". Descriptive Results. HIVInSite. Retrieved 7 September 2006.
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51.Jump up ^ http://michfest.com/festival_community_statements.htm
52.Jump up ^ Sreedhar, Susanne (2006). "The Ethics of Exclusion: Gender and Politics at the Michigan Womyn's Music Festival". In Scott-Dixon, Krista. Trans/Forming Feminisms: Trans/Feminist Voices Speak Out. Toronto: Sumach Press. pp. 164–65. ISBN 1-894-54961-9. OCLC 70839321. Retrieved September 30, 2013.
53.Jump up ^ http://www.egale.ca/index.asp?lang=E&menu=34&item=1147
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55.Jump up ^ Perelle, Robin (February 14, 2007). Rape Relief wins: Supreme Court refuses to hear trans woman's appeal. Xtra.
56.Jump up ^ Sayer, Susan (1995-10-01). "From Lesbian Nation to Queer Nation". Hecate. Retrieved 2012-04-07.
57.Jump up ^ Ross, Becki (1995). The House that Jill Built: A Lesbian Nation in Formation. University of Toronto Press, ISBN 978-0-8020-7479-9
58.Jump up ^ Jeffreys, Sheila (1997). Transgender Activism: A Lesbian Feminist Perspective. "Journal of Lesbian Studies", Vol. 1(3/4) 1997
59.Jump up ^ Judith Butler (1990). Gender Trouble. New York: Routledge.
60.Jump up ^ Judith Butler (1993). Bodies That Matter. New York: Routledge.
61.Jump up ^ Williams, Christian. "Interview With an Actual Stonewall Riot Veteran: The Ciswashing of Stonewall Must End!". transadvocate.com. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
62.Jump up ^ Talusan, Meridith. "45 Years After Stonewall, the LGBT Movement Has a Transphobia Problem". prospect.org. Prospect. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
63.Jump up ^ Brink, Rebecca Vipond. "The Soapbox: On The Stonewall Rebellion's Trans History". thefrisky.com. Spin Entertainment. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
64.Jump up ^ Cara. "Yet Another News Outlet Fails Queer History 101 by Erasing Trans* People from Stonewall". autostraddle.com. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
65.Jump up ^ Weiss, JT (2004). "GL vs BT The archaeology of biphobia and transphobia within U.S. gay and lesbian community". Journal of Bisexuality 3: 25–55. doi:10.1300/j159v03n03_02.
66.Jump up ^ Sears, J.T., and Williams, W.L. (1997). Overcoming Heterosexism and Homophobia. New York: Columbia University Press.
67.Jump up ^ Fone, B.R.S. (1998). The Columbia Anthology of Gay Literature: Readings from Western Antiquity to the Present Day. Columbia University Press, ISBN 9780231096706.
68.Jump up ^ "Ticked-Off Trannies," and detractors, take on Tribeca, Edith Honan, Reuters, April 25, 2010; accessed October 5, 2010.
69.Jump up ^ Meyerowitz, Joanne (2002). How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Harvard University Press ISBN 9780674009257.
70.Jump up ^ Rose, Katrina C. (2004) "The Man Who Would be Janice Raymond." Transgender Tapestry 104, Winter 2004
71.Jump up ^ Julia Serano (2007) Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity, pp. 233-234
72.Jump up ^ Namaste, Viviane K. (2000) Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgendered People, pp. 33-34.
73.Jump up ^ Hayes, Cressida J (2003). "Feminist Solidarity after Queer Theory: The Case of Transgender". Signs 28 (4): 1093–1120.
74.Jump up ^ Weiss, Jillian Todd. "GL vs. BT: The Archaeology of Biphobia and Transphobia Within the U.S. Gay and Lesbian Community". Retrieved 7 July 2006.
75.Jump up ^ Rafkin, Louise (June 22, 2003) Straddling Sexes: Young lesbians transitioning into men are shaking the foundation of the lesbian-feminist world. San Francisco Chronicle.
76.Jump up ^ Mantilla, Karla (October 1, 2000). Michigan: transgender controversy. Off Our Backs.
77.Jump up ^ Henry Rubin (2003). Self-made Men: Identity and Embodiment Among Transsexual Men. Vanderbilt University Press, ISBN 978-0-8265-1435-6.
78.Jump up ^ Geri Nettick, Beth Elliot (1996). "Mirrors: Portrait of a Lesbian Transexual." Badboy Books ISBN 978-1-56333-435-1.
79.^ Jump up to: a b c Eisner, Shiri (2 July 2013). Bi: Notes for a Bisexual Revolution. Seal Press, 2013. p. 27. ISBN 9781580054751. Retrieved 28 December 2014. "Yet another way in which bisexuality has been recently imagined is as inherently binary. and therefore intrinsically transphobic. [...] As the argument classically goes, since he word bisexuality has bi (literally: two) in it, it inherently refers to a two-gender structure. This means it erases nonbinary genders and sexes out of existence."
80.Jump up ^ "bisexual - definition of Bisexual by the Free Dictionary". thefreedictionary.com. The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
81.Jump up ^ "bisexual: definition of bisexual in Oxford dictionary (British & World English)". oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford Dictionaies. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
82.Jump up ^ "Merriam-Webster - Biseual Define". merriam-webster.com. Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved 28 December 2014. "sexually attracted to both men and women"
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86.^ Jump up to: a b "What is the difference between bisexual and terms like pansexual, polysexual, omnisexual, ambisexual, and fluid?". American Institute of Bisexuality. 2014. Retrieved May 27, 2014.
87.Jump up ^ Ruiz MD, Pedro (2009). Disparities in Psychiatric Care: Clinical and Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 111. ISBN 0781796393.
88.Jump up ^ Haas, Ann H.; Philip Rodgers (2014). Suicide Attempts Among Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Adults (PDF) (Technical report). American Foundation for Suicide Prevention and Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law.
Further reading[edit]
Thematic report on Discrimination against trans and intersex people on the grounds of sex, gender identity and gender expression, The European Commission, 2012.
External links[edit]
Remembering our Dead
Survivor bashing – bias motivated hate crimes
Translatina documentary (2010)





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Sexism

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 This article's lead section may not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (December 2013)
"Anti-sexism" redirects here. It is not to be confused with anti-sexualism.
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Sexism or gender discrimination is prejudice or discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. Sexism affects both men and women, but primarily women.[1] It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles,[2][3] and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another.[4] Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape and other forms of sexual violence.[5]


Contents  [hide]
1 Etymology and definitions
2  History 2.1  Ancient world
2.2 Witch hunts and trials
2.3 Coverture and other marriage regulations
2.4 Suffrage and politics
3 Gender stereotypes
4 In language 4.1 Sexist and gender-neutral language
4.2 Sexism in languages other than English
4.3 Gender-specific pejorative terms
5 Occupational sexism 5.1 Wage gap 5.1.1  Possible causes for wage discrimination
5.2 Glass ceiling effect 5.2.1 Potential remedies
5.3 Weight based sexism
5.4 Transgender discrimination
6 Objectification 6.1 In advertising
6.2 Pornography
6.3 Prostitution
6.4 Media portrayals
6.5 Sexist jokes
7 Gender discrimination 7.1 Transgender discrimination
8 Examples 8.1 Health 8.1.1 Domestic violence
8.1.2 Gendercide and forced sterilization
8.1.3 Female genital mutilation
8.1.4 Sexual assault and treatment of victims
8.1.5 War rape
8.2 Reproductive rights
8.3 Child marriage
8.4  Legal justice and regulations
8.5 Education
8.6 Fashion
8.7 Conscription
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links

Etymology and definitions[edit]
According to Fred R. Shapiro, the first time the term "sexism" appeared in print was in Caroline Bird's speech "On Being Born Female", which was published on November 15, 1968, in Vital Speeches of the Day (p. 6).[6] In this speech she said in part, "There is recognition abroad that we are in many ways a sexist country. Sexism is judging people by their sex when sex doesn't matter. Sexism is intended to rhyme with racism."[6]
Sexism is discrimination, prejudice, or stereotyping on the basis of gender. Sexism is most often expressed toward girls and women.[1] It has been characterized as the "hatred of women" and "entrenched prejudice against women."[7]
 History[edit]



Sati, or self-immolation by widows, was prevalent in Hindu society until the early 19th century.
Certain forms of sexism are illegal in some countries; in others, it may be legally sanctioned.[8]
 Ancient world[edit]
In various ancient societies, especially the Stone Age, women held many equal positions with men.[9] Women in Ancient Egypt and women of the Anglo-Saxon era were also commonly afforded equal status.[10][11] Evidence, however, is lacking to support the idea that many pre-agricultural societies afforded women a higher status than women today.[9][12] After the adoption of agriculture and sedentary cultures, the concept that one gender was inferior to the other was established; most often this was imposed upon women and girls.[13] Examples of sexism in the ancient world include written laws preventing women from participating in the political process. Women in ancient Rome could not vote or hold political office.[14]
Witch hunts and trials[edit]



 Title page of the seventh Cologne edition of the Malleus Maleficarum, 1520 (from the University of Sydney Library). The Latin title is "MALLEUS MALEFICARUM, Maleficas, & earum hæresim, ut phramea potentissima conterens." (Generally translated into English as The Hammer of Witches which destroyeth Witches and their heresy as with a two-edged sword).[15]
Main article: Witch hunt
Sexism may have been the impetus that fueled the witch trials between the 15th and 18th centuries.[16] In early modern Europe and in the European colonies in North America claims were made that witches were a threat to Christendom. The misogyny of that period played a role in the persecution of these women.[17][18]
In Malleus Malificarum, the book which played a major role in the witch hunts and trials, the authors argue that women are more likely to practice witchcraft than men, and write that:
All wickedness is but little to the wickedness of a woman ... What else is woman but a foe to friendship, an inescapable punishment, a necessary evil, a natural temptation, a desirable calamity, a domestic danger, a delectable detriment, an evil of nature, painted with fair colours![19]
Witchcraft remains illegal in several countries, including Saudi Arabia, where it is punishable by death. In 2011 a woman was beheaded in that country for 'witchcraft and sorcery'.[20] Murders of women after being accused of witchcraft remain common in some parts of the world; for example, in Tanzania, about 500 elderly women are murdered each year following such accusations.[21]
Coverture and other marriage regulations[edit]
Main articles: Coverture, Marital power and Restitution of conjugal rights
Until the 20th century, U.S. and English law observed the system of coverture, where "by marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law; that is the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage".[22] U.S. women were not legally defined as "persons" until 1875 (Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. 162).[23] A similar legal doctrine, named marital power, existed under Roman Dutch law (and is still partially in force in present day Swaziland).
In 1957, James Everett, then Minister for Justice in Ireland, stated that: "The progress of organised society is judged by the status occupied by married women."[24] Restrictions on married women's rights were common in Western countries until a few decades ago: for instance, French married women obtained the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965,[25][26][27] and in West Germany women obtained this right in 1977.[28][29] During the Franco era, in Spain, a married woman required her husband's consent (called permiso marital) for employment, ownership of property and traveling away from home; the permiso marital was abolished in 1975.[30]
Women in parts of the world continue to lose legal rights at marriage. For example, Yemeni marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.[31] In Iraq, the law allows husbands to legally "punish" their wives.[32] In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Family Code states that the husband is the head of the household; the wife owes her obedience to her husband; a wife has to live with her husband wherever he chooses to live; and wives must have their husbands' authorization to bring a case in court or to initiate other legal proceedings.[33]
Abuses and discriminatory practices against women in marriage are often rooted in financial payments such as dowry, bride price, and dower.[34] These transactions often serve as legitimizing coercive control of the wife by her husband and in giving him authority over her; for instance Article 13 of the Code of Personal Status (Tunisia) states that "The husband shall not, in default of payment of the dower, force the woman to consummate the marriage",[35] [36] implying that, if the dower is paid, marital rape is permitted (in this regard, critics have questioned the alleged gains of women in Tunisia, and its image as a progressive country in the region, arguing that discrimination against women remains very strong in that country). [37] [38][39]
The OMCT has recognized the "independence and ability to leave an abusive husband" as crucial in stopping mistreatment of women.[40] However, in some parts of the world, once married, women have very little chance of leaving a violent husband: obtaining a divorce is very difficult in many jurisdictions because of the need to prove fault in court; while attempting a de facto separation (moving away from the marital home) is also not possible due to laws preventing this. For instance, in Afghanistan, a wife who leaves her marital home risks being imprisoned for "running away".[41][42] In addition, many former British colonies, including India, maintain the concept of restitution of conjugal rights,[43] under which a wife may be ordered by court to return to her husband; if she fails to do so she may be held in contempt of court.[44][45] Other problems have to do with the payment of the bride price: if the wife wants to leave, her husband may demand back the bride price that he had paid to the woman's family; and the woman's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back.[46][47][48]
Laws, regulations, and traditions related to marriage continue to discriminate against women in many parts of the world, and to contribute to the mistreatment of women, in particular in areas related to sexual violence and to self-determination in regard to sexuality, the violation of the latter now being acknowledged as a violation of women's rights; in 2012, Navi Pillay, then High Commissioner for Human Rights, has stated that:
"Women are frequently treated as property, they are sold into marriage, into trafficking, into sexual slavery. Violence against women frequently takes the form of sexual violence. Victims of such violence are often accused of promiscuity and held responsible for their fate, while infertile women are rejected by husbands, families and communities. In many countries, married women may not refuse to have sexual relations with their husbands, and often have no say in whether they use contraception (...) Ensuring that women have full autonomy over their bodies is the first crucial step towards achieving substantive equality between women and men. Personal issues—such as when, how and with whom they choose to have sex, and when, how and with whom they choose to have children—are at the heart of living a life in dignity."[49]
Suffrage and politics[edit]



 A suffragette arrested in the street by two police officers in London in 1914
Gender has been used, at times, as a tool of discrimination against women in the political sphere. Women's suffrage was not achieved until 1893, when New Zealand was the first country to grant women the right to vote. Saudi Arabia was the last country to grant women the right to vote in 2011.[50] Some Western countries allowed women the right to vote only relatively recently: Swiss women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971,[51] and Appenzell Innerrhoden became the last canton to grant women the right to vote on local issues (in 1991, when it was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland).[52] French women were granted the right to vote in 1944.[53][54] In Greece, women obtained the right to vote in 1952.[55] In Liechtenstein, women obtained the right to vote in 1984, through the women's suffrage referendum of 1984.[56][57]
While almost every woman today has the right to vote, there is still progress to be made for women in politics. Studies have shown that in several democracies including Australia, Canada and the United States, women are still represented using deep-rooted gender stereotypes in the press [58] Multiple authors have shown that gender differences in the media are less evident today than they used to be in the 1980s, but are nonetheless still present. Certain issues (e.g., education) are likely to be linked with female candidates, while other issues (e.g., taxes) are likely to be linked with male candidates.[58] In addition, there is more emphasis on female candidates' personal qualities, such as their appearance and their personality, as females are portrayed as emotional and dependent.[58]
Sexism in politics can also be shown in the imbalance of law making power between men and women. Lanyan Chen asserts that men hold more political power than women, serving as the gatekeepers of policy making. It is possible that this leads to women's needs not being properly represented. In this sense, the inequality of law making power also causes the gender discrimination in politics.[59] The ratio of women to men in legislatures is used as a measure of gender equality in the UN created Gender Empowerment Measure and its newer incarnation the Gender Inequality Index.
Gender stereotypes[edit]
See also: Gender role § Gender stereotypes and Implicit stereotype § Gender stereotype

Series of photographs lampooning women drivers

 1952 portrayal of stereotypes about women drivers
Gender stereotypes are widely held beliefs about the characteristics and behavior of women and men.[60] Empirical studies have found widely shared cultural beliefs that men are more socially valued and more competent than women in a number of activities.[61][62] Dustin B. Thoman and others (2008) hypothesize that "The socio-cultural salience of ability versus other components of the gender-math stereotype may impact women pursuing math." Through the experiment comparing the math outcomes of women under two various gender-math stereotype components, which are the ability of math and the effort on math respectively, Thoman and others found that women’s math performance is more likely to be affected by the negative ability stereotype, which is influenced by sociocultural beliefs in the United States, rather than the effort component. As a result of this experiment and the sociocultural beliefs in the United States, Thoman and others concluded that individuals' academic outcomes can be affected by the gender-math stereotype component that is influenced by the sociocultural beliefs.[63]
In the World Values Survey, responders were asked if they thought that wage work should be restricted to only men in the case of shortage in jobs. While in Iceland the proportion that agreed was 3.6 percent, in Egypt it was 94.9 percent.[64]
Some people believe a phenomenon known as stereotype threat can lower women's performance on mathematics tests, creating a self-fulfilling stereotype of women having inferior quantitative skills compared to men.[65][66] Stereotypes can also affect self-assessment; studies found that specific stereotypes (e.g., women have lower mathematical abilities) affect women's and men's perceptions of those abilities, and men assess their own task ability higher than women who perform at the same level. These "biased self-assessments" have far-reaching effects, because they can shape men and women's educational and career decisions.[67][68]
In language[edit]
Sexism in language exists when language devalues members of a certain gender.[69] Sexist language in many instances promotes male superiority.[70] Sexism in language affects consciousness, perceptions of reality, encoding and transmitting cultural meanings and socialization.[69] Researchers have pointed to the semantic rule in operation in language of the male-as-norm.[71] This results in sexism as the male becomes the standard and those who are not male are relegated to the inferior.[71] Sexism in language is considered a form of indirect sexism, in that it is not always overt.[72]
Examples include:
The use of generic masculine terms to reference a group of mixed gender, such as "mankind", "man" (referring to humanity), "guys", or "officers and men"
The use of the singular masculine pronoun (he, his, him) as the default to refer to a person of unknown gender
Terms ending in "-man" that may be performed by those of non-male genders, such as businessman, chairman, or policeman
The ordering of words in phrases like "man and wife"
The use of unnecessary gender markers, such as "male nurse" implying that simply a "nurse" is by default assumed to be female.[73]
Sexist and gender-neutral language[edit]
See also: Gender-neutral language
Various feminist movements in the 20th century, from liberal feminism and radical feminism to standpoint feminism, postmodern feminism and queer theory have all considered language in their theorizing.[74] Most of these theories have maintained a critical stance on language that calls for a change in the way speakers use their language.
One of the most common calls is for gender-neutral language. Many have called attention, however, to the fact that the English language isn't inherently sexist in its linguistic system, but rather the way it is used becomes sexist and gender-neutral language could thus be employed.[75] At the same time, other oppose critiques of sexism in language with explanations that language is a descriptive, rather than prescriptive, and attempts to control it can be fruitless.[76]
Sexism in languages other than English[edit]
Romanic languages such as French[77] and Spanish[78] may be seen as reinforcing sexism, in that the masculine form is the default form. The word 'mademoiselle', meaning miss was declared banished from French administrative forms in 2012 by Prime Minister François Fillon.[77] Current pressure calls for the use of the masculine plural pronoun as the default in a mixed-sex group to change.[79] As to Spanish, Mexico's Ministry of the Interior published a guide on how to reduce the use of sexist language.[78]
German speakers have also raised questions about how sexism intersects with grammar.[80]
In Chinese, some writers have pointed to sexism inherent in the structure of written characters. For example, the character for man is linked to those for positive qualities like courage and effect while the character for wife is composed of a female part and a broom, considered of low worth.[81]
Gender-specific pejorative terms[edit]
Gender-specific pejorative terms intimidate or harm another person because of their gender. Sexism can be expressed in language with negative gender-oriented implications,[82] such as condescension. For example, one may refer to a female as a "girl" rather than a "woman" or a male as a "boy" rather than a man, implying that they are subordinate or not fully mature. Other examples include obscene language. Some words are offensive to transgender people, including "tranny", "she-male", or "he-she". Intentional misgendering (assigning the wrong gender to someone) and the pronoun "it" are also considered pejorative.[83][84]
Occupational sexism[edit]
Main article: Occupational sexism
Occupational sexism refers to discriminatory practices, statements or actions, based on a person's sex, occurring in the workplace. One form of occupational sexism is wage discrimination.
In 2008, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) found that while female employment rates have expanded and gender employment and wage gaps have narrowed nearly everywhere, on average women still have 20 percent less chance to have a job and are paid 17 percent less than men.[85] The report stated:

[In] many countries, labour market discrimination—i.e. the unequal treatment of equally productive individuals only because they belong to a specific group—is still a crucial factor inflating disparities in employment and the quality of job opportunities [...] Evidence presented in this edition of the Employment Outlook suggests that about 8 percent of the variation in gender employment gaps and 30 percent of the variation in gender wage gaps across OECD countries can be explained by discriminatory practices in the labour market.[85][86]
It also found that despite the fact that almost all OECD countries, including the U.S.,[87] have established anti-discrimination laws, these laws are difficult to enforce.[85]
A 2014 study by Wendy M. Williams and Stephen J. Ceci found that female applicants are preferred 2:1 over identically qualified male applicants in academic hiring.[88][89]
Women who enter predominantly male work groups can experience the negative consequences of tokenism: performance pressures, social isolation, and role encapsulation.[90] Tokenism could be used to camouflage sexism, to preserve male worker's advantage in the workplace.[90] No link exists between the proportion of women working in an organization/company and the improvement of their working conditions. Ignoring sexist issues may exacerbate women’s occupational problems.[91]
Wage gap[edit]
Main article: Gender pay gap

Bar graph showing the gender pay gap in European countries

 Gender pay gap in average gross hourly earnings according to Eurostat 2008[92]
Studies have concluded that on average women earn lower wages than men worldwide. Some economists and feminists argue that this is the result of widespread gender discrimination in the workplace. Others argue that the wage gap is a result of different choices by men and women, such as women placing more value than men on having children, and men being more likely than women to choose careers in high paying fields such as business, engineering and technology. The prevailing view among economists is that the wage gap is the result of a combination of both of these factors.
Eurostat found a persistent, average gender pay gap of 17.5 percent in the 27 EU member states in 2008.[92] Similarly, the OECD found that female full-time employees earned 17 percent less than their male counterparts in OECD countries in 2009.[85][86]
In the United States, the female-to-male earnings ratio was 0.77 in 2009; female full-time, year-round (FTYR) workers earned 77 percent as much as male FTYR workers. Women's earnings relative to men's fell from 1960 to 1980 (60.7 percent to 60.2 percent), rose rapidly from 1980 to 1990 (60.2 to 71.6 percent), leveled off from 1990 to 2000 (71.6 to 73.7 percent) and rose from 2000 to 2009 (73.7 to 77.0 percent).[93][94] When the first Equal Pay Act was passed in 1963, female full-time workers earned 58.9 percent as much as male full-time workers.[93]
Research conducted in the Czech and Slovak Republics shows that, even after the governments passed anti-discrimination legislation, two thirds of the gender gap in wages remained unexplained and segregation continued to "represent a major source of the gap".[95]
The gender gap can also vary across-occupation and within occupation. In Taiwan, for example, studies show how the bulk of gender wage discrepancies occur within-occupation.[96] In Russia, research shows that the gender wage gap is distributed unevenly across income levels, and that it mainly occurs at the lower end of income distribution.[97] The research also found that "wage arrears and payment in-kind attenuated wage discrimination, particularly amongst the lowest paid workers, suggesting that Russian enterprise managers assigned lowest importance to equity considerations when allocating these forms of payment."[97]
The gender pay gap has been attributed to differences in personal and workplace characteristics between men and women (such as education, hours worked and occupation), innate behavioral and biological differences between men and women and discrimination in the labor market (such as gender stereotypes and customer and employer bias). Women currently take significantly more time off to raise children than men.[98] In certain countries such as South Korea, it has also been a long-established practice to lay-off female employees upon marriage.[99] A study by professor Linda Babcock in her book Women Don't Ask shows that men are eight times more likely to ask for a pay raise, suggesting that pay inequality may be partly a result of behavioral differences between the sexes.[100] However, studies generally find that a portion of the gender pay gap remains unexplained after accounting for factors assumed to influence earnings; the unexplained portion of the wage gap is attributed to gender discrimination.[101]
Estimates of the discriminatory component of the gender pay gap vary. The OECD estimated that approximately 30 percent of the gender pay gap across OECD countries is due to discrimination.[85] Australian research shows that discrimination accounts for approximately 60 percent of the wage differential between men and women.[102][103] Studies examining the gender pay gap in the United States show that a large portion of the wage differential remains unexplained, after controlling for factors affecting pay. One study of college graduates found that the portion of the pay gap unexplained after all other factors are taken into account is five percent one year after graduating and twelve percent a decade after graduation.[104][105][106][107] A study by the American Association of University Women (AAUW) found that women graduates in the United States are paid less than men doing the same work and majoring in the same field.[108]



 Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by sex, race, and ethnicity, U.S., 2009.[109]
Wage discrimination is theorized as contradicting the economic concept of supply and demand, which states that if a good or service (in this case, labor) is in demand and has value it will find its price in the market. If a worker offered equal value for less pay, supply and demand would indicate a greater demand for lower-paid workers. If a business hired lower-wage workers for the same work, it would lower its costs and enjoy a competitive advantage. According to supply and demand, if women offered equal value demand (and wages) should rise since they offer a better price (lower wages) for their service than men do.[110]
Research at Cornell University and elsewhere indicates that mothers in the United States are less likely to be hired than equally-qualified fathers and, if hired, receive a lower salary than male applicants with children.[111][112][113][114][115][116] The OECD found that "a significant impact of children on women’s pay is generally found in the United Kingdom and the United States".[117] Fathers earn $7,500 more, on average, than men without children do.[118]
 Possible causes for wage discrimination[edit]
According to Denise Venable at the National Center for Policy Analysis, the "wage gap" in the United States is not the result of discrimination but of differences in lifestyle choices. Venable's report found that women are less likely than men to sacrifice personal happiness for increases in income or to choose full-time work. She found that among American adults working between one and thirty-five hours a week and part-time workers who have never been married, women earn more than men. Venable also found that among people aged 27 to 33 who have never had a child, women's earnings approach 98 percent of men's and "women who hold positions and have skills and experience similar to those of men face wage disparities of less than 10 percent, and many are within a couple of points".[119] Venable concluded that women and men with equal skills and opportunities in the same positions face little or no wage discrimination: "Claims of unequal pay almost always involve comparing apples and oranges".
There is considerable agreement that gender wage discrimination exists, however, when it comes to estimating its magnitude, significant discrepancies are visible. A meta-regression analysis concludes that "the estimated gender gap has been steadily declining" and that the wage rate calculation is proven to be crucial in estimating the wage gap.[120] The analysis further notes that excluding experience and failing to correct for selection bias from analysis might also bring to incorrect conclusions.
Glass ceiling effect[edit]
Main article: Glass ceiling
"The popular notion of glass ceiling effects implies that gender (or other) disadvantages are stronger at the top of the hierarchy than at lower levels and that these disadvantages become worse later in a person's career."[121]
In the United States, women account for 47 percent of the overall labor force, and yet they make up only 6 percent of corporate CEOs and top executives.[122] Some researchers see the root cause of this situation in the tacit discrimination based on gender, conducted by current top executives and corporate directors (primarily male), as well as "the historic absence of women in top positions", which “may lead to hysteresis, preventing women from accessing powerful, male-dominated professional networks, or same-sex mentors”.[122] The glass ceiling effect is noted as being especially persistent for women of color (according to a report, "women of colour perceive a 'concrete ceiling' and not simply a glass ceiling").[122]
In the economics profession, it has been observed that women are more inclined than men to dedicate their time to teaching and service. Since continuous research work is crucial for promotion, "the cumulative effect of small, contemporaneous differences in research orientation could generate the observed significant gender difference in promotion".[123] In the high-tech industry, research shows that, regardless of the intra-firm changes, "extra-organizational pressures will likely contribute to continued gender stratification as firms upgrade, leading to the potential masculinization of skilled high-tech work".[124]
The United Nations asserts that "progress in bringing women into leadership and decision making positions around the world remains far too slow."[125]
Potential remedies[edit]
Research by David Matsa and Amalia Miller suggests that a possible remedy to the glass ceiling could be increasing the number of women on corporate boards, which could subsequently lead to increases in the number of women working in top management positions.[122] The same research suggests that this could also result in a "feedback cycle in which the presence of more female managers increases the qualified pool of potential female board members (for the companies they manage, as well as other companies), leading to greater female board membership and then further increases in female executives."[125]
Weight based sexism[edit]
A 2009 study found that being overweight harms women's career advancement, but presents no barrier for men. Overweight women were significantly underrepresented among company bosses, making up between 5% and 22% of female CEOs. However, the proportion of overweight male CEOs was between 45% and 61%, over-representing overweight men. On the other hand, approximately 5% of CEOs were obese among both genders. The author of the study stated that the results suggest that "the 'glass ceiling effect' on women's advancement may reflect not only general negative stereotypes about the competencies of women, but also weight bias that results in the application of stricter appearance standards to women." [126][127]
Transgender discrimination[edit]
See also: Transgender inequality
Transgender people also experience significant workplace discrimination and harassment.[128] Unlike sex-based discrimination, refusing to hire (or firing) a worker for their gender identity or expression is not explicitly illegal in most U.S. states.[129]
Objectification[edit]



 An example of sexual objectification of women on a wine menu[original research?]
Objectification is treating a person, usually a woman, as an object.[130] Feminist writer and gender equality activist Joy Goh-Mah argues that by being objectified, a person is denied agency.[131] Sexual objectification is where a person is viewed primarily in terms of sexual appeal or as a source of sexual gratification. This is sometimes regarded as a form of sexism.[132] Nussbaum[133] has identified the seven features of treating a human as an object as the following:
1.instrumentality: treating the object as a tool for the objectifier's purposes
2.denial of autonomy: treating the object as lacking in autonomy and self-determination
3.inertness: treating the object as lacking in agency
4.fungibility: treating the object as interchangeable with other objects
5.violability: treating the object as lacking in boundaries-integrity
6.ownership: treating the object as something that is owned by another (can be bought or sold);
7.denial of subjectivity: treating the object as something whose experiences and feelings (if any) need not be taken into account.
According to objectification theory objectification can have important repercussions on women, particularly young women, as it can lead to mental disorders (depression, eating disorders, etc.).[134]
In advertising[edit]
While advertising used to portray women in obviously stereotypical roles (e.g., as a housewife), women in modern advertisements are no longer solely confined to the home. However, advertising today nonetheless still stereotypes women, albeit in more subtle ways, including by sexually objectifying them.[135][136] This is problematic because there appears to be a relationship between the manner in which women are portrayed in advertising and people’s ideas about the role of women in society.[135] Research has shown that gender role stereotyping in advertising is linked to negative attitudes towards women, as well as more acceptance of sexual aggression against women and rape myth acceptance.[135] Furthermore, gender role stereotyping in advertisements may be injurious to women, as it is linked to negative body image and the development of eating disorders.[137]
Today, some countries (for example Norway and Denmark) have laws against sexual objectification in advertising.[138] Nudity is not banned, and nude people can be used to advertise a product if they are relevant to the product advertised. Sol Olving, head of Norway's Kreativt Forum (an association of the country's top advertising agencies) explained, "You could have a naked person advertising shower gel or a cream, but not a woman in a bikini draped across a car".[138]
Other countries continue to ban nudity (on traditional obscenity grounds), but also make explicit reference to sexual objectification, such as Israel's ban of billboards that "depicts sexual humiliation or abasement, or presents a human being as an object available for sexual use".[139]
Pornography[edit]
See also: Feminist views on pornography
Anti-pornography feminist Catharine MacKinnon argues that pornography contributes to sexism by objectifying women and portraying them in submissive roles.[140] MacKinnon, along with Andrea Dworkin, argues that pornography reduces women to mere tools, and is a form of sex discrimination.[141] The scholars highlight the link between objectification and pornography by stating:
"We define pornography as the graphic sexually explicit subordination of women through pictures and words that also includes (i) women are presented dehumanized as sexual objects, things, or commodities; or (ii) women are presented as sexual objects who enjoy humiliation or pain; or (iii) women are presented as sexual objects experiencing sexual pleasure in rape, incest or other sexual assault; or (iv) women are presented as sexual objects tied up, cut up or mutilated or bruised or physically hurt; or (v) women are presented in postures or positions of sexual submission, servility, or display; or (vi) women's body parts—including but not limited to vaginas, breasts, or buttocks — are exhibited such that women are reduced to those parts; or (vii) women are presented being penetrated by objects or animals; or (viii) women are presented in scenarios of degradation, humiliation, injury, torture, shown as filthy or inferior, bleeding, bruised, or hurt in a context that makes these conditions sexual."[142] Robin Morgan and Catharine MacKinnon suggest that certain types of pornography also contribute to violence against women by eroticizing scenes in which women are dominated, coerced, humiliated or sexually assaulted.[143][144]
Some people opposed to pornography, including MacKinnon, charge that the production of pornography entails physical, psychological and economic coercion of the women who perform and model in it.[145][146][147] Opponents of pornography charge that it presents a distorted image of sexual relations and reinforces sexual myths; it shows women as continually available and willing to engage in sex at any time, with any person, on their terms, responding positively to any requests. They write:

Pornography affects people's belief in rape myths. So for example if a woman says "I didn't consent" and people have been viewing pornography, they believe rape myths and believe the woman did consent no matter what she said. That when she said no, she meant yes. When she said she didn't want to, that meant more beer. When she said she would prefer to go home, that means she's a lesbian who needs to be given a good corrective experience. Pornography promotes these rape myths and desensitizes people to violence against women so that you need more violence to become sexually aroused if you're a pornography consumer. This is very well documented.[148]
Defenders of pornography and anti-censorship activists (including sex-positive feminists) argue that pornography does not seriously impact a mentally healthy individual, since the viewer can distinguish between fantasy and reality.[149] They contend that both sexes are objectified in pornography (particularly sadistic or masochistic pornography, in which men are objectified and sexually used by women).[150]
Prostitution[edit]
Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in sexual relations in exchange for payment.[151][152] Sex workers are often objectified and are seen as existing only to serve clients, thus calling their sense of agency into question. There is a prevailing notion that because they sell sex professionally, prostitutes automatically consent to all sexual contact.[153] As a result, sex workers face higher rates of violence and sexual assault. This is often dismissed, ignored and not taken seriously by authorities.[153]
In many countries, prostitution is dominated by brothels or pimps, who often claim ownership over sex workers. This sense of ownership furthers the concept that sex workers are void of agency.[citation needed] This is literally the case in instances of sexual slavery.
Various authors have argued that female prostitution is based on male sexism that condones the idea that unwanted sex with a woman is acceptable, that men's desires must be satisfied, and that women are coerced into and exist to serve men sexually.[154][155][156][157] The European Women's Lobby condemned prostitution as "an intolerable form of male violence".[158]
Carole Pateman writes that:[159]
"Prostitution is the use of a woman's body by a man for his own satisfaction. There is no desire or satisfaction on the part of the prostitute. Prostitution is not mutual, pleasurable exchange of the use of bodies, but the unilateral use of a woman's body by a man in exchange for money."
Media portrayals[edit]
Some scholars believe that media portrayals of demographic groups can both maintain and disrupt attitudes and behaviors toward those groups.[160][page needed][161][162][page needed] According to Susan Douglas, "Since the early 1990s, much of the media have come to overrepresent women as having made it-completely-in the professions, as having gained sexual equality with men, and having achieved a level of financial success and comfort enjoyed primarily by Tiffany's-encrusted doyennes of Laguna Beach."[163] These images may be harmful, particularly to women and racial and ethnic minority groups. For example, a study of African American women found they feel that media portrayals of African American women often reinforce stereotypes of this group as overly sexual and idealize images of lighter-skinned, thinner African American women (images African American women describe as objectifying).[164] In a recent analysis of images of Haitian women in the Associated Press photo archive from 1994 to 2009, several themes emerged emphasizing the "otherness" of Haitian women and characterizing them as victims in need of rescue.[165]
In an attempt to study the effect of media consumption on males, Samantha and Bridges found an effect on body shame, though not through self-objectification as it was found in comparable studies of women. The authors conclude that the current measures of objectification were designed for women and do not measure men accurately.[166] Another study also found a negative effect on eating attitudes and body satisfaction of consumption of beauty and fitness magazines for women and men respectively, but again with different mechanisms, namely self-objectification for women and internalization for men.[167]
Sexist jokes[edit]
Frederick Attenborough argues that sexist jokes can be a form of sexual objectification, which reduce the butt of the joke to an object. They not only objectify women or men, but can also condone violence or prejudice against men or women.[168] "Sexist humor—the denigration of women through humor—for instance, trivializes sex discrimination under the veil of benign amusement, thus precluding challenges or opposition that nonhumorous sexist communication would likely incur."[169] A study of 73 male undergraduate students by Ford found that "sexist humor can promote the behavioral expression of prejudice against women amongst sexist men".[169] According to the study, when sexism is presented in a humorous manner it is viewed as tolerable and socially acceptable: "Disparagement of women through humor 'freed' sexist participants from having to conform to the more general and more restrictive norms regarding discrimination against women."[169]
Gender discrimination[edit]
Gender discrimination is discrimination on the basis of actual or perceived gender identity.[citation needed] Gender identity is "the gender-related identity, appearance, or mannerisms or other gender-related characteristics of an individual, with or without regard to the individual's designated sex at birth."[170] Gender discrimination is theoretically different from sexism.[171] Whereas sexism is prejudice based on biological sex, gender discrimination specifically addresses discrimination towards identity based orientations, including third gender, genderqueer, and other non-binary identified people.[172] Banning discrimination on the basis of gender identity and expression has emerged as a subject of contention in the American legal system.[173]
According to a recent report by the Congressional Research Service, "although the majority of federal courts to consider the issue have concluded that discrimination on the basis of gender identity is not sex discrimination, there have been several courts that have reached the opposite conclusion..."[170] Hurst states, "Courts often confuse sex, gender and sexual orientation, and confuse them in a way that results in denying the rights not only of gays and lesbians, but also of those who do not present themselves or act in a manner traditionally expected of their sex."[174]
Transgender discrimination[edit]
Transgender discrimination is discrimination towards peoples whose gender identity differs from the social expectations of the biological sex they were born with.[175] Forms of discrimination include but are not limited to identity documents not reflecting one's gender, sex-segregated public restrooms and other facilities, dress codes according to binary gender codes, and lack of access to and existence of appropriate health care services.[176] In a recent adjudication, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) concluded that discrimination against a transgendered individual is sex discrimination.[176]
The National Transgender Discrimination Survey, the most extensive survey of transgender discrimination, in collaboration with the National Black Justice Coalition recently showed that Black transgender people in the United States suffer "the combination of anti-transgender bias and persistent, structural and individual racism" and that "black transgender people live in extreme poverty that is more than twice the rate for transgender people of all races (15%), four times the general Black population rate 9% and over eight times the general US population rate (4%)".[177] In another study conducted in collaboration with the League of United Latin American Citizens, Latino/a transgender people who were non-citizens were most vulnerable to harassment, abuse and violence.[178]
Examples[edit]
Sexism takes a number of forms, and is sometimes subtle or unconscious.
Health[edit]
Domestic violence[edit]
Main article: Domestic violence
Further information: Honor killing, Acid throwing and Dowry death



 Acid attack victim in Cambodia
Although the exact rates are widely disputed, there is a large body of cross-cultural evidence that women are subjected to domestic violence significantly more often than men.[179][180][181] In addition, there is broad consensus that women are more often subjected to severe forms of abuse and are more likely to be injured by an abusive partner.[180][181] The United Nations recognizes domestic violence as a form of gender-based violence, which it describes as a human rights violation, and the result of sexism.[182]
Domestic violence is tolerated and even legally accepted in many parts of the world. For instance, in 2010, the United Arab Emirates (UAE)'s Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to physically discipline his wife and children if he does not leave visible marks.[183] In 2015, Equality Now drew attention a section of the Penal Code of Northern Nigeria, titled Correction of Child, Pupil, Servant or Wife which reads: "(1) Nothing is an offence which does not amount to the infliction of grievous hurt upon any persons which is done: (...) (d) by a husband for the purpose of correcting his wife, such husband and wife being subject to any native law or custom in which such correction is recognized as lawful."[184]
Honor killings are another form of domestic violence practiced in several parts of the world, and their victims are predominately women.[185] Honor killings can occur because of refusal to enter into an arranged marriage, maintaining a relationship relatives disapprove of, extramarital sex, becoming the victim of rape, dress seen as inappropriate, or homosexuality.[186][187][188] The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime states that, "Honour crimes, including killing, are one of history’s oldest forms of gender-based violence."[189]
According to a report of the Special Rapporteur submitted to the 58th session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights concerning cultural practices in the family that reflect violence against women:

The Special Rapporteur indicated that there had been contradictory decisions with regard to the honour defense in Brazil, and that legislative provisions allowing for partial or complete defense in that context could be found in the penal codes of Argentina, Ecuador, Egypt, Guatemala, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Peru, Syria, Venezuela and the Palestinian National Authority.[190]
Practices such as honor killings and stoning continue to be supported by mainstream politicians and other officials in some countries. In Pakistan, after the 2008 Balochistan honour killings in which five women were killed by tribesmen of the Umrani Tribe of Balochistan, Pakistani Federal Minister for Postal Services Israr Ullah Zehri defended the practice:[191] "These are centuries-old traditions, and I will continue to defend them. Only those who indulge in immoral acts should be afraid."[192] Following the 2006 case of Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani (which has placed Iran under international pressure for its stoning sentences), Mohammad-Javad Larijani (a senior envoy and chief of Iran’s Human Rights Council) defended the practice of stoning; he claimed it was a "lesser punishment" than execution, because it allowed those convicted a chance at survival.[193]
Dowry deaths are the result of the killing women who are unable to pay the high dowry price for their marriage. According to Amnesty International, "the ongoing reality of dowry-related violence is an example of what can happen when women are treated as property."[194]
Gendercide and forced sterilization[edit]



 Female infanticide is still a major problem in India.
Female infanticide is the killing of newborn female children or the termination of a female fetus through selective abortion. It is a form of gendercide, and is an extreme form of gender-based violence.[195][196][197] Female infanticide is more common than male infanticide, and is especially prevalent in Southeast Asia, such as parts of India and China.[196][198][199] Recent studies suggest that over 90 million girls and women are missing in China and India as a result of infanticide.[200][201]
Sex-selective abortion involves terminating a pregnancy based upon the predicted sex of the baby. The abortion of female fetuses is most common in areas where the culture values male children over females,[202] such as parts of the China, India, Pakistan, Korea, Taiwan, and the Caucasus.[202][203] One reason for this preference is that males are seen as generating more income than females. The trend has grown steadily over the previous decade, and may result in a future shortage of women.[204]
Forced sterilization and forced abortion are also forms of gender-based violence.[195] Forced sterilization was practiced during the first half of the 20th century by many Western countries and there are reports of this practice being currently employed in some countries, such as Uzbekistan and China.[205][206][207][208]
Female genital mutilation[edit]



 Campaign against female genital mutilation in Uganda.
Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting and female circumcision, is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons". WHO states that, "The procedure has no health benefits for girls and women" and "[p]rocedures can cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, and later cysts, infections, infertility as well as complications in childbirth increased risk of newborn death"[209] and "FGM is recognized internationally as a violation of the human rights of girls and women. It reflects deep-rooted inequality between the sexes, and constitutes an extreme form of discrimination against women".[209] The European Parliament, in its resolution against FGM, stated that "FGM clearly goes against the European founding value of equality between women and men and maintains traditional values according to which women are seen as the objects and properties of men".[210]
According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 125 million women and girls in Africa and the Middle East have experienced FGM.[211] The highest prevalence in Africa is documented in Somalia (98 percent of women affected), Guinea (96 percent), Djibouti (93 percent), Egypt (91 percent), Eritrea (89 percent), Mali (89 percent), Sierra Leone (88 percent), Sudan (88 percent), Gambia (76 percent), Burkina Faso (76 percent), Ethiopia (74 percent), Mauritania (69 percent), Liberia (66 percent), and Guinea-Bissau (50 percent).[211]
Infibulation, the most extreme form of FGM, also known as Type III, consists in the removal of the inner and outer labia and closure of the vulva, with a small hole being left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood. Subsequently, the vagina is opened after the wedding for sexual intercourse and childbirth. This procedure is practiced primary in Northeast Africa, in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan.[212]
Sexual assault and treatment of victims[edit]



 People in Bangalore, India, demanding justice for a young student who was gang-raped in Delhi in December 2012.
Research by Lisak and Roth into factors motivating perpetrators of sexual assault, including rape, against women revealed a pattern of hatred towards women and pleasure in inflicting psychological and physical trauma, rather than sexual interest.[213] Mary Odem and Peggy Reeves Sanday posit that rape is the result not of pathology but of systems of male dominance, cultural practices and beliefs.[214]
Mary Odem, Jody Clay-Warner, and Susan Brownmiller argue that sexist attitudes are propagated by a series of myths about rape and rapists.[215] :130–140 [216] They state that in contrast to those myths, rapists often plan a rape before they choose a victim[215] and acquaintance rape (not assault by a stranger) is the most common form of rape.[215]:xiv[217] Odem also asserts that these rape myths propagate sexist attitudes about men, by perpetuating the belief that men cannot control their sexuality.[215]
Jaclyn Friedman and Jessica Valenti contend that in the US rape is most often popularly depicted (in the media, in public discourse, in movies etc.) as stranger-rape (with a stereotypical stranger who "jumps out of the bushes"), despite the fact that most rapes do not fit this stereotype. In presenting rape in this way to the public, patriarchal society ensures that women are kept under control, at home/indoors, living their life according to traditional gender roles and expectations, dressed 'modestly'. This leads to an ideology that women are safe at home (ignoring rape by family members/partners), and to blaming of victims.[218][page needed]
Sexism can promote the stigmatization of women and girls who have been raped and inhibit recovery.[219] In many parts of the world, women who have been raped are ostracized, rejected by their families, subjected to violence, and—in extreme cases—may become victims of honor killings because they are deemed to have brought shame upon their families.[219][220]
There is also a strong connection between rape and forced marriage, through practices such as forcing of a woman or girl who has been raped to marry her rapist, in order to restore the honor of her family;[219][221] or marriage by abduction, a practice in which a man abducts the woman or girl whom he wishes to marry and rapes her, in order to force the marriage (common in Ethiopia).[222][223][224] The criminalization of marital rape is very recent, having occurred during the past few decades; and in many countries it is still legal. Several countries in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia made spousal rape illegal before 1970; other countries in Western Europe and the English-speaking Western World outlawed it later, mostly in the 1980s and 1990s.[225] In some parts of the world the lack of criminalization of marital rape coupled with the practice of child marriage leads to serious forms of child sexual abuse being legitimized. The WHO wrote that: "Marriage is often used to legitimize a range of forms of sexual violence against women. The custom of marrying off young children, particularly girls, is found in many parts of the world. This practice—legal in many countries—is a form of sexual violence, since the children involved are unable to give or withhold their consent".[219]
In countries where fornication or adultery are illegal, victims of rape can be charged under these laws (even if the victims succeed in proving their rape case, they can still be charged with a criminal offense if the court finds they were not virgins at the time of the assault—if they were unmarried).[226]
War rape[edit]
Main article: War rape



 Meeting of victims of sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Sexism is manifested by the crime of rape targeting women civilians and soldiers, committed by soldiers, combatants or civilians during armed conflict, war or military occupation. This arises from the long tradition of women being seen as sexual booty and from the misogynistic culture of military training.[227][228]
Sexual violence and rape are also committed against men during war and are often under-reported. Sexism plays a significant part in the difficulty that the survivors face coping with their victimization, especially in patriarchal cultures, and in the lack of support provided to men who have been raped.[229]
Reproductive rights[edit]
The United Nations Population Fund writes that "Family planning is central to gender equality and women’s empowerment".[230] Women in many countries around the world are denied medical and informational services related to reproductive health, including access to pregnancy care, family planning, and contraception.[230][231] In countries with very strict abortion laws (particularly in Latin America) women who suffer miscarriagess are often investigated by the police under suspicion of having deliberately provoked the miscarriage, and are sometimes jailed,[232] a practice which Amnesty International called a "ruthless campaign against women's rights".[233] Doctors may be reluctant to treat pregnant women who are very ill, because they are afraid the treatment may result in fetal loss.[234] According to Amnesty Intentional, "Discriminatory attitudes towards women and girls also means access to sex education and contraceptives are near impossible [in El Salvador]".[235] The organization has also criticized laws and policies which require the husband's consent for a woman to use reproductive health services as being discriminatory and dangerous to women's health and life: "[F]or the woman who needs her husband’s consent to get contraception, the consequences of discrimination can be serious – even fatal".[236]
Child marriage[edit]
Main article: Child marriage
Further information: Dowry and Bride price
A child marriage is a marriage where one or both spouses are under 18, and disproportionally affects women.[237][237][238] Child marriages are most common in South Asia, the Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa, but occur in other parts of the world, too. The practice of marrying young girls is rooted in patriarchal ideologies of control of female behavior, and is also sustained by traditional practices such as dowry and bride price.[239] Child marriage is strongly connected with the protection of female virginity.[240] UNICEF states that:[237]
"Marrying girls under 18 years old is rooted in gender discrimination, encouraging premature and continuous child bearing and giving preference to boys' education. Child marriage is also a strategy for economic survival as families marry off their daughters at an early age to reduce their economic burden."
Consequences of child marriage include restricted education and employment prospects, increased risk of domestic violence, child sexual abuse, pregnancy and birth complications, social isolation.[238][240] Early and forced marriage are defined as forms of modern-day slavery by the International Labour Organisation.[241]
According to the UN, the ten countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger (75%), Chad and Central African Republic (68%), Bangladesh (66%), Guinea, Mozambique, Mali, Burkina Faso, South Sudan, and Malawi.[242]
 Legal justice and regulations[edit]
In several OIC countries the legal testimony of a woman is worth legally half of that of a man (see Status of women's testimony in Islam). Such countries include:[243][244] Algeria (in criminal cases), Bahrain (in Sharia courts), Egypt (in family courts), Iran (in most cases), Iraq (in some cases), Jordan (in Sharia courts), Kuwait (in family courts), Libya (in some cases), Morocco (in family cases), Palestine (in cases related to marriage, divorce and child custody), Qatar (in family law matters), Syria (in Sharia courts), United Arab Emirates (in some civil matters), Yemen (not allowed to testify at all in cases of adultery and retribution), and Saudi Arabia. Such laws have been criticized by Human Rights Watch and Equality Now as being discriminatory towards women.[245][246]
The criminal justice system in many common law countries has also been accused of discriminating against women. Provocation is, in many common law countries, a partial defense to murder, which converts what would have been murder into manslaughter. It is meant to be applied when a person kills in the "heat of passion" upon being "provoked" by the behavior of the victim. This defense has been criticized as being gendered, favoring men, due to it being used disproportionately in cases of adultery, and other domestic disputes when women are killed by their partners. As a result of the defense exhibiting a strong gender bias, and being a form of legitimization of male violence against women and minimization of the harm caused by violence against women, it has been abolished or restricted in several jurisdictions.[247][248]
The traditional leniently towards crimes of passion in Latin American countries has been deemed to have its origin in the view that women are property.[249] In 2002, Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, stated that, "[S]o-called crimes of passion have a similar dynamic [to honor killings] in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived as excusable or understandable." [249] The OHCHR has called for "the elimination of discriminatory provisions in the legislation, including mitigating factors for “crimes of passion”."[250]
In the United States, some studies have shown that for identical crimes, men are given harsher sentences than women. Controlling for arrest offense, criminal history and other pre-charge variables, sentences are over 60 percent heavier for men. Women are more likely to avoid charges entirely, and to avoid imprisonment if convicted.[251][252] The gender disparity varies according to the nature of the case. For example, the gender gap is less pronounced in fraud cases than in drug trafficking and firearms. This disparity occurs in US federal courts, despite guidelines designed to avoid differential sentencing.[253] The death penalty in may also suffer from gender bias. According to Shatz and Shatz, "The present study confirms what earlier studies have shown: that the death penalty is imposed on women relatively infrequently and that it is disproportionately imposed for the killing of women."[254]
There have been several reasons postulated for the gender criminal justice disparity in the United States. One of the most common is expectation that women are predominately care-givers.[251][252][253] Other possible reasons include the "girlfriend theory" (whereby women are seen as tools of their boyfriends),[252] the theory that female defendants are more likely to cooperate with authorities,[252] and that women are often successful at turning their violent crime into victimhood by citing defenses such as postpartum depression or battered wife syndrome.[255] However, none of these theories account for the total disparity,[252] and sexism has also been suggested as an underlying cause.[256]
Transgender people face widespread discrimination while incarcerated. They are generally housed according to their legal birth sex, rather than their gender identity. Studies have shown that transgender people are at an increased risk for harassment and sexual assault in this environment. They may also be denied access to medical procedures related to their reassignment.[257]



 A member of the Taliban's religious police beating an Afghan woman in Kabul on August 26, 2001. State violence against women is a form of discrimination against women.
Some countries use stoning as a form of capital punishment. According to Amnesty International, the majority of those stoned are women and women are disproportionately affected by stoning because of sexism in the legal system.[258]
Education[edit]
Main articles: Sex differences in education and Sexism in academia
Women have traditionally had limited access to higher education.[259] In the past, when women were admitted to higher education, they were encouraged to major in less-scientific subjects; the study of English literature in American and British colleges and universities was instituted as a field considered suitable to women's "lesser intellects".[260]
Educational specialties in higher education produce and perpetuate inequality between men and women.[261] Disparity persists particularly in computer and information science, where in the US women received only 21 percent of the undergraduate degrees, and in engineering, where women obtained only 19 percent of the degrees in 2008.[262] Only one out of five of physics doctorates in the US are awarded to women, and only about half of those women are American.[263] Of all the physics professors in the country, only 14 percent are women.[263]
World literacy is lower for females than for males. Data from CIA World Factbook shows that 79.7 percent of women are literate, compared to 88.6 percent of men (aged 15 and over).[264] In some parts of the world, girls continue to be excluded from proper public or private education. In parts of Afghanistan, girls who go to school face serious violence from some local community members and religious groups.[265] According to 2010 UN estimates, only Afghanistan, Pakistan and Yemen had less than 90 girls per 100 boys at school.[266] Jayachandran and Lleras-Muney's study of Sri Lankan economic development has suggested that increases in the life expectancy for women encourages educational investment because a longer time horizon increases the value of investments that pay out over time.[267]
Educational opportunities and outcomes for women have greatly improved in the West. Since 1991, the proportion of women enrolled in college in the United States has exceeded the enrollment rate for men, and the gap has widened over time.[268] As of 2007, women made up the majority—54 percent—of the 10.8 million college students enrolled in the United States.[269] However, research by Diane Halpern has indicated that boys receive more attention, praise, blame and punishment in the grammar-school classroom,[270] and "this pattern of more active teacher attention directed at male students continues at the postsecondary level".[271] Over time, female students speak less in a classroom setting.[272]
Writer Gerry Garibaldi has argued that the educational system has become "feminized", allowing girls more of a chance at success with a more "girl-friendly" environment in the classroom;[273] this is seen to hinder boys by punishing "masculine" behavior and diagnosing boys with behavioral disorders.[274] A recent study by the OECD in over 60 countries found that teachers give boys lower grades for the same work. The researchers attribute this to stereotypical ideas about boys and recommend teachers to be aware of this gender bias.[275]
Fashion[edit]
See also: Foot binding and Burqa



Louis XV in 1712, as a boy, wearing a pink dress


 Children in Rwanda. Notice how all children, regardless of sex, have very short hair (these children are wearing their school uniforms: girls are in skirts and boys in shorts)
Feminists argue that some fashion trends have been oppressive to women; they restrict women's movements, increase their vulnerability and endanger their health.[276] The fashion industry has experienced various criticism, as their association of thin-models and beauty is seen as encouraging bulimia and anorexia nervosa within women, as well as locking female consumers into false feminine identities.[277]
The assignment of gender specific baby clothes from young ages can be seen as sexist as it can instill in children from young ages a belief in negative gender stereotypes.[278] An example of this is the assignment in some countries of the color pink to girls and blue to boys. This fashion, however, is a recent one; at the beginning of the 20th century the trend was the opposite: blue for girls and pink for boys.[279] In the early 1900s, The Women's Journal wrote, "That pink being a more decided and stronger colour, is more suitable for the boy, while blue, which is more delicate and dainty, is prettier for the girl." DressMaker magazine also explained, "The preferred colour to dress young boys in is pink. Blue is reserved for girls as it is considered paler, and the more dainty of the two colours, and pink is thought to be stronger (akin to red)."[280]
Today, in most countries, it is considered inappropriate for boys to wear dresses and skirts, but this, again, is a modern worldview. From the mid-16th century[281] until the late 19th or early 20th century, young boys in the Western world were unbreeched and wore gowns or dresses until an age that varied between two and eight.[282]
Laws that dictate how women must dress are seen by many international human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International, as a form of gender discrimination.[283] Amnesty International states that:[283]
"Interpretations of religion, culture or tradition cannot justify imposing rules about dress on those who choose to dress differently. States should take measures to protect individuals from being coerced to dress in specific ways by family members, community or religious groups or leaders."
In many places, women who do not dress in socially and legally proscribed ways are often subjected to violence (for instance by the authorities, such as the religious police, by family members, or by the community).[284][285]
Conscription[edit]
Main article: Sexism and conscription



 Israeli female soldiers
Conscription, or compulsory military service, has been criticized as sexist.[286][90]:102 Prior to the late 20th century, only men were subjected to conscription,[287][288][289][290][90]:255 and most countries still require only men to serve in the military.
In his book The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men and Boys (2012), philosopher David Benatar states that "[t]he prevailing assumption is that where conscription is necessary, it is only men who should be conscripted and, similarly, that only males should be forced into combat". This, he believes, "is a sexist assumption".[90]:102 Anthropologist Ayse Gül Altinay has commented that "given equal suffrage rights, there is no other citizenship practice that differentiates as radically between men and women as compulsory male conscription."[97]:34
Currently, only nine countries conscript women into their armed forces: China, Eritrea, Israel, Libya, Malaysia, North Korea, Norway, Peru and Taiwan.[291][292] Other countries—such as Finland, Turkey, and Singapore—still use a system of conscription which requires military service from only men, although women are permitted to serve voluntarily. In 2014, Norway became the first NATO country to introduce obligatory military service for women as an act of gender equality.[292][293] The gender selective draft has been challenged in Switzerland[291] and the United States.[294]
See also[edit]
Ageism
Airline sex discrimination policy controversy
Antifeminism
Face-ism
Femicide
Gender apartheid
Gender bias on Wikipedia
Gender-blind
Separatist feminism
Equity and gender feminism
Gender discrimination in Pakistan
Gender egalitarianism
Gender neutrality
Glass cliff
Gender inequality
Gender polarization
Heterosexism
Hypermasculinity
Intersectionality
LGBT stereotypes
Male privilege
Masculinity
Masculism
Men and feminism
Men's rights movement
Misandry
Misogyny
Misogyny in horror films
Missing women of Asia
National Organization for Men Against Sexism
National Organization for Women
Occupational sexism
Patriarchy
Rape culture
Sex Roles (journal)
Sex segregation
Sexism in the technology industry
Sexism in India
Transphobia
Triple oppression
Victim blaming
Wife selling
Women's rights
References[edit]
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"Sexism". Encyclopedia Britannica, Online Academic Edition. 2015. Defines sexism as "prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls." Notes that "sexism in a society is most commonly applied against women and girls. It functions to maintain patriarchy, or male domination, through ideological and material practices of individuals, collectives, and institutions that oppress women and girls on the basis of sex or gender."
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"Sexism". The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Love, Courtship, and Sexuality through History, Volume 6: The Modern World. Greenwood. 2007. "Sexism is any act, attitude, or institutional configuration that systematically subordinates or devalues women. Built upon the belief that men and women are constitutionally different, sexism takes these differences as indications that men are inherently superior to women, which then is used to justify the nearly universal dominance of men in social and familial relationships, as well as politics, religion, language, law, and economics."
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84.Jump up ^ Anti-transgender Language Commentary: Trans Progressive by Autumn Sandeen San Diego, Calif.: San Diego LGBT Weekly, February 3, 2011.
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98.Jump up ^ The Open University: Learning Space."Economics Explains Discrimination in the Labour Market." Accessed June 29, 2012
99.Jump up ^ Gyeongjoon Yoo (2003): Women in the Workplace: Gender and Wage Differentials. Social Indicators Research, Vol. 62/63, The Quality of Life in Korea: Comparative and Dynamic Perspectives (Apr., 2003), pp. 365, 367-385 Published by: Springer.
100.Jump up ^ Women Don't Ask: Negotiation and the Gender Divide Linda Babcock & Sara Laschever 2003 Princeton UP. First chapter online: http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7575.pdf
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117.Jump up ^ OECD (2002). Emplyoment Outlook, Chapter 2: Women at work: who are they and how are they faring? Paris: OECD 2002.
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120.Jump up ^ T.D.Stanley and Stephen B. Jarrell: Gender Wage Discrimination Bias? A Meta-Regression Analysis. The Journal of Human Resources, Vol XXXIII,4. P. 67.
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124.Jump up ^ Steven C. McKay (2006): Hard Drives and Glass Ceilings: Gender Stratification in High-Tech Production. Gender and Society, Vol. 20, No. 2, Apr 2006, pp 207 – 235. Published by Sage Publications, Inc.
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129.Jump up ^ Steinmetz, Katy (12 January 2015). "Does Saks have the legal right to fire a transgender employee?". TIME magazine. Fortune. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
130.Jump up ^ "Feminist Perspectives on Objectification". stanford.edu.
131.Jump up ^ Goh-Mah, Joy. "The Objectification of Women - It Goes Much Further Than Sexy Pictures". Huffpost Lifestyle. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
132.Jump up ^ "The Free Dictionary". Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary. Retrieved 2013-06-06.
133.Jump up ^ Nussbaum, Martha (1995). "Objectification". Philosophy & Public Affairs 24 (4): 249–291. doi:10.1111/j.1088-4963.1995.tb00032.x. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
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146.Jump up ^ Mackinnon, Catherine A. (1984) "Not a moral issue." Yale Law and Policy Review 2:321-345. Reprinted in: Mackinnon (1989). Toward a Feminist Theory of the State Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-89645-9 (1st ed), ISBN 0-674-89646-7 (2nd ed). "Sex forced on real women so that it can be sold at a profit to be forced on other real women; women's bodies trussed and maimed and raped and made into things to be hurt and obtained and accessed, and this presented as the nature of women; the coercion that is visible and the coercion that has become invisible—this and more grounds the feminist concern with pornography"
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154.Jump up ^ http://www.soc.iastate.edu/sapp/Prostitution.pdf
155.Jump up ^ Julie Bindel. "Julie Bindel: Eradicate the oldest oppression - UK news - The Guardian". the Guardian.
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158.Jump up ^ "European Women's Lobby  : Prostitution in Europe : 60 Years of Reluctance". womenslobby.eu.
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275.Jump up ^ "Teachers 'give higher marks to girls'". BBC News. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
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278.Jump up ^ Bindel, Julie (January 24, 2012). "Julie Bindel: Boys aren't born wanting to wear blue". The Independent (London).
279.Jump up ^ Maglaty, Jeanne (7 April 2011). "When Did Girls Start Wearing Pink?". Smithsonian (magazine). Retrieved 16 March 2015.
280.Jump up ^ "Should we not dress girls in pink?". BBC News. January 8, 2009. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
281.Jump up ^ Melanie Scheussler suggests a date of post-1540 for England, France, and the Low Countries; see Scheussler, "'She Hath Over Grown All that She Ever Hath': Children's Clothing in the Lisle Letters, 1533-40", in Netherton, Robin, and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, editors, Medieval Clothing and Textiles, Volume 3, p. 185. Before roughly this date various styles of long robes were in any case commonly worn by adult males of various sorts, so boys wearing them could probably not be said to form a distinct phenomenon.
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283.^ Jump up to: a b Women’s right to choose their dress, free of coercion, Amnesty International, 2011
284.Jump up ^ "Iran to intensify dress crackdown". BBC News. July 15, 2007.
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286.Jump up ^ Berlatsky, Noah (May 29, 2013). "When Men Experience Sexism". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on January 5, 2015. Retrieved April 26, 2015.
287.Jump up ^ Goldstein, Joshua S. (2003). "War and Gender: Men's War Roles – Boyhood and Coming of Age". In Ember, Carol R.; Ember, Melvin Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures. Volume 1. Springer. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-306-47770-6. Retrieved April 25, 2015.
288.Jump up ^ Kronsell, Anica (June 29, 2006). "Methods for studying silence: The 'silence' of Swedish conscription". In Ackerly, Brooke A.; Stern, Maria; True, Jacqui Feminist Methodologies for International Relations. Cambridge University Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-139-45873-3. Retrieved April 25, 2015.
289.Jump up ^ Selmeski, Brian R. (2007). Multicultural Citizens, Monocultural Men: Indigineity, Masculinity, and Conscription in Ecuador. Syracuse University: ProQuest. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-549-40315-9. Retrieved April 25, 2015.
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293.Jump up ^ "Women in the Armed Forces". Norwegian Armed Forces. October 27, 2014. Archived from the original on May 2, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
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Bibliography[edit]
Atwell, Mary Welek. 2002. Equal Protection of the Law?: Gender and Justice in the United States. New York: P. Lang.
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Cudd, Ann E.; Jones, Leslie E. (2005), "Sexism", in Frey, R.G.; Heath Wellman, Christopher, A companion to applied ethics, Blackwell Companions to Philosophy, Oxford, UK Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 102–117, doi:10.1002/9780470996621.ch8, ISBN 9781405133456.
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"Employment Non-Discrimination Act". Human Rights Campaign. Available (online): http://www.hrc.org/laws-and-legislation/federal-legislation/employment-non-discrimination-act
Feder, Jody and Cynthia Brougher. Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Discrimination in Employment: A Legal Analysis of the Employment
Haberfeld, Yitchak. "Employment Discrimination: An Organizational Model."
Hurst, C. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. Sixth Edition. 2007. 131, 139–142
Macklem, Tony. 2004. Beyond Comparison: Sex and Discrimination. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Matsumoto, David. "The Handbook of Culture and Psychology" Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-19-513181-9.
Non_Discrimination Act (ENDA)." July 15, 2013. Available (online): www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40934.pdf
Leila Schneps and Coralie Colmez, Math on trial. How numbers get used and abused in the courtroom, Basic Books, 2013. ISBN 978-0-465-03292-1. (Sixth chapter: "Math error number 6: Simpson's paradox. The Berkeley sex bias case: discrimination detection").
"Transgender." UC Berkekely Online. Available (online): http://geneq.berkeley.edu/lgbt_resources_definiton_of_terms#transgender ↑ ↑ "Discrimination against Transgender People." ACLU. Available (online) : https://www.aclu.org/lgbt-rights/discrimination-against-transgender-people
Management Journal 35.1 (1992): 161-180. Business Source Complete.
Kail, R., & Cavanaugh, J. (2010). Human Growth and Development (5 ed.). Belmont, Ca: Wadworth Learning.
External links[edit]
 Look up sexism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sexism.
Sexism in the Workplace
10 sexist scenarios that women face at work
The New Subtle Sexism Toward Women in the Workplace
Sexism in Language
Sexist Language


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Sexism

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 This article's lead section may not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (December 2013)
"Anti-sexism" redirects here. It is not to be confused with anti-sexualism.
"Sex discrimination" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Sexual discrimination.
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Sexism or gender discrimination is prejudice or discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. Sexism affects both men and women, but primarily women.[1] It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles,[2][3] and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another.[4] Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape and other forms of sexual violence.[5]


Contents  [hide]
1 Etymology and definitions
2  History 2.1  Ancient world
2.2 Witch hunts and trials
2.3 Coverture and other marriage regulations
2.4 Suffrage and politics
3 Gender stereotypes
4 In language 4.1 Sexist and gender-neutral language
4.2 Sexism in languages other than English
4.3 Gender-specific pejorative terms
5 Occupational sexism 5.1 Wage gap 5.1.1  Possible causes for wage discrimination
5.2 Glass ceiling effect 5.2.1 Potential remedies
5.3 Weight based sexism
5.4 Transgender discrimination
6 Objectification 6.1 In advertising
6.2 Pornography
6.3 Prostitution
6.4 Media portrayals
6.5 Sexist jokes
7 Gender discrimination 7.1 Transgender discrimination
8 Examples 8.1 Health 8.1.1 Domestic violence
8.1.2 Gendercide and forced sterilization
8.1.3 Female genital mutilation
8.1.4 Sexual assault and treatment of victims
8.1.5 War rape
8.2 Reproductive rights
8.3 Child marriage
8.4  Legal justice and regulations
8.5 Education
8.6 Fashion
8.7 Conscription
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links

Etymology and definitions[edit]
According to Fred R. Shapiro, the first time the term "sexism" appeared in print was in Caroline Bird's speech "On Being Born Female", which was published on November 15, 1968, in Vital Speeches of the Day (p. 6).[6] In this speech she said in part, "There is recognition abroad that we are in many ways a sexist country. Sexism is judging people by their sex when sex doesn't matter. Sexism is intended to rhyme with racism."[6]
Sexism is discrimination, prejudice, or stereotyping on the basis of gender. Sexism is most often expressed toward girls and women.[1] It has been characterized as the "hatred of women" and "entrenched prejudice against women."[7]
 History[edit]



Sati, or self-immolation by widows, was prevalent in Hindu society until the early 19th century.
Certain forms of sexism are illegal in some countries; in others, it may be legally sanctioned.[8]
 Ancient world[edit]
In various ancient societies, especially the Stone Age, women held many equal positions with men.[9] Women in Ancient Egypt and women of the Anglo-Saxon era were also commonly afforded equal status.[10][11] Evidence, however, is lacking to support the idea that many pre-agricultural societies afforded women a higher status than women today.[9][12] After the adoption of agriculture and sedentary cultures, the concept that one gender was inferior to the other was established; most often this was imposed upon women and girls.[13] Examples of sexism in the ancient world include written laws preventing women from participating in the political process. Women in ancient Rome could not vote or hold political office.[14]
Witch hunts and trials[edit]



 Title page of the seventh Cologne edition of the Malleus Maleficarum, 1520 (from the University of Sydney Library). The Latin title is "MALLEUS MALEFICARUM, Maleficas, & earum hæresim, ut phramea potentissima conterens." (Generally translated into English as The Hammer of Witches which destroyeth Witches and their heresy as with a two-edged sword).[15]
Main article: Witch hunt
Sexism may have been the impetus that fueled the witch trials between the 15th and 18th centuries.[16] In early modern Europe and in the European colonies in North America claims were made that witches were a threat to Christendom. The misogyny of that period played a role in the persecution of these women.[17][18]
In Malleus Malificarum, the book which played a major role in the witch hunts and trials, the authors argue that women are more likely to practice witchcraft than men, and write that:
All wickedness is but little to the wickedness of a woman ... What else is woman but a foe to friendship, an inescapable punishment, a necessary evil, a natural temptation, a desirable calamity, a domestic danger, a delectable detriment, an evil of nature, painted with fair colours![19]
Witchcraft remains illegal in several countries, including Saudi Arabia, where it is punishable by death. In 2011 a woman was beheaded in that country for 'witchcraft and sorcery'.[20] Murders of women after being accused of witchcraft remain common in some parts of the world; for example, in Tanzania, about 500 elderly women are murdered each year following such accusations.[21]
Coverture and other marriage regulations[edit]
Main articles: Coverture, Marital power and Restitution of conjugal rights
Until the 20th century, U.S. and English law observed the system of coverture, where "by marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law; that is the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage".[22] U.S. women were not legally defined as "persons" until 1875 (Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. 162).[23] A similar legal doctrine, named marital power, existed under Roman Dutch law (and is still partially in force in present day Swaziland).
In 1957, James Everett, then Minister for Justice in Ireland, stated that: "The progress of organised society is judged by the status occupied by married women."[24] Restrictions on married women's rights were common in Western countries until a few decades ago: for instance, French married women obtained the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965,[25][26][27] and in West Germany women obtained this right in 1977.[28][29] During the Franco era, in Spain, a married woman required her husband's consent (called permiso marital) for employment, ownership of property and traveling away from home; the permiso marital was abolished in 1975.[30]
Women in parts of the world continue to lose legal rights at marriage. For example, Yemeni marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.[31] In Iraq, the law allows husbands to legally "punish" their wives.[32] In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Family Code states that the husband is the head of the household; the wife owes her obedience to her husband; a wife has to live with her husband wherever he chooses to live; and wives must have their husbands' authorization to bring a case in court or to initiate other legal proceedings.[33]
Abuses and discriminatory practices against women in marriage are often rooted in financial payments such as dowry, bride price, and dower.[34] These transactions often serve as legitimizing coercive control of the wife by her husband and in giving him authority over her; for instance Article 13 of the Code of Personal Status (Tunisia) states that "The husband shall not, in default of payment of the dower, force the woman to consummate the marriage",[35] [36] implying that, if the dower is paid, marital rape is permitted (in this regard, critics have questioned the alleged gains of women in Tunisia, and its image as a progressive country in the region, arguing that discrimination against women remains very strong in that country). [37] [38][39]
The OMCT has recognized the "independence and ability to leave an abusive husband" as crucial in stopping mistreatment of women.[40] However, in some parts of the world, once married, women have very little chance of leaving a violent husband: obtaining a divorce is very difficult in many jurisdictions because of the need to prove fault in court; while attempting a de facto separation (moving away from the marital home) is also not possible due to laws preventing this. For instance, in Afghanistan, a wife who leaves her marital home risks being imprisoned for "running away".[41][42] In addition, many former British colonies, including India, maintain the concept of restitution of conjugal rights,[43] under which a wife may be ordered by court to return to her husband; if she fails to do so she may be held in contempt of court.[44][45] Other problems have to do with the payment of the bride price: if the wife wants to leave, her husband may demand back the bride price that he had paid to the woman's family; and the woman's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back.[46][47][48]
Laws, regulations, and traditions related to marriage continue to discriminate against women in many parts of the world, and to contribute to the mistreatment of women, in particular in areas related to sexual violence and to self-determination in regard to sexuality, the violation of the latter now being acknowledged as a violation of women's rights; in 2012, Navi Pillay, then High Commissioner for Human Rights, has stated that:
"Women are frequently treated as property, they are sold into marriage, into trafficking, into sexual slavery. Violence against women frequently takes the form of sexual violence. Victims of such violence are often accused of promiscuity and held responsible for their fate, while infertile women are rejected by husbands, families and communities. In many countries, married women may not refuse to have sexual relations with their husbands, and often have no say in whether they use contraception (...) Ensuring that women have full autonomy over their bodies is the first crucial step towards achieving substantive equality between women and men. Personal issues—such as when, how and with whom they choose to have sex, and when, how and with whom they choose to have children—are at the heart of living a life in dignity."[49]
Suffrage and politics[edit]



 A suffragette arrested in the street by two police officers in London in 1914
Gender has been used, at times, as a tool of discrimination against women in the political sphere. Women's suffrage was not achieved until 1893, when New Zealand was the first country to grant women the right to vote. Saudi Arabia was the last country to grant women the right to vote in 2011.[50] Some Western countries allowed women the right to vote only relatively recently: Swiss women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971,[51] and Appenzell Innerrhoden became the last canton to grant women the right to vote on local issues (in 1991, when it was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland).[52] French women were granted the right to vote in 1944.[53][54] In Greece, women obtained the right to vote in 1952.[55] In Liechtenstein, women obtained the right to vote in 1984, through the women's suffrage referendum of 1984.[56][57]
While almost every woman today has the right to vote, there is still progress to be made for women in politics. Studies have shown that in several democracies including Australia, Canada and the United States, women are still represented using deep-rooted gender stereotypes in the press [58] Multiple authors have shown that gender differences in the media are less evident today than they used to be in the 1980s, but are nonetheless still present. Certain issues (e.g., education) are likely to be linked with female candidates, while other issues (e.g., taxes) are likely to be linked with male candidates.[58] In addition, there is more emphasis on female candidates' personal qualities, such as their appearance and their personality, as females are portrayed as emotional and dependent.[58]
Sexism in politics can also be shown in the imbalance of law making power between men and women. Lanyan Chen asserts that men hold more political power than women, serving as the gatekeepers of policy making. It is possible that this leads to women's needs not being properly represented. In this sense, the inequality of law making power also causes the gender discrimination in politics.[59] The ratio of women to men in legislatures is used as a measure of gender equality in the UN created Gender Empowerment Measure and its newer incarnation the Gender Inequality Index.
Gender stereotypes[edit]
See also: Gender role § Gender stereotypes and Implicit stereotype § Gender stereotype

Series of photographs lampooning women drivers

 1952 portrayal of stereotypes about women drivers
Gender stereotypes are widely held beliefs about the characteristics and behavior of women and men.[60] Empirical studies have found widely shared cultural beliefs that men are more socially valued and more competent than women in a number of activities.[61][62] Dustin B. Thoman and others (2008) hypothesize that "The socio-cultural salience of ability versus other components of the gender-math stereotype may impact women pursuing math." Through the experiment comparing the math outcomes of women under two various gender-math stereotype components, which are the ability of math and the effort on math respectively, Thoman and others found that women’s math performance is more likely to be affected by the negative ability stereotype, which is influenced by sociocultural beliefs in the United States, rather than the effort component. As a result of this experiment and the sociocultural beliefs in the United States, Thoman and others concluded that individuals' academic outcomes can be affected by the gender-math stereotype component that is influenced by the sociocultural beliefs.[63]
In the World Values Survey, responders were asked if they thought that wage work should be restricted to only men in the case of shortage in jobs. While in Iceland the proportion that agreed was 3.6 percent, in Egypt it was 94.9 percent.[64]
Some people believe a phenomenon known as stereotype threat can lower women's performance on mathematics tests, creating a self-fulfilling stereotype of women having inferior quantitative skills compared to men.[65][66] Stereotypes can also affect self-assessment; studies found that specific stereotypes (e.g., women have lower mathematical abilities) affect women's and men's perceptions of those abilities, and men assess their own task ability higher than women who perform at the same level. These "biased self-assessments" have far-reaching effects, because they can shape men and women's educational and career decisions.[67][68]
In language[edit]
Sexism in language exists when language devalues members of a certain gender.[69] Sexist language in many instances promotes male superiority.[70] Sexism in language affects consciousness, perceptions of reality, encoding and transmitting cultural meanings and socialization.[69] Researchers have pointed to the semantic rule in operation in language of the male-as-norm.[71] This results in sexism as the male becomes the standard and those who are not male are relegated to the inferior.[71] Sexism in language is considered a form of indirect sexism, in that it is not always overt.[72]
Examples include:
The use of generic masculine terms to reference a group of mixed gender, such as "mankind", "man" (referring to humanity), "guys", or "officers and men"
The use of the singular masculine pronoun (he, his, him) as the default to refer to a person of unknown gender
Terms ending in "-man" that may be performed by those of non-male genders, such as businessman, chairman, or policeman
The ordering of words in phrases like "man and wife"
The use of unnecessary gender markers, such as "male nurse" implying that simply a "nurse" is by default assumed to be female.[73]
Sexist and gender-neutral language[edit]
See also: Gender-neutral language
Various feminist movements in the 20th century, from liberal feminism and radical feminism to standpoint feminism, postmodern feminism and queer theory have all considered language in their theorizing.[74] Most of these theories have maintained a critical stance on language that calls for a change in the way speakers use their language.
One of the most common calls is for gender-neutral language. Many have called attention, however, to the fact that the English language isn't inherently sexist in its linguistic system, but rather the way it is used becomes sexist and gender-neutral language could thus be employed.[75] At the same time, other oppose critiques of sexism in language with explanations that language is a descriptive, rather than prescriptive, and attempts to control it can be fruitless.[76]
Sexism in languages other than English[edit]
Romanic languages such as French[77] and Spanish[78] may be seen as reinforcing sexism, in that the masculine form is the default form. The word 'mademoiselle', meaning miss was declared banished from French administrative forms in 2012 by Prime Minister François Fillon.[77] Current pressure calls for the use of the masculine plural pronoun as the default in a mixed-sex group to change.[79] As to Spanish, Mexico's Ministry of the Interior published a guide on how to reduce the use of sexist language.[78]
German speakers have also raised questions about how sexism intersects with grammar.[80]
In Chinese, some writers have pointed to sexism inherent in the structure of written characters. For example, the character for man is linked to those for positive qualities like courage and effect while the character for wife is composed of a female part and a broom, considered of low worth.[81]
Gender-specific pejorative terms[edit]
Gender-specific pejorative terms intimidate or harm another person because of their gender. Sexism can be expressed in language with negative gender-oriented implications,[82] such as condescension. For example, one may refer to a female as a "girl" rather than a "woman" or a male as a "boy" rather than a man, implying that they are subordinate or not fully mature. Other examples include obscene language. Some words are offensive to transgender people, including "tranny", "she-male", or "he-she". Intentional misgendering (assigning the wrong gender to someone) and the pronoun "it" are also considered pejorative.[83][84]
Occupational sexism[edit]
Main article: Occupational sexism
Occupational sexism refers to discriminatory practices, statements or actions, based on a person's sex, occurring in the workplace. One form of occupational sexism is wage discrimination.
In 2008, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) found that while female employment rates have expanded and gender employment and wage gaps have narrowed nearly everywhere, on average women still have 20 percent less chance to have a job and are paid 17 percent less than men.[85] The report stated:

[In] many countries, labour market discrimination—i.e. the unequal treatment of equally productive individuals only because they belong to a specific group—is still a crucial factor inflating disparities in employment and the quality of job opportunities [...] Evidence presented in this edition of the Employment Outlook suggests that about 8 percent of the variation in gender employment gaps and 30 percent of the variation in gender wage gaps across OECD countries can be explained by discriminatory practices in the labour market.[85][86]
It also found that despite the fact that almost all OECD countries, including the U.S.,[87] have established anti-discrimination laws, these laws are difficult to enforce.[85]
A 2014 study by Wendy M. Williams and Stephen J. Ceci found that female applicants are preferred 2:1 over identically qualified male applicants in academic hiring.[88][89]
Women who enter predominantly male work groups can experience the negative consequences of tokenism: performance pressures, social isolation, and role encapsulation.[90] Tokenism could be used to camouflage sexism, to preserve male worker's advantage in the workplace.[90] No link exists between the proportion of women working in an organization/company and the improvement of their working conditions. Ignoring sexist issues may exacerbate women’s occupational problems.[91]
Wage gap[edit]
Main article: Gender pay gap

Bar graph showing the gender pay gap in European countries

 Gender pay gap in average gross hourly earnings according to Eurostat 2008[92]
Studies have concluded that on average women earn lower wages than men worldwide. Some economists and feminists argue that this is the result of widespread gender discrimination in the workplace. Others argue that the wage gap is a result of different choices by men and women, such as women placing more value than men on having children, and men being more likely than women to choose careers in high paying fields such as business, engineering and technology. The prevailing view among economists is that the wage gap is the result of a combination of both of these factors.
Eurostat found a persistent, average gender pay gap of 17.5 percent in the 27 EU member states in 2008.[92] Similarly, the OECD found that female full-time employees earned 17 percent less than their male counterparts in OECD countries in 2009.[85][86]
In the United States, the female-to-male earnings ratio was 0.77 in 2009; female full-time, year-round (FTYR) workers earned 77 percent as much as male FTYR workers. Women's earnings relative to men's fell from 1960 to 1980 (60.7 percent to 60.2 percent), rose rapidly from 1980 to 1990 (60.2 to 71.6 percent), leveled off from 1990 to 2000 (71.6 to 73.7 percent) and rose from 2000 to 2009 (73.7 to 77.0 percent).[93][94] When the first Equal Pay Act was passed in 1963, female full-time workers earned 58.9 percent as much as male full-time workers.[93]
Research conducted in the Czech and Slovak Republics shows that, even after the governments passed anti-discrimination legislation, two thirds of the gender gap in wages remained unexplained and segregation continued to "represent a major source of the gap".[95]
The gender gap can also vary across-occupation and within occupation. In Taiwan, for example, studies show how the bulk of gender wage discrepancies occur within-occupation.[96] In Russia, research shows that the gender wage gap is distributed unevenly across income levels, and that it mainly occurs at the lower end of income distribution.[97] The research also found that "wage arrears and payment in-kind attenuated wage discrimination, particularly amongst the lowest paid workers, suggesting that Russian enterprise managers assigned lowest importance to equity considerations when allocating these forms of payment."[97]
The gender pay gap has been attributed to differences in personal and workplace characteristics between men and women (such as education, hours worked and occupation), innate behavioral and biological differences between men and women and discrimination in the labor market (such as gender stereotypes and customer and employer bias). Women currently take significantly more time off to raise children than men.[98] In certain countries such as South Korea, it has also been a long-established practice to lay-off female employees upon marriage.[99] A study by professor Linda Babcock in her book Women Don't Ask shows that men are eight times more likely to ask for a pay raise, suggesting that pay inequality may be partly a result of behavioral differences between the sexes.[100] However, studies generally find that a portion of the gender pay gap remains unexplained after accounting for factors assumed to influence earnings; the unexplained portion of the wage gap is attributed to gender discrimination.[101]
Estimates of the discriminatory component of the gender pay gap vary. The OECD estimated that approximately 30 percent of the gender pay gap across OECD countries is due to discrimination.[85] Australian research shows that discrimination accounts for approximately 60 percent of the wage differential between men and women.[102][103] Studies examining the gender pay gap in the United States show that a large portion of the wage differential remains unexplained, after controlling for factors affecting pay. One study of college graduates found that the portion of the pay gap unexplained after all other factors are taken into account is five percent one year after graduating and twelve percent a decade after graduation.[104][105][106][107] A study by the American Association of University Women (AAUW) found that women graduates in the United States are paid less than men doing the same work and majoring in the same field.[108]



 Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by sex, race, and ethnicity, U.S., 2009.[109]
Wage discrimination is theorized as contradicting the economic concept of supply and demand, which states that if a good or service (in this case, labor) is in demand and has value it will find its price in the market. If a worker offered equal value for less pay, supply and demand would indicate a greater demand for lower-paid workers. If a business hired lower-wage workers for the same work, it would lower its costs and enjoy a competitive advantage. According to supply and demand, if women offered equal value demand (and wages) should rise since they offer a better price (lower wages) for their service than men do.[110]
Research at Cornell University and elsewhere indicates that mothers in the United States are less likely to be hired than equally-qualified fathers and, if hired, receive a lower salary than male applicants with children.[111][112][113][114][115][116] The OECD found that "a significant impact of children on women’s pay is generally found in the United Kingdom and the United States".[117] Fathers earn $7,500 more, on average, than men without children do.[118]
 Possible causes for wage discrimination[edit]
According to Denise Venable at the National Center for Policy Analysis, the "wage gap" in the United States is not the result of discrimination but of differences in lifestyle choices. Venable's report found that women are less likely than men to sacrifice personal happiness for increases in income or to choose full-time work. She found that among American adults working between one and thirty-five hours a week and part-time workers who have never been married, women earn more than men. Venable also found that among people aged 27 to 33 who have never had a child, women's earnings approach 98 percent of men's and "women who hold positions and have skills and experience similar to those of men face wage disparities of less than 10 percent, and many are within a couple of points".[119] Venable concluded that women and men with equal skills and opportunities in the same positions face little or no wage discrimination: "Claims of unequal pay almost always involve comparing apples and oranges".
There is considerable agreement that gender wage discrimination exists, however, when it comes to estimating its magnitude, significant discrepancies are visible. A meta-regression analysis concludes that "the estimated gender gap has been steadily declining" and that the wage rate calculation is proven to be crucial in estimating the wage gap.[120] The analysis further notes that excluding experience and failing to correct for selection bias from analysis might also bring to incorrect conclusions.
Glass ceiling effect[edit]
Main article: Glass ceiling
"The popular notion of glass ceiling effects implies that gender (or other) disadvantages are stronger at the top of the hierarchy than at lower levels and that these disadvantages become worse later in a person's career."[121]
In the United States, women account for 47 percent of the overall labor force, and yet they make up only 6 percent of corporate CEOs and top executives.[122] Some researchers see the root cause of this situation in the tacit discrimination based on gender, conducted by current top executives and corporate directors (primarily male), as well as "the historic absence of women in top positions", which “may lead to hysteresis, preventing women from accessing powerful, male-dominated professional networks, or same-sex mentors”.[122] The glass ceiling effect is noted as being especially persistent for women of color (according to a report, "women of colour perceive a 'concrete ceiling' and not simply a glass ceiling").[122]
In the economics profession, it has been observed that women are more inclined than men to dedicate their time to teaching and service. Since continuous research work is crucial for promotion, "the cumulative effect of small, contemporaneous differences in research orientation could generate the observed significant gender difference in promotion".[123] In the high-tech industry, research shows that, regardless of the intra-firm changes, "extra-organizational pressures will likely contribute to continued gender stratification as firms upgrade, leading to the potential masculinization of skilled high-tech work".[124]
The United Nations asserts that "progress in bringing women into leadership and decision making positions around the world remains far too slow."[125]
Potential remedies[edit]
Research by David Matsa and Amalia Miller suggests that a possible remedy to the glass ceiling could be increasing the number of women on corporate boards, which could subsequently lead to increases in the number of women working in top management positions.[122] The same research suggests that this could also result in a "feedback cycle in which the presence of more female managers increases the qualified pool of potential female board members (for the companies they manage, as well as other companies), leading to greater female board membership and then further increases in female executives."[125]
Weight based sexism[edit]
A 2009 study found that being overweight harms women's career advancement, but presents no barrier for men. Overweight women were significantly underrepresented among company bosses, making up between 5% and 22% of female CEOs. However, the proportion of overweight male CEOs was between 45% and 61%, over-representing overweight men. On the other hand, approximately 5% of CEOs were obese among both genders. The author of the study stated that the results suggest that "the 'glass ceiling effect' on women's advancement may reflect not only general negative stereotypes about the competencies of women, but also weight bias that results in the application of stricter appearance standards to women." [126][127]
Transgender discrimination[edit]
See also: Transgender inequality
Transgender people also experience significant workplace discrimination and harassment.[128] Unlike sex-based discrimination, refusing to hire (or firing) a worker for their gender identity or expression is not explicitly illegal in most U.S. states.[129]
Objectification[edit]



 An example of sexual objectification of women on a wine menu[original research?]
Objectification is treating a person, usually a woman, as an object.[130] Feminist writer and gender equality activist Joy Goh-Mah argues that by being objectified, a person is denied agency.[131] Sexual objectification is where a person is viewed primarily in terms of sexual appeal or as a source of sexual gratification. This is sometimes regarded as a form of sexism.[132] Nussbaum[133] has identified the seven features of treating a human as an object as the following:
1.instrumentality: treating the object as a tool for the objectifier's purposes
2.denial of autonomy: treating the object as lacking in autonomy and self-determination
3.inertness: treating the object as lacking in agency
4.fungibility: treating the object as interchangeable with other objects
5.violability: treating the object as lacking in boundaries-integrity
6.ownership: treating the object as something that is owned by another (can be bought or sold);
7.denial of subjectivity: treating the object as something whose experiences and feelings (if any) need not be taken into account.
According to objectification theory objectification can have important repercussions on women, particularly young women, as it can lead to mental disorders (depression, eating disorders, etc.).[134]
In advertising[edit]
While advertising used to portray women in obviously stereotypical roles (e.g., as a housewife), women in modern advertisements are no longer solely confined to the home. However, advertising today nonetheless still stereotypes women, albeit in more subtle ways, including by sexually objectifying them.[135][136] This is problematic because there appears to be a relationship between the manner in which women are portrayed in advertising and people’s ideas about the role of women in society.[135] Research has shown that gender role stereotyping in advertising is linked to negative attitudes towards women, as well as more acceptance of sexual aggression against women and rape myth acceptance.[135] Furthermore, gender role stereotyping in advertisements may be injurious to women, as it is linked to negative body image and the development of eating disorders.[137]
Today, some countries (for example Norway and Denmark) have laws against sexual objectification in advertising.[138] Nudity is not banned, and nude people can be used to advertise a product if they are relevant to the product advertised. Sol Olving, head of Norway's Kreativt Forum (an association of the country's top advertising agencies) explained, "You could have a naked person advertising shower gel or a cream, but not a woman in a bikini draped across a car".[138]
Other countries continue to ban nudity (on traditional obscenity grounds), but also make explicit reference to sexual objectification, such as Israel's ban of billboards that "depicts sexual humiliation or abasement, or presents a human being as an object available for sexual use".[139]
Pornography[edit]
See also: Feminist views on pornography
Anti-pornography feminist Catharine MacKinnon argues that pornography contributes to sexism by objectifying women and portraying them in submissive roles.[140] MacKinnon, along with Andrea Dworkin, argues that pornography reduces women to mere tools, and is a form of sex discrimination.[141] The scholars highlight the link between objectification and pornography by stating:
"We define pornography as the graphic sexually explicit subordination of women through pictures and words that also includes (i) women are presented dehumanized as sexual objects, things, or commodities; or (ii) women are presented as sexual objects who enjoy humiliation or pain; or (iii) women are presented as sexual objects experiencing sexual pleasure in rape, incest or other sexual assault; or (iv) women are presented as sexual objects tied up, cut up or mutilated or bruised or physically hurt; or (v) women are presented in postures or positions of sexual submission, servility, or display; or (vi) women's body parts—including but not limited to vaginas, breasts, or buttocks — are exhibited such that women are reduced to those parts; or (vii) women are presented being penetrated by objects or animals; or (viii) women are presented in scenarios of degradation, humiliation, injury, torture, shown as filthy or inferior, bleeding, bruised, or hurt in a context that makes these conditions sexual."[142] Robin Morgan and Catharine MacKinnon suggest that certain types of pornography also contribute to violence against women by eroticizing scenes in which women are dominated, coerced, humiliated or sexually assaulted.[143][144]
Some people opposed to pornography, including MacKinnon, charge that the production of pornography entails physical, psychological and economic coercion of the women who perform and model in it.[145][146][147] Opponents of pornography charge that it presents a distorted image of sexual relations and reinforces sexual myths; it shows women as continually available and willing to engage in sex at any time, with any person, on their terms, responding positively to any requests. They write:

Pornography affects people's belief in rape myths. So for example if a woman says "I didn't consent" and people have been viewing pornography, they believe rape myths and believe the woman did consent no matter what she said. That when she said no, she meant yes. When she said she didn't want to, that meant more beer. When she said she would prefer to go home, that means she's a lesbian who needs to be given a good corrective experience. Pornography promotes these rape myths and desensitizes people to violence against women so that you need more violence to become sexually aroused if you're a pornography consumer. This is very well documented.[148]
Defenders of pornography and anti-censorship activists (including sex-positive feminists) argue that pornography does not seriously impact a mentally healthy individual, since the viewer can distinguish between fantasy and reality.[149] They contend that both sexes are objectified in pornography (particularly sadistic or masochistic pornography, in which men are objectified and sexually used by women).[150]
Prostitution[edit]
Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in sexual relations in exchange for payment.[151][152] Sex workers are often objectified and are seen as existing only to serve clients, thus calling their sense of agency into question. There is a prevailing notion that because they sell sex professionally, prostitutes automatically consent to all sexual contact.[153] As a result, sex workers face higher rates of violence and sexual assault. This is often dismissed, ignored and not taken seriously by authorities.[153]
In many countries, prostitution is dominated by brothels or pimps, who often claim ownership over sex workers. This sense of ownership furthers the concept that sex workers are void of agency.[citation needed] This is literally the case in instances of sexual slavery.
Various authors have argued that female prostitution is based on male sexism that condones the idea that unwanted sex with a woman is acceptable, that men's desires must be satisfied, and that women are coerced into and exist to serve men sexually.[154][155][156][157] The European Women's Lobby condemned prostitution as "an intolerable form of male violence".[158]
Carole Pateman writes that:[159]
"Prostitution is the use of a woman's body by a man for his own satisfaction. There is no desire or satisfaction on the part of the prostitute. Prostitution is not mutual, pleasurable exchange of the use of bodies, but the unilateral use of a woman's body by a man in exchange for money."
Media portrayals[edit]
Some scholars believe that media portrayals of demographic groups can both maintain and disrupt attitudes and behaviors toward those groups.[160][page needed][161][162][page needed] According to Susan Douglas, "Since the early 1990s, much of the media have come to overrepresent women as having made it-completely-in the professions, as having gained sexual equality with men, and having achieved a level of financial success and comfort enjoyed primarily by Tiffany's-encrusted doyennes of Laguna Beach."[163] These images may be harmful, particularly to women and racial and ethnic minority groups. For example, a study of African American women found they feel that media portrayals of African American women often reinforce stereotypes of this group as overly sexual and idealize images of lighter-skinned, thinner African American women (images African American women describe as objectifying).[164] In a recent analysis of images of Haitian women in the Associated Press photo archive from 1994 to 2009, several themes emerged emphasizing the "otherness" of Haitian women and characterizing them as victims in need of rescue.[165]
In an attempt to study the effect of media consumption on males, Samantha and Bridges found an effect on body shame, though not through self-objectification as it was found in comparable studies of women. The authors conclude that the current measures of objectification were designed for women and do not measure men accurately.[166] Another study also found a negative effect on eating attitudes and body satisfaction of consumption of beauty and fitness magazines for women and men respectively, but again with different mechanisms, namely self-objectification for women and internalization for men.[167]
Sexist jokes[edit]
Frederick Attenborough argues that sexist jokes can be a form of sexual objectification, which reduce the butt of the joke to an object. They not only objectify women or men, but can also condone violence or prejudice against men or women.[168] "Sexist humor—the denigration of women through humor—for instance, trivializes sex discrimination under the veil of benign amusement, thus precluding challenges or opposition that nonhumorous sexist communication would likely incur."[169] A study of 73 male undergraduate students by Ford found that "sexist humor can promote the behavioral expression of prejudice against women amongst sexist men".[169] According to the study, when sexism is presented in a humorous manner it is viewed as tolerable and socially acceptable: "Disparagement of women through humor 'freed' sexist participants from having to conform to the more general and more restrictive norms regarding discrimination against women."[169]
Gender discrimination[edit]
Gender discrimination is discrimination on the basis of actual or perceived gender identity.[citation needed] Gender identity is "the gender-related identity, appearance, or mannerisms or other gender-related characteristics of an individual, with or without regard to the individual's designated sex at birth."[170] Gender discrimination is theoretically different from sexism.[171] Whereas sexism is prejudice based on biological sex, gender discrimination specifically addresses discrimination towards identity based orientations, including third gender, genderqueer, and other non-binary identified people.[172] Banning discrimination on the basis of gender identity and expression has emerged as a subject of contention in the American legal system.[173]
According to a recent report by the Congressional Research Service, "although the majority of federal courts to consider the issue have concluded that discrimination on the basis of gender identity is not sex discrimination, there have been several courts that have reached the opposite conclusion..."[170] Hurst states, "Courts often confuse sex, gender and sexual orientation, and confuse them in a way that results in denying the rights not only of gays and lesbians, but also of those who do not present themselves or act in a manner traditionally expected of their sex."[174]
Transgender discrimination[edit]
Transgender discrimination is discrimination towards peoples whose gender identity differs from the social expectations of the biological sex they were born with.[175] Forms of discrimination include but are not limited to identity documents not reflecting one's gender, sex-segregated public restrooms and other facilities, dress codes according to binary gender codes, and lack of access to and existence of appropriate health care services.[176] In a recent adjudication, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) concluded that discrimination against a transgendered individual is sex discrimination.[176]
The National Transgender Discrimination Survey, the most extensive survey of transgender discrimination, in collaboration with the National Black Justice Coalition recently showed that Black transgender people in the United States suffer "the combination of anti-transgender bias and persistent, structural and individual racism" and that "black transgender people live in extreme poverty that is more than twice the rate for transgender people of all races (15%), four times the general Black population rate 9% and over eight times the general US population rate (4%)".[177] In another study conducted in collaboration with the League of United Latin American Citizens, Latino/a transgender people who were non-citizens were most vulnerable to harassment, abuse and violence.[178]
Examples[edit]
Sexism takes a number of forms, and is sometimes subtle or unconscious.
Health[edit]
Domestic violence[edit]
Main article: Domestic violence
Further information: Honor killing, Acid throwing and Dowry death



 Acid attack victim in Cambodia
Although the exact rates are widely disputed, there is a large body of cross-cultural evidence that women are subjected to domestic violence significantly more often than men.[179][180][181] In addition, there is broad consensus that women are more often subjected to severe forms of abuse and are more likely to be injured by an abusive partner.[180][181] The United Nations recognizes domestic violence as a form of gender-based violence, which it describes as a human rights violation, and the result of sexism.[182]
Domestic violence is tolerated and even legally accepted in many parts of the world. For instance, in 2010, the United Arab Emirates (UAE)'s Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to physically discipline his wife and children if he does not leave visible marks.[183] In 2015, Equality Now drew attention a section of the Penal Code of Northern Nigeria, titled Correction of Child, Pupil, Servant or Wife which reads: "(1) Nothing is an offence which does not amount to the infliction of grievous hurt upon any persons which is done: (...) (d) by a husband for the purpose of correcting his wife, such husband and wife being subject to any native law or custom in which such correction is recognized as lawful."[184]
Honor killings are another form of domestic violence practiced in several parts of the world, and their victims are predominately women.[185] Honor killings can occur because of refusal to enter into an arranged marriage, maintaining a relationship relatives disapprove of, extramarital sex, becoming the victim of rape, dress seen as inappropriate, or homosexuality.[186][187][188] The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime states that, "Honour crimes, including killing, are one of history’s oldest forms of gender-based violence."[189]
According to a report of the Special Rapporteur submitted to the 58th session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights concerning cultural practices in the family that reflect violence against women:

The Special Rapporteur indicated that there had been contradictory decisions with regard to the honour defense in Brazil, and that legislative provisions allowing for partial or complete defense in that context could be found in the penal codes of Argentina, Ecuador, Egypt, Guatemala, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Peru, Syria, Venezuela and the Palestinian National Authority.[190]
Practices such as honor killings and stoning continue to be supported by mainstream politicians and other officials in some countries. In Pakistan, after the 2008 Balochistan honour killings in which five women were killed by tribesmen of the Umrani Tribe of Balochistan, Pakistani Federal Minister for Postal Services Israr Ullah Zehri defended the practice:[191] "These are centuries-old traditions, and I will continue to defend them. Only those who indulge in immoral acts should be afraid."[192] Following the 2006 case of Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani (which has placed Iran under international pressure for its stoning sentences), Mohammad-Javad Larijani (a senior envoy and chief of Iran’s Human Rights Council) defended the practice of stoning; he claimed it was a "lesser punishment" than execution, because it allowed those convicted a chance at survival.[193]
Dowry deaths are the result of the killing women who are unable to pay the high dowry price for their marriage. According to Amnesty International, "the ongoing reality of dowry-related violence is an example of what can happen when women are treated as property."[194]
Gendercide and forced sterilization[edit]



 Female infanticide is still a major problem in India.
Female infanticide is the killing of newborn female children or the termination of a female fetus through selective abortion. It is a form of gendercide, and is an extreme form of gender-based violence.[195][196][197] Female infanticide is more common than male infanticide, and is especially prevalent in Southeast Asia, such as parts of India and China.[196][198][199] Recent studies suggest that over 90 million girls and women are missing in China and India as a result of infanticide.[200][201]
Sex-selective abortion involves terminating a pregnancy based upon the predicted sex of the baby. The abortion of female fetuses is most common in areas where the culture values male children over females,[202] such as parts of the China, India, Pakistan, Korea, Taiwan, and the Caucasus.[202][203] One reason for this preference is that males are seen as generating more income than females. The trend has grown steadily over the previous decade, and may result in a future shortage of women.[204]
Forced sterilization and forced abortion are also forms of gender-based violence.[195] Forced sterilization was practiced during the first half of the 20th century by many Western countries and there are reports of this practice being currently employed in some countries, such as Uzbekistan and China.[205][206][207][208]
Female genital mutilation[edit]



 Campaign against female genital mutilation in Uganda.
Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting and female circumcision, is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons". WHO states that, "The procedure has no health benefits for girls and women" and "[p]rocedures can cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, and later cysts, infections, infertility as well as complications in childbirth increased risk of newborn death"[209] and "FGM is recognized internationally as a violation of the human rights of girls and women. It reflects deep-rooted inequality between the sexes, and constitutes an extreme form of discrimination against women".[209] The European Parliament, in its resolution against FGM, stated that "FGM clearly goes against the European founding value of equality between women and men and maintains traditional values according to which women are seen as the objects and properties of men".[210]
According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 125 million women and girls in Africa and the Middle East have experienced FGM.[211] The highest prevalence in Africa is documented in Somalia (98 percent of women affected), Guinea (96 percent), Djibouti (93 percent), Egypt (91 percent), Eritrea (89 percent), Mali (89 percent), Sierra Leone (88 percent), Sudan (88 percent), Gambia (76 percent), Burkina Faso (76 percent), Ethiopia (74 percent), Mauritania (69 percent), Liberia (66 percent), and Guinea-Bissau (50 percent).[211]
Infibulation, the most extreme form of FGM, also known as Type III, consists in the removal of the inner and outer labia and closure of the vulva, with a small hole being left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood. Subsequently, the vagina is opened after the wedding for sexual intercourse and childbirth. This procedure is practiced primary in Northeast Africa, in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan.[212]
Sexual assault and treatment of victims[edit]



 People in Bangalore, India, demanding justice for a young student who was gang-raped in Delhi in December 2012.
Research by Lisak and Roth into factors motivating perpetrators of sexual assault, including rape, against women revealed a pattern of hatred towards women and pleasure in inflicting psychological and physical trauma, rather than sexual interest.[213] Mary Odem and Peggy Reeves Sanday posit that rape is the result not of pathology but of systems of male dominance, cultural practices and beliefs.[214]
Mary Odem, Jody Clay-Warner, and Susan Brownmiller argue that sexist attitudes are propagated by a series of myths about rape and rapists.[215] :130–140 [216] They state that in contrast to those myths, rapists often plan a rape before they choose a victim[215] and acquaintance rape (not assault by a stranger) is the most common form of rape.[215]:xiv[217] Odem also asserts that these rape myths propagate sexist attitudes about men, by perpetuating the belief that men cannot control their sexuality.[215]
Jaclyn Friedman and Jessica Valenti contend that in the US rape is most often popularly depicted (in the media, in public discourse, in movies etc.) as stranger-rape (with a stereotypical stranger who "jumps out of the bushes"), despite the fact that most rapes do not fit this stereotype. In presenting rape in this way to the public, patriarchal society ensures that women are kept under control, at home/indoors, living their life according to traditional gender roles and expectations, dressed 'modestly'. This leads to an ideology that women are safe at home (ignoring rape by family members/partners), and to blaming of victims.[218][page needed]
Sexism can promote the stigmatization of women and girls who have been raped and inhibit recovery.[219] In many parts of the world, women who have been raped are ostracized, rejected by their families, subjected to violence, and—in extreme cases—may become victims of honor killings because they are deemed to have brought shame upon their families.[219][220]
There is also a strong connection between rape and forced marriage, through practices such as forcing of a woman or girl who has been raped to marry her rapist, in order to restore the honor of her family;[219][221] or marriage by abduction, a practice in which a man abducts the woman or girl whom he wishes to marry and rapes her, in order to force the marriage (common in Ethiopia).[222][223][224] The criminalization of marital rape is very recent, having occurred during the past few decades; and in many countries it is still legal. Several countries in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia made spousal rape illegal before 1970; other countries in Western Europe and the English-speaking Western World outlawed it later, mostly in the 1980s and 1990s.[225] In some parts of the world the lack of criminalization of marital rape coupled with the practice of child marriage leads to serious forms of child sexual abuse being legitimized. The WHO wrote that: "Marriage is often used to legitimize a range of forms of sexual violence against women. The custom of marrying off young children, particularly girls, is found in many parts of the world. This practice—legal in many countries—is a form of sexual violence, since the children involved are unable to give or withhold their consent".[219]
In countries where fornication or adultery are illegal, victims of rape can be charged under these laws (even if the victims succeed in proving their rape case, they can still be charged with a criminal offense if the court finds they were not virgins at the time of the assault—if they were unmarried).[226]
War rape[edit]
Main article: War rape



 Meeting of victims of sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Sexism is manifested by the crime of rape targeting women civilians and soldiers, committed by soldiers, combatants or civilians during armed conflict, war or military occupation. This arises from the long tradition of women being seen as sexual booty and from the misogynistic culture of military training.[227][228]
Sexual violence and rape are also committed against men during war and are often under-reported. Sexism plays a significant part in the difficulty that the survivors face coping with their victimization, especially in patriarchal cultures, and in the lack of support provided to men who have been raped.[229]
Reproductive rights[edit]
The United Nations Population Fund writes that "Family planning is central to gender equality and women’s empowerment".[230] Women in many countries around the world are denied medical and informational services related to reproductive health, including access to pregnancy care, family planning, and contraception.[230][231] In countries with very strict abortion laws (particularly in Latin America) women who suffer miscarriagess are often investigated by the police under suspicion of having deliberately provoked the miscarriage, and are sometimes jailed,[232] a practice which Amnesty International called a "ruthless campaign against women's rights".[233] Doctors may be reluctant to treat pregnant women who are very ill, because they are afraid the treatment may result in fetal loss.[234] According to Amnesty Intentional, "Discriminatory attitudes towards women and girls also means access to sex education and contraceptives are near impossible [in El Salvador]".[235] The organization has also criticized laws and policies which require the husband's consent for a woman to use reproductive health services as being discriminatory and dangerous to women's health and life: "[F]or the woman who needs her husband’s consent to get contraception, the consequences of discrimination can be serious – even fatal".[236]
Child marriage[edit]
Main article: Child marriage
Further information: Dowry and Bride price
A child marriage is a marriage where one or both spouses are under 18, and disproportionally affects women.[237][237][238] Child marriages are most common in South Asia, the Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa, but occur in other parts of the world, too. The practice of marrying young girls is rooted in patriarchal ideologies of control of female behavior, and is also sustained by traditional practices such as dowry and bride price.[239] Child marriage is strongly connected with the protection of female virginity.[240] UNICEF states that:[237]
"Marrying girls under 18 years old is rooted in gender discrimination, encouraging premature and continuous child bearing and giving preference to boys' education. Child marriage is also a strategy for economic survival as families marry off their daughters at an early age to reduce their economic burden."
Consequences of child marriage include restricted education and employment prospects, increased risk of domestic violence, child sexual abuse, pregnancy and birth complications, social isolation.[238][240] Early and forced marriage are defined as forms of modern-day slavery by the International Labour Organisation.[241]
According to the UN, the ten countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger (75%), Chad and Central African Republic (68%), Bangladesh (66%), Guinea, Mozambique, Mali, Burkina Faso, South Sudan, and Malawi.[242]
 Legal justice and regulations[edit]
In several OIC countries the legal testimony of a woman is worth legally half of that of a man (see Status of women's testimony in Islam). Such countries include:[243][244] Algeria (in criminal cases), Bahrain (in Sharia courts), Egypt (in family courts), Iran (in most cases), Iraq (in some cases), Jordan (in Sharia courts), Kuwait (in family courts), Libya (in some cases), Morocco (in family cases), Palestine (in cases related to marriage, divorce and child custody), Qatar (in family law matters), Syria (in Sharia courts), United Arab Emirates (in some civil matters), Yemen (not allowed to testify at all in cases of adultery and retribution), and Saudi Arabia. Such laws have been criticized by Human Rights Watch and Equality Now as being discriminatory towards women.[245][246]
The criminal justice system in many common law countries has also been accused of discriminating against women. Provocation is, in many common law countries, a partial defense to murder, which converts what would have been murder into manslaughter. It is meant to be applied when a person kills in the "heat of passion" upon being "provoked" by the behavior of the victim. This defense has been criticized as being gendered, favoring men, due to it being used disproportionately in cases of adultery, and other domestic disputes when women are killed by their partners. As a result of the defense exhibiting a strong gender bias, and being a form of legitimization of male violence against women and minimization of the harm caused by violence against women, it has been abolished or restricted in several jurisdictions.[247][248]
The traditional leniently towards crimes of passion in Latin American countries has been deemed to have its origin in the view that women are property.[249] In 2002, Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, stated that, "[S]o-called crimes of passion have a similar dynamic [to honor killings] in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived as excusable or understandable." [249] The OHCHR has called for "the elimination of discriminatory provisions in the legislation, including mitigating factors for “crimes of passion”."[250]
In the United States, some studies have shown that for identical crimes, men are given harsher sentences than women. Controlling for arrest offense, criminal history and other pre-charge variables, sentences are over 60 percent heavier for men. Women are more likely to avoid charges entirely, and to avoid imprisonment if convicted.[251][252] The gender disparity varies according to the nature of the case. For example, the gender gap is less pronounced in fraud cases than in drug trafficking and firearms. This disparity occurs in US federal courts, despite guidelines designed to avoid differential sentencing.[253] The death penalty in may also suffer from gender bias. According to Shatz and Shatz, "The present study confirms what earlier studies have shown: that the death penalty is imposed on women relatively infrequently and that it is disproportionately imposed for the killing of women."[254]
There have been several reasons postulated for the gender criminal justice disparity in the United States. One of the most common is expectation that women are predominately care-givers.[251][252][253] Other possible reasons include the "girlfriend theory" (whereby women are seen as tools of their boyfriends),[252] the theory that female defendants are more likely to cooperate with authorities,[252] and that women are often successful at turning their violent crime into victimhood by citing defenses such as postpartum depression or battered wife syndrome.[255] However, none of these theories account for the total disparity,[252] and sexism has also been suggested as an underlying cause.[256]
Transgender people face widespread discrimination while incarcerated. They are generally housed according to their legal birth sex, rather than their gender identity. Studies have shown that transgender people are at an increased risk for harassment and sexual assault in this environment. They may also be denied access to medical procedures related to their reassignment.[257]



 A member of the Taliban's religious police beating an Afghan woman in Kabul on August 26, 2001. State violence against women is a form of discrimination against women.
Some countries use stoning as a form of capital punishment. According to Amnesty International, the majority of those stoned are women and women are disproportionately affected by stoning because of sexism in the legal system.[258]
Education[edit]
Main articles: Sex differences in education and Sexism in academia
Women have traditionally had limited access to higher education.[259] In the past, when women were admitted to higher education, they were encouraged to major in less-scientific subjects; the study of English literature in American and British colleges and universities was instituted as a field considered suitable to women's "lesser intellects".[260]
Educational specialties in higher education produce and perpetuate inequality between men and women.[261] Disparity persists particularly in computer and information science, where in the US women received only 21 percent of the undergraduate degrees, and in engineering, where women obtained only 19 percent of the degrees in 2008.[262] Only one out of five of physics doctorates in the US are awarded to women, and only about half of those women are American.[263] Of all the physics professors in the country, only 14 percent are women.[263]
World literacy is lower for females than for males. Data from CIA World Factbook shows that 79.7 percent of women are literate, compared to 88.6 percent of men (aged 15 and over).[264] In some parts of the world, girls continue to be excluded from proper public or private education. In parts of Afghanistan, girls who go to school face serious violence from some local community members and religious groups.[265] According to 2010 UN estimates, only Afghanistan, Pakistan and Yemen had less than 90 girls per 100 boys at school.[266] Jayachandran and Lleras-Muney's study of Sri Lankan economic development has suggested that increases in the life expectancy for women encourages educational investment because a longer time horizon increases the value of investments that pay out over time.[267]
Educational opportunities and outcomes for women have greatly improved in the West. Since 1991, the proportion of women enrolled in college in the United States has exceeded the enrollment rate for men, and the gap has widened over time.[268] As of 2007, women made up the majority—54 percent—of the 10.8 million college students enrolled in the United States.[269] However, research by Diane Halpern has indicated that boys receive more attention, praise, blame and punishment in the grammar-school classroom,[270] and "this pattern of more active teacher attention directed at male students continues at the postsecondary level".[271] Over time, female students speak less in a classroom setting.[272]
Writer Gerry Garibaldi has argued that the educational system has become "feminized", allowing girls more of a chance at success with a more "girl-friendly" environment in the classroom;[273] this is seen to hinder boys by punishing "masculine" behavior and diagnosing boys with behavioral disorders.[274] A recent study by the OECD in over 60 countries found that teachers give boys lower grades for the same work. The researchers attribute this to stereotypical ideas about boys and recommend teachers to be aware of this gender bias.[275]
Fashion[edit]
See also: Foot binding and Burqa



Louis XV in 1712, as a boy, wearing a pink dress


 Children in Rwanda. Notice how all children, regardless of sex, have very short hair (these children are wearing their school uniforms: girls are in skirts and boys in shorts)
Feminists argue that some fashion trends have been oppressive to women; they restrict women's movements, increase their vulnerability and endanger their health.[276] The fashion industry has experienced various criticism, as their association of thin-models and beauty is seen as encouraging bulimia and anorexia nervosa within women, as well as locking female consumers into false feminine identities.[277]
The assignment of gender specific baby clothes from young ages can be seen as sexist as it can instill in children from young ages a belief in negative gender stereotypes.[278] An example of this is the assignment in some countries of the color pink to girls and blue to boys. This fashion, however, is a recent one; at the beginning of the 20th century the trend was the opposite: blue for girls and pink for boys.[279] In the early 1900s, The Women's Journal wrote, "That pink being a more decided and stronger colour, is more suitable for the boy, while blue, which is more delicate and dainty, is prettier for the girl." DressMaker magazine also explained, "The preferred colour to dress young boys in is pink. Blue is reserved for girls as it is considered paler, and the more dainty of the two colours, and pink is thought to be stronger (akin to red)."[280]
Today, in most countries, it is considered inappropriate for boys to wear dresses and skirts, but this, again, is a modern worldview. From the mid-16th century[281] until the late 19th or early 20th century, young boys in the Western world were unbreeched and wore gowns or dresses until an age that varied between two and eight.[282]
Laws that dictate how women must dress are seen by many international human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International, as a form of gender discrimination.[283] Amnesty International states that:[283]
"Interpretations of religion, culture or tradition cannot justify imposing rules about dress on those who choose to dress differently. States should take measures to protect individuals from being coerced to dress in specific ways by family members, community or religious groups or leaders."
In many places, women who do not dress in socially and legally proscribed ways are often subjected to violence (for instance by the authorities, such as the religious police, by family members, or by the community).[284][285]
Conscription[edit]
Main article: Sexism and conscription



 Israeli female soldiers
Conscription, or compulsory military service, has been criticized as sexist.[286][90]:102 Prior to the late 20th century, only men were subjected to conscription,[287][288][289][290][90]:255 and most countries still require only men to serve in the military.
In his book The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men and Boys (2012), philosopher David Benatar states that "[t]he prevailing assumption is that where conscription is necessary, it is only men who should be conscripted and, similarly, that only males should be forced into combat". This, he believes, "is a sexist assumption".[90]:102 Anthropologist Ayse Gül Altinay has commented that "given equal suffrage rights, there is no other citizenship practice that differentiates as radically between men and women as compulsory male conscription."[97]:34
Currently, only nine countries conscript women into their armed forces: China, Eritrea, Israel, Libya, Malaysia, North Korea, Norway, Peru and Taiwan.[291][292] Other countries—such as Finland, Turkey, and Singapore—still use a system of conscription which requires military service from only men, although women are permitted to serve voluntarily. In 2014, Norway became the first NATO country to introduce obligatory military service for women as an act of gender equality.[292][293] The gender selective draft has been challenged in Switzerland[291] and the United States.[294]
See also[edit]
Ageism
Airline sex discrimination policy controversy
Antifeminism
Face-ism
Femicide
Gender apartheid
Gender bias on Wikipedia
Gender-blind
Separatist feminism
Equity and gender feminism
Gender discrimination in Pakistan
Gender egalitarianism
Gender neutrality
Glass cliff
Gender inequality
Gender polarization
Heterosexism
Hypermasculinity
Intersectionality
LGBT stereotypes
Male privilege
Masculinity
Masculism
Men and feminism
Men's rights movement
Misandry
Misogyny
Misogyny in horror films
Missing women of Asia
National Organization for Men Against Sexism
National Organization for Women
Occupational sexism
Patriarchy
Rape culture
Sex Roles (journal)
Sex segregation
Sexism in the technology industry
Sexism in India
Transphobia
Triple oppression
Victim blaming
Wife selling
Women's rights
References[edit]
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"Sexism". Encyclopedia Britannica, Online Academic Edition. 2015. Defines sexism as "prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls." Notes that "sexism in a society is most commonly applied against women and girls. It functions to maintain patriarchy, or male domination, through ideological and material practices of individuals, collectives, and institutions that oppress women and girls on the basis of sex or gender."
Cudd, Ann E.; Jones, Leslie E. (2005). "Sexism". A Companion to Applied Ethics. London: Blackwell. Notes that "'Sexism' refers to a historically and globally pervasive form of oppression against women."
Masequesmay, Gina (2008). "Sexism". In O'Brien, Jodi. Encyclopedia of Gender and Society. SAGE. Notes that "sexism usually refers to prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls." Also states that "sexism is an ideology or practices that maintain patriarchy or male domination."
Hornsby, Jennifer (2005). "Sexism". In Honderich, Ted. The Oxford Companion to Philsophy (2 ed.). Oxford. Defines sexism as "thought or practice which may permeate language and which assume's women's inferiority to men."
"Sexism". Collins Dictionary of Sociology. Harper Collins. 2006. Defines sexism as "any devaluation or denigration of women or men, but particularly women, which is embodied in institutions and social relationships."
"Sexism". Palgrave MacMillan Dictionary of Political Thought. Palgrave MacMillan. 2007. Notes that "either sex may be the object of sexist attitudes... however, it is commonly held that, in developed societies, women have been the usual victims."
"Sexism". The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Love, Courtship, and Sexuality through History, Volume 6: The Modern World. Greenwood. 2007. "Sexism is any act, attitude, or institutional configuration that systematically subordinates or devalues women. Built upon the belief that men and women are constitutionally different, sexism takes these differences as indications that men are inherently superior to women, which then is used to justify the nearly universal dominance of men in social and familial relationships, as well as politics, religion, language, law, and economics."
Foster, Carly Hayden (2011). "Sexism". In Kurlan, George Thomas. The Encyclopedia of Political Science. CQ Press. ISBN 9781608712434.  Notes that "both men and women can experience sexism, but sexism against women is more pervasive."
Johnson, Allan G. (2000). "Sexism". The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology. Blackwell. Suggests that "the key test of whether something is sexist... lies in its consequences: if it supports male privilege, then it is by definition sexist. I specify 'male privilege' because in every known society where gender inequality exists, males are privileged over females."
Lorber, Judith (2011). Gender Inequality: Feminist Theories and Politics. Oxford University Press. p. 5. Notes that "although we speak of gender inequality, it is usually women who are disadvantaged relative to similarly situated men."
Wortman, Camille B.; Loftus, Elizabeth S.; Weaver, Charles A (1999). Psychology. McGraw-Hill. "As throughout history, today women are the primary victims of sexism, prejudice directed at one sex, even in the United States."
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27.Jump up ^ "Lesson - The French Civil Code (Napoleonic Code) - Teaching Women’s Rights From Past to Present". Womeninworldhistory.com. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
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31.Jump up ^ Amnesty International (2009) Yemen's dark side: Discrimination and violence against women and girls. Retrieved 17 April 2015 from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf
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33.Jump up ^ "THE WAR WITHIN THE WAR". Hrw.org. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
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40.Jump up ^ World Organization Against Torture. (2009) Combating extrajudicial executions, enforced disappearances, torture and other cruel, inhumane and degrading treatment in the Philippines by addressing their economic, social and cultural root causes. Information submitted to the European Parliament Subcommittee on Human Rights in connection with the exchange of views on the Philippines. Retrieved 17 April 2015 from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/droi_090121_9omct/DROI_090121_9OMCTen.pdf
41.Jump up ^ Human Rights Watch. (2012)"I had to run away": The imprisonment of women and girls for "moral crimes" in Afghanistan. Retrieved 17 April 2015 from http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/afghanistan0312webwcover_0.pdf
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48.Jump up ^ Stange, Mary Zeiss, and Carol K. Oyster, Jane E. Sloan (2011). Encyclopedia of Women in Today's World, Volume 1. SAGE. p. 496. ISBN 9781412976855.
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50.Jump up ^ "Timeline of Women’s Suffrage Granted, by Country". Infoplease. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
51.Jump up ^ "The Long Way to Women's Right to Vote in Switzerland: a Chronology". History-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch. Retrieved 2011-01-08.
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53.Jump up ^ Jean-Pierre Maury. "Ordonnance du 21 avril 1944 relative à l'organisation des pouvoirs publics en France après la Libération". Mjp.univ-perp.fr. Retrieved 2011-01-08.
54.Jump up ^ Assemblée nationale. "La citoyenneté politique des femmes – La décision du Général de Gaulle" (in French). Retrieved 2007-12-19.
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59.Jump up ^ Chen, Lanyan (2009). The Gendered Reality of Migrant Workers in Globalizing China. Ottawa: The University of Ottawa. pp. 186–207. ISBN 978-0-7766-0709-2.
60.Jump up ^ Manstead, A. S. R.; Hewstone, Miles; et al. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Psychology. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass., USA: Blackwell, 1999, 1995, pp. 256 – 57, ISBN 978-0-631-22774-8.
61.Jump up ^ Wagner, David G. and Joseph Berger (1997). Gender and Interpersonal Task Behaviors: Status Expectation Accounts. Sociological Perspectives, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 1-32.
62.Jump up ^ Williams, John E. and Deborah L. Best. Measuring Sex Stereotypes: A Multinational Study. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990, ISBN 978-0-8039-3815-1.
63.Jump up ^ Thoman, Dustin B., Paul H. White, Niwako Yamawaki, and Hirofumi Koishi. "Variations of Gender–math Stereotype Content Affect Women’s Vulnerability to Stereotype Threat." Sex Roles 58.9-10 (2008): 702-12. Print.
64.Jump up ^ Fortin, Nicole, "Gender Role Attitudes and the Labour Market Outcomes of Women Across OECD Countries", Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 2005, 21, 416–438.
65.Jump up ^ Shih, Margaret, Todd L. Pittinsky and Nalini Ambady (1999). Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity, Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance. Psychological Science, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 80-3.
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67.Jump up ^ Correll, Shelley J. (2001). Gender and the career choice process: The role of biased self-assessments. American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 106, Issue 6, pp. 1691-1730.
68.Jump up ^ Correll, Shelley J. (2004). Constraints into Preferences: Gender, Status, and Emerging Career Aspirations. American Sociological Review, Vol 69, Issue 1, pp. 93-113.
69.^ Jump up to: a b "Sexism in Language". Online.santarosa.edu. 2014-12-23. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
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72.Jump up ^ Mills, S. (2008) Language and sexism. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 18 April 2015 from http://www.langtoninfo.com/web_content/9780521001748_frontmatter.pdf
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74.Jump up ^ Mille, Katherine Wyly and Paul McIlvenny. "Gender and Spoken Interaction: A Survey of Feminist Theories and Sociolinguistic Research in the United States and Britain." http://paul-server.hum.aau.dk/research/cv/Pubs/mille-mcilvenny.pdf
75.Jump up ^ Ruthven, K.K. "Feminist literary studies: an introduction." http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam034/90034404.pdf
76.Jump up ^ "Against the Theory of "Sexist Language"". Friesian.com. 2012-03-09. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
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78.^ Jump up to: a b "Mexico advises workers on sexist language - BBC News". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
79.Jump up ^ Carson, Culley Jane. "Attacking a Legacy of Sexist Grammar in the French Class: A Modest Beginning." http://www.jstor.org/stable/40545648
80.Jump up ^ Nandi, Jacinta (2011-03-05). "Grappling with language sexism". Blogs.reuters.com. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
81.Jump up ^ Tan, D. (1990) Sexism in the Chinese language. NWSA Journal vol. 2 no. 4 pp. 635-639. Retrieved 18 April 2015 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4316075
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83.Jump up ^ Mills College Transgender Best Practices Taskforce & Gender Identity and Expression Sub-Committee of the Diversity and Social Justice Committee. Report on Inclusion of Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Students Best Practices, Assessment and Recommendations. Oakland, Calif.: Mills College, February 2013, p. 9.
84.Jump up ^ Anti-transgender Language Commentary: Trans Progressive by Autumn Sandeen San Diego, Calif.: San Diego LGBT Weekly, February 3, 2011.
85.^ Jump up to: a b c d e OECD. OECD Employment Outlook - 2008 Edition Summary in English. OECD, Paris, 2008, p. 3-4.
86.^ Jump up to: a b OECD. OECD Employment Outlook. Chapter 3: The Price of Prejudice: Labour Market Discrimination on the Grounds of Gender and Ethnicity. OECD, Paris, 2008.
87.Jump up ^ The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. "Facts About Compensation Discrimination". Retrieved 2008-04-23.
88.Jump up ^ Wendy M. Williams. "National hiring experiments reveal 2:1 faculty preference for women on STEM tenure track". Retrieved 14 June 2015.
89.Jump up ^ Sarah Kaplan (14 April 2015). "Study finds, surprisingly, that women are favored for jobs in STEM". Washington Post. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
90.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Janice D. Yoder (1991): Rethinking Tokenism: Looking beyond Numbers. Gender and Society, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Jun., 1991), pp. 178-192 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
91.Jump up ^ Lynn Zimmer (1988): Tokenism and Women in the Workplace: The Limits of Gender-Neutral Theory. Social Problems, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Feb., 1988), pp. 64-77.Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society for the Study of Social Problems.
92.^ Jump up to: a b European Commission. The situation in the EU. Retrieved on August 19, 2011.
93.^ Jump up to: a b U.S. Census Bureau. Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2009. Current Population Reports, P60-238, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 2010, pp. 7 and 50.
94.Jump up ^ Institute for Women's Policy Research. The Gender Wage Gap: 2009. Retrieved March 31, 2011.
95.Jump up ^ Štěpán Jurajda (2005): Gender Segregation and Wage Gap: An East-West Comparison. Journal of the European Economic Association, Vol. 3, No. 2/3, Papers and Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Congress of the European Economic Association (Apr. - May 2005), pp. 598-607 Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of European Economic Association.
96.Jump up ^ Joseph E. Zveglich, Jr. and Yana van der Meulen Rodgers (2004): Occupational Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap in a Dynamic East Asian Economy. Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 70, No. 4 (Apr., 2004), pp. 850-875 Published by: Southern Economic Association.
97.^ Jump up to: a b c Christopher J. Gerry, Byung-Yeon Kim and Carmen A. Li (2004): The Gender Wage Gap and Wage Arrears in Russia: Evidence from the RLMS. Journal of Population Economics, Vol. 17, No. 2 (Jun., 2004), pp. 267-288 Published by: Springer.
98.Jump up ^ The Open University: Learning Space."Economics Explains Discrimination in the Labour Market." Accessed June 29, 2012
99.Jump up ^ Gyeongjoon Yoo (2003): Women in the Workplace: Gender and Wage Differentials. Social Indicators Research, Vol. 62/63, The Quality of Life in Korea: Comparative and Dynamic Perspectives (Apr., 2003), pp. 365, 367-385 Published by: Springer.
100.Jump up ^ Women Don't Ask: Negotiation and the Gender Divide Linda Babcock & Sara Laschever 2003 Princeton UP. First chapter online: http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7575.pdf
101.Jump up ^ United States Congress Joint Economic Committee. Invest in Women, Invest in America: A Comprehensive Review of Women in the U.S. Economy. Washington, DC, December 2010, p. 80.
102.Jump up ^ National Centre for Social and Economic Modelling. The impact of a sustained gender wage gap on the economy. Report to the Office for Women, Department of Families, Community Services, Housing and Indigenous Affairs, 2009, p. v-vi.
103.Jump up ^ Ian Watson (2010). Decomposing the Gender Pay Gap in the Australian Managerial Labour Market. Australian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 49-79.
104.Jump up ^ Carman, Diane. Why do men earn more? Just because. Denver Post, April 24, 2007.
105.Jump up ^ Arnst, Cathy. Women and the pay gap. Bloomberg Businessweek, April 27, 2007.
106.Jump up ^ American Management Association. Bridging the Gender Pay Gap. October 17, 2007.
107.Jump up ^ Dey, Judy Goldberg and Catherine Hill. Behind the Pay Gap. American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, April 2007.
108.Jump up ^ Morrison, Megan. "Persistent Pay Gap Affects Women Just One Year Out of College". Retrieved 2013-02-21.
109.Jump up ^ U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Highlights of Women’s Earnings in 2009. Report 1025, June 2010.
110.Jump up ^ "Lies, Damned Lies and Statistics: The Wage Gap". Swift Economics. September 21, 2009. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
111.Jump up ^ Folbre, Nancy. The Anti-Mommy Bias. New York Times, March 26, 2009.
112.Jump up ^ Goodman, Ellen. A third gender in the workplace. Boston Globe, May 11, 2007.
113.Jump up ^ Cahn, Naomi and June Carbone. Five myths about working mothers. The Washington Post, May 30, 2010.
114.Jump up ^ Young, Lauren. The Motherhood Penalty: Working Moms Face Pay Gap Vs. Childless Peers. Bloomsberg Businessweek, June 05, 2009.
115.Jump up ^ Correll, Shelley, Stephen Benard, In Paik (2007.) Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty? American Journal of Sociology, Vol 112, No. 5, pp. 1297-1338, doi:10.1086/511799.
116.Jump up ^ News.cornell.edu. Mothers face disadvantages in getting hired. August 4, 2005.
117.Jump up ^ OECD (2002). Emplyoment Outlook, Chapter 2: Women at work: who are they and how are they faring? Paris: OECD 2002.
118.Jump up ^ Hilary M. Lips (7 September 2009). "Blaming Women's Choices for the Gender Pay Gap". WomensMedia. Archived from the original on 23 May 2013.
119.Jump up ^ "The Wage Gap Myth". NCPA. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
120.Jump up ^ T.D.Stanley and Stephen B. Jarrell: Gender Wage Discrimination Bias? A Meta-Regression Analysis. The Journal of Human Resources, Vol XXXIII,4. P. 67.
121.Jump up ^ David A. Cotter, Joan M. Hermsen, Seth Ovadia and Reeve Vanneman (2001): The Glass Ceiling Effect" Social Forces, Vol. 80, No. 2 (Dec., 2001), pp. 655-681 Published by: Oxford University Press.
122.^ Jump up to: a b c d David A. Matsa and Amalia R. Miller (2011): Chipping away at the Glass Ceiling: Gender Spillovers in Corporate Leadership. American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings 2011, 101:3, 635–639.
123.Jump up ^ John M. McDowell, Larry D. Singell, Jr., and James P. Ziliak (1999): Cracks in the Glass Ceiling: Gender and Promotion in the Economics Profession. The American Economic Review, Vol. 89, No. 2, Papers and Proceedings of the One Hundred Eleventh Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association (May 1999), pp. 392-396 Published by: American Economic Association.
124.Jump up ^ Steven C. McKay (2006): Hard Drives and Glass Ceilings: Gender Stratification in High-Tech Production. Gender and Society, Vol. 20, No. 2, Apr 2006, pp 207 – 235. Published by Sage Publications, Inc.
125.^ Jump up to: a b "Women still struggle to break through glass ceiling in government, business, academia" (PDF). United Nations. 2006-03-08. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
126.Jump up ^ Roehling, Patricia V., Mark V. Roehling, Jeffrey D. Vandlen, Justin Blazek, William C. Guy (2009). Weight discrimination and the glass ceiling effect among top US CEOs. Equal Opportunity International, Vol. 28, Iss. 2, pp.179 - 196, doi:10.1108/02610150910937916.
127.Jump up ^ Moult, Julie. Women's careers more tied to weight than men -- study. Herald Sun, April 11, 2009.
128.Jump up ^ Badgett, M.L., Lau, H., Sears, B., & Ho, D. (2007) Bias in the Workplace: Consistent Evidence of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Discrimination. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute. http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/research/workplace/bias-in-the-workplace-consistent-evidence-of-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-discrimination/
129.Jump up ^ Steinmetz, Katy (12 January 2015). "Does Saks have the legal right to fire a transgender employee?". TIME magazine. Fortune. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
130.Jump up ^ "Feminist Perspectives on Objectification". stanford.edu.
131.Jump up ^ Goh-Mah, Joy. "The Objectification of Women - It Goes Much Further Than Sexy Pictures". Huffpost Lifestyle. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
132.Jump up ^ "The Free Dictionary". Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary. Retrieved 2013-06-06.
133.Jump up ^ Nussbaum, Martha (1995). "Objectification". Philosophy & Public Affairs 24 (4): 249–291. doi:10.1111/j.1088-4963.1995.tb00032.x. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
134.Jump up ^ Fredrickson, Barbara L.; Roberts, Tomi-Ann (1997). "OBJECTIFICATION THEORY.". Psychology of Women Quarterly 21 (2): 173–206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x. ISSN 0361-6843.
135.^ Jump up to: a b c Lindner, Katharina (October 2004). "Images of women in general interest and fashion magazine advertisements from 1955 to 2002". Sex Roles (Springer) 51 (7/8): 409–421. doi:10.1023/B:SERS.0000049230.86869.4d.
136.Jump up ^ Attenborough, Frederick (2014). "Categorial feminism: New media and the rhetorical work of assessing a sexist, humorous, misogynistic, realistic advertisement". Gender and Language (Equinox) 8 (2): 147–168. doi:10.1558/genl.v8i2.147. Pdf.
137.Jump up ^ Stice, Eric; Schupak-Neuberg, E.; Shaw, H. E.; Stein, R. I. (1994). "Relation of media exposure to eating disorder symptomatology: an examination of mediating mechanisms" (PDF). Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103 (4): 836–840. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.103.4.836.
138.^ Jump up to: a b Holmes, Stephanie (25 April 2008). "Scandinavian split on sexist ads". BBC News. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
139.Jump up ^ Israeli Penal Law 5737 - 1977: Obscene publication and display (PDF) (6th ed.). OECD. pp. 70–71. Retrieved 26 February 2015. (English translation)
140.Jump up ^ MacKinnon, Catharine (1987). Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 147.
141.Jump up ^ Papadaki, Evangelia. "Feminist Perspectives on Objectification". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
142.Jump up ^ Andrea Dworkin; Catharine A. MacKinnon (August 1988). Pornography and civil rights: a new day for women's equality. Organizing Against Pornography. ISBN 978-0-9621849-0-1.
143.Jump up ^ Morgan, Robin. (1974). "Theory and Practice: Pornography and Rape". In: Going Too Far: The Personal Chronicle of a Feminist. (1977). Random House. 333 p. ISBN 0-394-48227-1. (1978 ed, ISBN 0-394-72612-X.)
144.Jump up ^ Jeffries, Stuart (2006-04-12). "Are women human? (interview with Catharine MacKinnon)". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2009-09-01.
145.Jump up ^ Shrage, Laurie. (2007-07-13). "Feminist Perspectives on Sex Markets: Pornography". In: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
146.Jump up ^ Mackinnon, Catherine A. (1984) "Not a moral issue." Yale Law and Policy Review 2:321-345. Reprinted in: Mackinnon (1989). Toward a Feminist Theory of the State Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-89645-9 (1st ed), ISBN 0-674-89646-7 (2nd ed). "Sex forced on real women so that it can be sold at a profit to be forced on other real women; women's bodies trussed and maimed and raped and made into things to be hurt and obtained and accessed, and this presented as the nature of women; the coercion that is visible and the coercion that has become invisible—this and more grounds the feminist concern with pornography"
147.Jump up ^ "A Conversation With Catherine MacKinnon (transcript)". Think Tank. 1995. PBS. Retrieved 2009-09-01.
148.Jump up ^ Jeffries, Stuart (April 12, 2006). "Stuart Jeffries talks to leading feminist Catharine MacKinnon". The Guardian (London).
149.Jump up ^ Bader, Michael (October 27, 2008). "The Great Porn Misunderstanding: Pornography Is Mostly About Fantasy, Not Reality". Alternet. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
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152.Jump up ^ "Prostitution Law & Legal Definition". US Legal. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
153.^ Jump up to: a b Sullivan, Barbara (2007). "Rape, Prostitution and Consent". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 40 (2): 127–142. "In common law jurisdictions like the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, some of the evidentiary jurisprudence clearly linked chastity with veracity. So women who were or had been sex workers, those who were ‘rumoured’ to be prostitutes or who were simply promiscuous and behaving ‘like a prostitute’ lacked credibility as complainants, which made it difficult for the prosecution to prove the sexual assault beyond a reasonable doubt. Women in any of these categories were seen at law as ‘commonly available’ to men, as always consenting to sexual activity and thus, as not able to be raped. Men accused of sexual assault were therefore able to use evidence of prostitution to defend themselves, to undermine the credibility of rape complainants and to successfully avoid conviction."
154.Jump up ^ http://www.soc.iastate.edu/sapp/Prostitution.pdf
155.Jump up ^ Julie Bindel. "Julie Bindel: Eradicate the oldest oppression - UK news - The Guardian". the Guardian.
156.Jump up ^ Julie Bindel. "Ending a trade in misery". the Guardian.
157.Jump up ^ "The Industrial Vagina". Google.ro. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
158.Jump up ^ "European Women's Lobby  : Prostitution in Europe : 60 Years of Reluctance". womenslobby.eu.
159.Jump up ^ "The Sexual Contract". Google.ro. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
160.Jump up ^ Cole, E., & Henderson Daniel, J. (Eds.). (2005). Featuring females: Feminist analyses of media. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/11213-000
161.Jump up ^ Halliwell, E.; Malson, H.; Tischner, I. (2011). "Are contemporary media images which seem to display women as sexually empowering actually harmful to women?". Psychology of Women Quarterly 35: 34–45. doi:10.1177/0361684310385217.
162.Jump up ^ Entman, R., & Rojecki, A. (2000). The Black image in the White mind: Media and race in America. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
163.Jump up ^ Douglas, J., Susan (2010). The Rise of Enlightened Sexism New York, NY: St. Martins Press.
164.Jump up ^ Watson, L. B.; Robinson, D.; Dispenza, F.; Nazari, N. (2012). "African American women's sexual objectification experiences: A qualitative study". Psychology of Women Quarterly 36: 227–239. doi:10.1177/0361684312454724.
165.Jump up ^ Rendon, M. J.; Nicolas, G. (2012). "Deconstructing the portrayals of Haitian women in the media: A thematic analysis of images in the Associated Press Photo Archive". Psychology of Women Quarterly 36: 227–239. doi:10.1177/0361684311429110.
166.Jump up ^ Daniel, Samantha, and Sara K. Bridges. "The drive for muscularity in men: Media influences and objectification theory." Body Image 7.1 (2010): 32-38.
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168.Jump up ^ Attenborough, Frederick T. (2014). "Jokes, pranks, blondes and banter: recontextualising sexism in the British print press". Journal of Gender Studies (Taylor and Francis) 23 (2): 137–154. doi:10.1080/09589236.2013.774269. Pdf.
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183.Jump up ^ "Court in UAE says beating wife, child OK if no marks are left". CNN. October 19, 2010. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
184.Jump up ^ "The Penal Code of Northern Nigeria". Equalitynow.org. 2015-02-06. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
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186.Jump up ^ "BBC - Ethics - Honour crimes". bbc.co.uk.
187.Jump up ^ "Shocking gay honor killing inspires movie - CNN.com". CNN. January 13, 2012.
188.Jump up ^ "Iraqi immigrant convicted in Arizona 'honor killing' awaits sentence". CNN. February 23, 2011.
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196.^ Jump up to: a b "BBC - Ethics - Abortion: Female infanticide". bbc.co.uk.
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281.Jump up ^ Melanie Scheussler suggests a date of post-1540 for England, France, and the Low Countries; see Scheussler, "'She Hath Over Grown All that She Ever Hath': Children's Clothing in the Lisle Letters, 1533-40", in Netherton, Robin, and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, editors, Medieval Clothing and Textiles, Volume 3, p. 185. Before roughly this date various styles of long robes were in any case commonly worn by adult males of various sorts, so boys wearing them could probably not be said to form a distinct phenomenon.
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284.Jump up ^ "Iran to intensify dress crackdown". BBC News. July 15, 2007.
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External links[edit]
 Look up sexism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sexism.
Sexism in the Workplace
10 sexist scenarios that women face at work
The New Subtle Sexism Toward Women in the Workplace
Sexism in Language
Sexist Language


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Misogyny

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"Woman hater" redirects here. For other uses, see Woman Hater (disambiguation).
Misogyny (/mɪˈsɒdʒɪni/) is the hatred or dislike of women or girls. According to feminist theory, misogyny can be manifested in numerous ways, including sexual discrimination, belittling of women, violence against women, and sexual objectification of women.[1][2] Misogyny can be found within many mythologies of the ancient world as well as various religions. In addition, various influential Western philosophers have been described as misogynistic.[1][3]


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3 Religion 3.1 Ancient Greek
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3.5 Sikhism
3.6 Scientology
4 Philosophers (17th to 20th century) 4.1 Schopenhauer
4.2 Nietzsche
4.3 Hegel
5 Internet misogyny
6 Feminist theory
7 Criticism of the concept
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 Bibliography
11 External links

Definitions
According to sociologist Allan G. Johnson, "misogyny is a cultural attitude of hatred for females because they are female." Johnson argues that:

Misogyny .... is a central part of sexist prejudice and ideology and, as such, is an important basis for the oppression of females in male-dominated societies. Misogyny is manifested in many different ways, from jokes to pornography to violence to the self-contempt women may be taught to feel toward their own bodies.[4]
Sociologist Michael Flood, at the University of Wollongong, defines misogyny as the hatred of women, and notes:

Though most common in men, misogyny also exists in and is practiced by women against other women or even themselves. Misogyny functions as an ideology or belief system that has accompanied patriarchal, or male-dominated societies for thousands of years and continues to place women in subordinate positions with limited access to power and decision making. [...] Aristotle contended that women exist as natural deformities or imperfect males [...] Ever since, women in Western cultures have internalised their role as societal scapegoats, influenced in the twenty-first century by multimedia objectification of women with its culturally sanctioned self-loathing and fixations on plastic surgery, anorexia and bulimia.[5]
Dictionaries define misogyny as "hatred of women"[6][7][8] and as "hatred, dislike, or mistrust of women".[9] In 2012, primarily in response to events occurring in the Australian Parliament, the Macquarie Dictionary (which documents Australian English and New Zealand English) expanded the definition to include not only hatred of women but also "entrenched prejudices against women".[10] The counterpart of misogyny is misandry, the hatred or dislike of men; the antonym of misogyny is philogyny, the love or fondness of women.
Classical Greece



Euripides
In his book City of Sokrates: An Introduction to Classical Athens, J.W. Roberts argues that older than tragedy and comedy was a misogynistic tradition in Greek literature, reaching back at least as far as Hesiod.[11]
The word Misogyny had a different meaning in ancient Greece, since they applied the pejorative "woman hater" expression mostly to gay men. Hans Licht (1928), History of Greek Life and Customs, Paul Aretz Verlag
Misogyny comes into English from the ancient Greek word misogunia (μισογυνία), which survives in two passages.[12]
The earlier, longer, and more complete passage comes from a moral tract known as On Marriage (c. 150 BC) by the stoic philosopher Antipater of Tarsus.[13][14] Antipater argues that marriage is the foundation of the state, and considers it to be based on divine (polytheistic) decree. Antipater uses misogunia to describe Euripides' usual writing—tēn misogunian en tō graphein (τὴν μισογυνίαν ἐν τῷ γράφειν "the misogyny in the writing").[14] However, he mentions this by way of contrast. He goes on to quote Euripides at some length, writing in praise of wives. Antipater does not tell us what it is about Euripides' writing that he believes is misogynistic, he simply expresses his belief that even a man thought to hate women (namely Euripides) praises wives, so concluding his argument for the importance of marriage. He says, "This thing is truly heroic."[14]
Euripides' reputation as a misogynist is also evidenced in another source; in Deipnosophistae (Banquet of the Learned), Athenaeus has one of the diners quoting Hieronymus of Cardia, who confirms that the view was widespread, while offering Sophocles' comment on the matter:


Euripides the poet, also, was much addicted to women: at all events Hieronymus in his Historical Commentaries speaks as follows,—"When some one told Sophocles that Euripides was a woman-hater, 'He may be,' said he, 'in his tragedies, but in his bed he is very fond of women.'[15]
—Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists, Book 13
Despite Euripides' reputation, Antipater is not the only writer to see appreciation of women in his writing. Katherine Henderson and Barbara McManus state that he "showed more empathy for women than any other ancient writer", citing "relatively modern critics" to support their claim.[16]
The other surviving use of the original Greek word is by Chrysippus, in a fragment from On affections, quoted by Galen in Hippocrates on Affections.[17] Here, misogyny is the first in a short list of three "disaffections"—women (misogunian), wine (misoinian, μισοινίαν) and humanity (misanthrōpian, μισανθρωπίαν). Chrysippus' point is more abstract than Antipater's, and Galen quotes the passage as an example of an opinion contrary to his own. What is clear, however, is that he groups hatred of women with hatred of humanity generally, and even hatred of wine. "It was the prevailing medical opinion of his day that wine strengthens body and soul alike."[18] So Chrysippus, like his fellow stoic Antipater, views misogyny negatively, as a disease; a dislike of something that is good. It is this issue of conflicted or alternating emotions that was philosophically contentious to the ancient writers. Ricardo Salles suggests that the general stoic view was that "[a] man may not only alternate between philogyny and misogyny, philanthropy and misanthropy, but be prompted to each by the other."[19]
Aristotle has also been accused of being a misogynist; he has written that women were inferior to men. According to Cynthia Freeland (1994):

Aristotle says that the courage of a man lies in commanding, a woman's lies in obeying; that 'matter yearns for form, as the female for the male and the ugly for the beautiful'; that women have fewer teeth than men; that a female is an incomplete male or 'as it were, a deformity': which contributes only matter and not form to the generation of offspring; that in general 'a woman is perhaps an inferior being'; that female characters in a tragedy will be inappropriate if they are too brave or too clever[.][20]
In the Routledge philosophy guidebook to Plato and the Republic, Nickolas Pappas describes the "problem of misogyny" and states:

In the Apology, Socrates calls those who plead for their lives in court "no better than women" (35b)... The Timaeus warns men that if they live immorally they will be reincarnated as women (42b-c; cf. 75d-e). The Republic contains a number of comments in the same spirit (387e, 395d-e, 398e, 431b-c, 469d), evidence of nothing so much as of contempt toward women. Even Socrates' words for his bold new proposal about marriage... suggest that the women are to be "held in common" by men. He never says that the men might be held in common by the women... We also have to acknowledge Socrates' insistence that men surpass women at any task that both sexes attempt (455c, 456a), and his remark in Book 8 that one sign of democracy's moral failure is the sexual equality it promotes (563b).[21]
Misogynist is also found in the Greek—misogunēs (μισογύνης)—in Deipnosophistae (above) and in Plutarch's Parallel Lives, where it is used as the title of Heracles in the history of Phocion. It was the title of a play by Menander, which we know of from book seven (concerning Alexandria) of Strabo's 17 volume Geography,[12][22] and quotations of Menander by Clement of Alexandria and Stobaeus that relate to marriage.[23] Menander also wrote a play called Misoumenos (Μισούμενος) or The Man (She) Hated. Another Greek play with a similar name, Misogunos (Μισόγυνος) or Woman-hater, is reported by Marcus Tullius Cicero (in Latin) and attributed to the poet Marcus Atilius.[24]



Marcus Tullius Cicero
Cicero reports that Greek philosophers considered misogyny to be caused by gynophobia, a fear of women.[25]

It is the same with other diseases; as the desire of glory, a passion for women, to which the Greeks give the name of philogyneia: and thus all other diseases and sicknesses are generated. But those feelings which are the contrary of these are supposed to have fear for their foundation, as a hatred of women, such as is displayed in the Woman-hater of Atilius; or the hatred of the whole human species, as Timon is reported to have done, whom they call the Misanthrope. Of the same kind is inhospitality. And all these diseases proceed from a certain dread of such things as they hate and avoid.[25]
—Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, 1st century BC.
The more common form of this general word for woman hating is misogunaios (μισογύναιος).[12]
There are also some persons easily sated with their connection with the same woman, being at once both mad for women and women haters. — Philo, Of Special Laws, 1st Century.[26]
Allied with Venus in honourable positions Saturn makes his subjects haters of women, lovers of antiquity, solitary, unpleasant to meet, unambitious, hating the beautiful, ... — Ptolemy, "Quality of the Soul", Tetrabiblos, 2nd century.[27][28]
I will prove to you that this wonderful teacher, this woman-hater, is not satisfied with ordinary enjoyments during the night. — Alciphron, "Thais to Euthydemus", 2nd century.[29]
The word is also found in Vettius Valens' Anthology and Damascius' Principles.[30][31]
In summary, Greek literature considered misogyny to be a disease—an anti-social condition—in that it ran contrary to their perceptions of the value of women as wives and of the family as the foundation of society. These points are widely noted in the secondary literature.[14]
Religion
See also: Feminist theology and Sex differences in religion
Ancient Greek
In Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice, Jack Holland claims that there is evidence of misogyny in the mythology of the ancient world. In Greek mythology according to Hesiod, the human race had already experienced a peaceful, autonomous existence as a companion to the gods before the creation of women. When Prometheus decides to steal the secret of fire from the gods, Zeus becomes infuriated and decides to punish humankind with an "evil thing for their delight". This "evil thing" is Pandora, the first woman, who carried a jar (usually described—incorrectly—as a box) which she was told to never open. Epimetheus (the brother of Prometheus) is overwhelmed by her beauty, disregards Prometheus' warnings about her, and marries her. Pandora cannot resist peeking into the jar, and by opening it she unleashes into the world all evil; labour, sickness, old age, and death.[32]
Buddhism
Main article: Women in Buddhism
In his book The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender, professor Bernard Faure of Columbia University argued generally that "Buddhism is paradoxically neither as sexist nor as egalitarian as is usually thought." He remarked, "Many feminist scholars have emphasized the misogynistic (or at least androcentric) nature of Buddhism" and stated that Buddhism morally exalts its male monks while the mothers and wives of the monks also have important roles. Additionally, he wrote:

While some scholars see Buddhism as part of a movement of emancipation, others see it as a source of oppression. Perhaps this is only a distinction between optimists and pessimists, if not between idealists and realists... As we begin to realize, the term "Buddhism" does not designate a monolithic entity, but covers a number of doctrines, ideologies, and practices--some of which seem to invite, tolerate, and even cultivate "otherness" on their margins.[33]
Christianity



Eve rides astride the Serpent on a capital in Laach Abbey church, 13th century
Main article: Gender roles in Christianity
See also: Complementarianism and Christian egalitarianism
Differences in tradition and interpretations of scripture have caused sects of Christianity to differ in their beliefs with regard their treatment of women.
In The Troublesome Helpmate, Katharine M. Rogers claims that Christianity is misogynistic, and she lists what she says are specific examples of misogyny in the Pauline epistles. She states:

The foundations of early Christian misogyny — its guilt about sex, its insistence on female subjection, its dread of female seduction — are all in St. Paul's epistles.[34]
In K. K. Ruthven's Feminist Literary Studies: An Introduction, Ruthven makes reference to Rogers' book and argues that the "legacy of Christian misogyny was consolidated by the so-called 'Fathers' of the Church, like Tertullian, who thought a woman was not only 'the gateway of the devil' but also 'a temple built over a sewer'."[35]
However, some other scholars have argued that Christianity does not include misogynistic principles, or at least that a proper interpretation of Christianity would not include misogynistic principles. David M. Scholer, a biblical scholar at Fuller Theological Seminary, stated that the verse Galatians 3:28 ("There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus") is "the fundamental Pauline theological basis for the inclusion of women and men as equal and mutual partners in all of the ministries of the church."[36][37] In his book Equality in Christ? Galatians 3.28 and the Gender Dispute, Richard Hove argues that—while Galatians 3:28 does mean that one's sex does not affect salvation—"there remains a pattern in which the wife is to emulate the church's submission to Christ (Eph 5:21-33) and the husband is to emulate Christ's love for the church."[38]
In Christian Men Who Hate Women, clinical psychologist Margaret J. Rinck has written that Christian social culture often allows a misogynist "misuse of the biblical ideal of submission". However, she argues that this a distortion of the "healthy relationship of mutual submission" which is actually specified in Christian doctrine, where "[l]ove is based on a deep, mutual respect as the guiding principle behind all decisions, actions, and plans".[39] Similarly, Catholic scholar Christopher West argues that "male domination violates God's plan and is the specific result of sin".[40]
Islam
Main article: Women in Islam
See also: Namus and Islam and domestic violence
The fourth chapter (or sura) of the Quran is called "Women" (An-Nisa). The 34th verse is a key verse in feminist criticism of Islam.[41] The verse reads: "Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient, guarding the unseen as Allah has guarded; and (as to) those on whose part you fear desertion, admonish them, and leave them alone in the sleeping-places and beat them; then if they obey you, do not seek a way against them; surely Allah is High, Great."
In his book Popular Islam and Misogyny: A Case Study of Bangladesh, Taj Hashmi discusses misogyny in relation to Muslim culture (and to Bangladesh in particular), writing:

[T]hanks to the subjective interpretations of the Quran (almost exclusively by men), the preponderance of the misogynic mullahs and the regressive Shariah law in most "Muslim" countries, Islam is synonymously known as a promoter of misogyny in its worst form. Although there is no way of defending the so-called "great" traditions of Islam as libertarian and egalitarian with regard to women, we may draw a line between the Quranic texts and the corpus of avowedly misogynic writing and spoken words by the mullah having very little or no relevance to the Quran.[42]
In his book No god but God, University of Southern California professor Reza Aslan wrote that "misogynistic interpretation" has been persistently attached to An-Nisa, 34 because commentary on the Quran "has been the exclusive domain of Muslim men".[43]
Sikhism



Guru Nanak in the center, amongst other Sikh figures
See also: Women in Sikhism
Scholars William M. Reynolds and Julie A. Webber have written that Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh faith tradition, was a "fighter for women's rights" that was "in no way misogynistic" in contrast to some of his contemporaries.[44]
Scientology
See also: Scientology and marriage
In his book Scientology: A New Slant on Life, L. Ron Hubbard wrote the following passage:

A society in which women are taught anything but the management of a family, the care of men, and the creation of the future generation is a society which is on its way out.
In the same book, he also wrote:

The historian can peg the point where a society begins its sharpest decline at the instant when women begin to take part, on an equal footing with men, in political and business affairs, since this means that the men are decadent and the women are no longer women. This is not a sermon on the role or position of women; it is a statement of bald and basic fact.
These passages, along with other ones of a similar nature from Hubbard, have been criticised by Alan Scherstuhl of The Village Voice as expressions of hatred towards women.[45] However, Baylor University professor J. Gordon Melton has written that Hubbard later disregarded and abrogated much of his earlier views about women, which Melton views as merely echoes of common prejudices at the time. Melton has also stated that the Church of Scientology welcomes both genders equally at all levels—from leadership positions to auditing and so on—since Scientologists view people as spiritual beings.[46]
Philosophers (17th to 20th century)
Numerous influential Western philosophers have been accused of being misogynistic, including René Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, G. W. F. Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, Otto Weininger, Oswald Spengler, and John Lucas.[3]
Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer has been accused of misogyny for his essay "On Women" (Über die Weiber), in which he expressed his opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" on female affairs. He argued that women are "by nature meant to obey" as they are "childish, frivolous, and short sighted".[3] He claimed that no woman had ever produced great art or "any work of permanent value".[3] He also argued that women did not possess any real beauty:[47]

It is only a man whose intellect is clouded by his sexual impulse that could give the name of the fair sex to that under-sized, narrow-shouldered, broad-hipped, and short-legged race; for the whole beauty of the sex is bound up with this impulse. Instead of calling them beautiful there would be more warrant for describing women as the unaesthetic sex.
Nietzsche
Main article: Friedrich Nietzsche's views on women
In Beyond Good and Evil, Friedrich Nietzsche stated that stricter controls on women was a condition of "every elevation of culture".[48] In his Thus Spoke Zarathustra, he has a female character say "You are going to women? Do not forget the whip!"[49] In Twilight of the Idols, Nietzsche writes "Women are considered profound. Why? Because we never fathom their depths. But women aren't even shallow."[50] There is controversy over the questions of whether or not this amounts to misogyny, whether his polemic against women is meant to be taken literally, and the exact nature of his opinions of women.[51]
Hegel
Hegel's view of women has been said to be misogynistic.[52] Passages from Hegel's Elements of the Philosophy of Right are frequently used to illustrate Hegel's supposed misogyny:[53]

Women are capable of education, but they are not made for activities which demand a universal faculty such as the more advanced sciences, philosophy and certain forms of artistic production... Women regulate their actions not by the demands of universality, but by arbitrary inclinations and opinions.
Internet misogyny
Misogynistic rhetoric is prevalent online and has grown rhetorically more aggressive. The public debate over gendered attacks has increased significantly, leading to calls for policy interventions and better responses by social networks like Facebook and Twitter.[54][55]
Most targets are women who are visible in the public sphere, women who speak out about the threats they receive, and women who are perceived to be associated with feminism or feminist gains. Authors of misogynistic messages are usually anonymous or otherwise difficult to identify. Their rhetoric involves misogynistic epithets and graphic and sexualized imagery, centers on the women's physical appearance, and prescribes sexual violence as a corrective for the targeted women. Examples of famous women who spoke out about misogynistic attacks are Anita Sarkeesian, Laurie Penny, Caroline Criado-Perez, Stella Creasy, and Lindy West.[54]
The insults and threats directed at different women tend to be very similar. Sady Doyle who has been the target of online threats noted the "overwhelmingly impersonal, repetitive, stereotyped quality" of the abuse, the fact that "all of us are being called the same things, in the same tone."[54]
Feminist theory
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Subscribers to one model claim that some misogyny results from the Madonna–whore complex, which is the inability to see women as anything other than "mothers" or "whores"; people with this complex place each encountered woman into one of these categories. Another variant model is the one alleging that one cause of misogyny is some men thinking in terms of a virgin/whore dichotomy, which results in them considering as "whores" any women who do not adhere to an Abrahamic standard of moral purity.[56]
Feminist theorist Marilyn Frye claims that misogyny is, at its root, phallogocentric and homoerotic. In The Politics of Reality, Frye says that there is a misogynistic character to C. S. Lewis' fiction and Christian apologetics, and argues that such misogyny privileges the masculine as a subject of erotic attention. She compares Lewis' ideal of gender relations to underground male prostitution rings, contending that they share the quality of men seeking to dominate subjects seen as less likely to take on submissive roles by a patriarchal society, but do so as a theatrical mockery of women.[57][clarification needed]
In the late 20th century, second-wave feminist theorists claimed that misogyny is both a cause and a result of patriarchal social structures.[58]
Sociologist Michael Flood has argued that "misandry lacks the systemic, transhistoric, institutionalized, and legislated antipathy of misogyny."[59]
Criticism of the concept
Camille Paglia, a self-described "dissident feminist" who has often been at odds with other academic feminists, argues that there are serious flaws in the Marxism-inspired interpretation of misogyny that is prevalent in second-wave feminism. In contrast, Paglia argues that a close reading of historical texts reveals that men do not hate women but fear them.[60] Christian Groes-Green has argued that misogyny must be seen in relation to its opposite which he terms philogyny. Criticizing Connell's theory of hegemonic masculinities he shows how philogynous masculinities play out among youth in Maputo, Mozambique.[61]
See also
Honor killing
Misandry
Misanthropy
Misogyny in horror films
Misogyny and mass media
Misogyny in hip hop culture
Object relations theory
Wife selling
The Bro Code: How Contemporary Culture Creates Sexist Men
Misogyny in sports
Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta
Notes and references
1.^ Jump up to: a b Code, Lorraine (2000). Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories (1st ed.). London: Routledge. p. 346. ISBN 0-415-13274-6.
2.Jump up ^ Kramarae, Cheris (2000). Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women. New York: Routledge. pp. 1374–1377. ISBN 0-415-92088-4.
3.^ Jump up to: a b c d Clack, Beverley (1999). Misogyny in the Western Philosophical Tradition: A Reader. New York: Routledge. pp. 95–241. ISBN 0415921821.
4.Jump up ^ Johnson, Allan G (2000). "The Blackwell dictionary of sociology: A user's guide to sociological language". ISBN 978-0-631-21681-0. Retrieved November 21, 2011., ("ideology" in all small capitals in original).
5.Jump up ^ Flood, Michael (2007-07-18). "International encyclopedia of men and masculinities". ISBN 978-0-415-33343-6.
6.Jump up ^ The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (Oxford: Clarendon Press (Oxford Univ. Press), [4th] ed. 1993 (ISBN 0-19-861271-0)) (SOED) ("[h]atred of women").
7.Jump up ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1992 (ISBN 0-395-44895-6)) ("[h]atred of women").
8.Jump up ^ Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (G. & C. Merriam, 1966) ("a hatred of women").
9.Jump up ^ Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary (N.Y.: Random House, 2d ed. 2001 (ISBN 0-375-42566-7)).
10.Jump up ^ Daley, Gemma (17 October 2012). "Macquarie Dictionary has last word on misogyny". Retrieved 21 October 2012.
11.Jump up ^ Roberts, J.W (2002-06-01). "City of Sokrates: An Introduction to Classical Athens". ISBN 978-0-203-19479-9.
12.^ Jump up to: a b c Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon (LSJ), revised and augmented by Henry Stuart Jones and Roderick McKenzie, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940). ISBN 0-19-864226-1
13.Jump up ^ The editio princeps is on page 255 of volume three of Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta (SVF, Old Stoic Fragments), see External links.
14.^ Jump up to: a b c d A recent critical text with translation is in Appendix A to Will Deming, Paul on Marriage and Celibacy: The Hellenistic Background of 1 Corinthians 7, pp. 221–226. Misogunia appears in the accusative case on page 224 of Deming, as the fifth word in line 33 of his Greek text. It is split over lines 25–26 in von Arnim.
15.Jump up ^ Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists, Book 13 Book 13
16.Jump up ^ "Although Euripides showed more empathy for women than any other ancient writer, many of his lines out of context sound misogynistic; only relatively modern critics have been able to rescue him from his centuries-old reputation as a woman-hater." Katherine Usher Henderson and Barbara F. McManus, Half Humankind: Contexts and Texts of the Controversy about Women in England, 1540-1640, (University of Illinois Press, 1985), p. 6. ISBN 978-0-252-01174-0
17.Jump up ^ SVF 3:103. Misogyny is the first word on the page.
18.Jump up ^ Teun L. Tieleman, Chrysippus' on Affections: Reconstruction and Interpretations, (Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2003), p. 162. ISBN 90-04-12998-7
19.Jump up ^ Ricardo Salles, Metaphysics, Soul, and Ethics in Ancient Thought: Themes from the Work of Richard Sorabji, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005), 485.
20.Jump up ^ "Feminist History of Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2013-10-01.
21.Jump up ^ Pappas, Nickolas (2003-09-09). "Routledge philosophy guidebook to Plato and the Republic". ISBN 978-0-415-29996-1.
22.Jump up ^ Strabo,Geography, Book 7 [Alexandria] Chapter 3.
23.Jump up ^ Menander, The Plays and Fragments, translated by Maurice Balme, contributor Peter Brown[disambiguation needed], Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-283983-7
24.Jump up ^ He is supported (or followed) by Theognostus the Grammarian's 9th century Canones, edited by John Antony Cramer, Anecdota Graeca e codd. manuscriptis bibliothecarum Oxoniensium, vol. 2, (Oxford University Press, 1835), p. 88.
25.^ Jump up to: a b Marcus Tullius Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, Book 4, Chapter 11.
26.Jump up ^ γυναικομανεῖς ἐν ταὐτῷ καὶ μισογῦναιοι. Editio critica: Philo, De Specialibus Legibus, (Greek) edited by Leopold Cohn, Johann Theodor Wendland and S. Reiter, Philonis Alexandrini opera quæ supersunt, 6 vols, (Berlin, 1896–1915): (vol. 5) book 3, chapter 14 § 79. [Misprint in LSJ has 2:312]. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge (London, 1854–1855).
27.Jump up ^ Ptolemy, 'Of the Quality of the Soul', in Four Books, edited by Joachim Camerarius (Nuremberg, 1535), Latin translation by Philipp Melanchthon, reprinted (Basel, 1553): p. 159. Book 3 § 13. English translation.
28.Jump up ^ "Quality of the Soul". AstrologyWeekly. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
29.Jump up ^ τὸν διδάσκαλον τουτονὶ τὸν μισογύναιον. Alciphron, 'Thais to Euthyedmus', in Letters, (Greek) edited by MA Schepers, (Leipzig, 1905): as book 4, letter 7, page 115, line 15. ISBN 3-598-71023-2.Translated by the Athenian Society (1896): as book 1, letter 34.
30.Jump up ^ Vettius Valens, Anthology, edited by Wilhelm Kroll (1908): p. 17, line 11.
31.Jump up ^ Damascius, Principles, edited by CA Ruelle (Paris, 1889): p. 388.
32.Jump up ^ Holland, J: Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice, pp. 12-13. Avalon Publishing Group, 2006.
33.Jump up ^ "Sample Chapter for Faure, B.: The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender". Press.princeton.edu. Retrieved 2013-10-01.
34.Jump up ^ Rogers, Katharine M. The Troublesome Helpmate: A History of Misogyny in Literature, 1966.
35.Jump up ^ Ruthven, K. K (1990). "Feminist literary studies: An introduction". ISBN 978-0-521-39852-7.
36.Jump up ^ "Galatians 3:28 – prooftext or context?". The council on biblical manhood and womanhood. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
37.Jump up ^ Hove, Richard. Equality in Christ? Galatians 3:28 and the Gender Dispute. (Wheaton: Crossway, 1999) Page 17.
38.Jump up ^ Campbell, Ken M (2003-10-01). "Marriage and family in the biblical world". ISBN 978-0-8308-2737-4.
39.Jump up ^ Rinck, Margaret J. (1990). Christian Men Who Hate Women: Healing Hurting Relationships. Zondervan. pp. 81–85. ISBN 978-0-310-51751-1.
40.Jump up ^ Weigel, Christopher West ; with a foreword by George (2003). Theology of the body explained : a commentary on John Paul II's "Gospel of the body". Leominster, Herefordshire: Gracewing. ISBN 0852446004.
41.Jump up ^ "Verse 34 of Chapter 4 is an oft-cited Verse in the Qur'an used to demonstrate that Islam is structurally patriarchal, and thus Islam internalizes male dominance." Dahlia Eissa, "Constructing the Notion of Male Superiority over Women in Islam: The influence of sex and gender stereotyping in the interpretation of the Qur'an and the implications for a modernist exegesis of rights", Occasional Paper 11 in Occasional Papers (Empowerment International, 1999).
42.Jump up ^ Hashmi, Taj. Popular Islam and Misogyny: A Case Study of Bangladesh. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
43.Jump up ^ Nomani, Asra Q. (October 22, 2006). "Clothes Aren't the Issue". Washington Post.
44.Jump up ^ Julie A. Webber (2004). Expanding curriculum theory: dis/positions and lines of flight. Psychology Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-8058-4665-2.
45.Jump up ^ Scherstuhl, Alan (June 21, 2010). "The Church of Scientology does not want you to see L. Ron Hubbard's woman-hatin' book chapter". The Village Voice.
46.Jump up ^ "Gender and Sexuality". Patheos.com. 2012-07-26. Retrieved 2013-10-01.
47.Jump up ^ Durant, Will (1983). The Story of Philosophy. New York, N.Y.: Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 067120159X.
48.Jump up ^ Nietzsche, Friedrich (1886). Beyond Good and Evil. Germany. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
49.Jump up ^ Burgard, Peter J. (May 1994). Nietzsche and the Feminine. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-8139-1495-7.
50.Jump up ^ Nietzsche, Friedrich (1889). Twilight of the Idols. Germany. ISBN 978-0140445145. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
51.Jump up ^ Robert C. Holub, Nietzsche and The Women's Question. Coursework for Berkley University
52.Jump up ^ Gallagher, Shaun (1997). Hegel, history, and interpretation. SUNY Press. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-7914-3381-2.
53.Jump up ^ Alanen, Lilli; Witt, Charlotte (2004). "Feminist Reflections on the History of Philosophy". ISBN 978-1-4020-2488-7.
54.^ Jump up to: a b c Jane, Emma Alice (2014). "'Back to the kitchen, cunt': speaking the unspeakable about online misogyny". Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies 28 (4): 558–570. doi:10.1080/10304312.2014.924479.
55.Jump up ^ Philipovic, Jill (2007). "Blogging While Female: How Internet Misogyny Parallels Real-World Harassment". Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 19 (2): 295–303.
56.Jump up ^ Wyman, Leah M.; Dionisopolous, George N. (2000). "Transcending The Virgin/Whore Dichotomy: Telling Mina's Story in Bram Stoker's Dracula". Women's Studies in Communication (Taylor & Francis) 23 (2): 209–237. doi:10.1080/07491409.2000.10162569. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
57.Jump up ^ Frye, Marilyn. The Politics of Reality: Essays in Feminist Theory. Trumansburg, NY: Crossing, 1983.
58.Jump up ^ E.g., Kate Millet's Sexual Politics, adapted from her doctoral dissertation is normally cited as the originator of this viewpoint; though Katharine M Rogers had also published similar ideas previously.
59.Jump up ^ Flood, Michael (2007-07-18). "International encyclopedia of men and masculinities". ISBN 978-0-415-33343-6.
60.Jump up ^ Paglia, Camille (1991). Sexual Personae, NY:Vintage, Chapter 1 and passim.
61.Jump up ^ Groes-Green, C. 2012. "Philogynous masculinities: Contextualizing alternative manhood in Mozambique". Men and Masculinities 15(2):91-111. http://jmm.sagepub.com/content/15/2/91
Bibliography
Boteach, Shmuley. Hating Women: America's Hostile Campaign Against the Fairer Sex. 2005.
Brownmiller, Susan. Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975.
Clack, Beverley, comp. Misogyny in the Western Philosophical Tradition: a reader. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999.
Dijkstra, Bram. Idols of Perversity: Fantasies of Feminine Evil. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
Chodorow, Nancy. The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender. Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley, 1978.
Dworkin, Andrea. Woman Hating. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974.
Ellmann, Mary. Thinking About Women. 1968.
Ferguson, Frances and R. Howard Bloch. Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-520-06544-4
Forward, Susan, and Joan Torres. Men Who Hate Women and the Women Who Love Them: When Loving Hurts and You Don't Know Why. Bantam Books, 1986. ISBN 0-553-28037-6
Gilmore, David D. Misogyny: the Male Malady. 2001.
Haskell, Molly. From Reverence to Rape: The Treatment of Women in the Movies. 1974. University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Holland, Jack. Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice. 2006.
Kipnis, Laura. The Female Thing: Dirt, Sex, Envy, Vulnerability. 2006. ISBN 0-375-42417-2
Klein, Melanie. The Collected Writings of Melanie Klein. 4 volumes. London: Hogarth Press, 1975.
Marshall, Gordon. 'Misogyny'. In Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford University Press, 1998.
Johnson, Allan G. 'Misogyny'. In Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology: A User's Guide to Sociological Language. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2000.
Millett, Kate. Sexual Politics. New York: Doubleday, 1970.
Morgan, Fidelis. A Misogynist's Source Book.
Patai, Daphne, and Noretta Koertge. Professing Feminism: Cautionary Tales from the Strange World of Women's Studies. 1995. ISBN 0-465-09827-4
Penelope, Julia. Speaking Freely: Unlearning the Lies of our Fathers' Tongues. Toronto: Pergamon Press Canada, 1990.
Rich, Adrienne. :,.
Rogers, Katharine M. The Troublesome Helpmate: A History of Misogyny in Literature. 1966.
Smith, Joan. Misogynies. 1989. Revised 1993.
Tumanov, Vladimir. "Mary versus Eve: Paternal Uncertainty and the Christian View of Women." Neophilologus: International Journal of Modern and Mediaeval Language and Literature 95 (4) 2011: 507-521.
World Health Organization Multi-country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women* 2005.
External links
 Look up misogyny in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 Wikiquote has quotations related to: Misogyny
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Misogyny.
Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy


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Misogyny

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"Woman hater" redirects here. For other uses, see Woman Hater (disambiguation).
Misogyny (/mɪˈsɒdʒɪni/) is the hatred or dislike of women or girls. According to feminist theory, misogyny can be manifested in numerous ways, including sexual discrimination, belittling of women, violence against women, and sexual objectification of women.[1][2] Misogyny can be found within many mythologies of the ancient world as well as various religions. In addition, various influential Western philosophers have been described as misogynistic.[1][3]


Contents  [hide]
1 Definitions
2 Classical Greece
3 Religion 3.1 Ancient Greek
3.2 Buddhism
3.3 Christianity
3.4 Islam
3.5 Sikhism
3.6 Scientology
4 Philosophers (17th to 20th century) 4.1 Schopenhauer
4.2 Nietzsche
4.3 Hegel
5 Internet misogyny
6 Feminist theory
7 Criticism of the concept
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 Bibliography
11 External links

Definitions
According to sociologist Allan G. Johnson, "misogyny is a cultural attitude of hatred for females because they are female." Johnson argues that:

Misogyny .... is a central part of sexist prejudice and ideology and, as such, is an important basis for the oppression of females in male-dominated societies. Misogyny is manifested in many different ways, from jokes to pornography to violence to the self-contempt women may be taught to feel toward their own bodies.[4]
Sociologist Michael Flood, at the University of Wollongong, defines misogyny as the hatred of women, and notes:

Though most common in men, misogyny also exists in and is practiced by women against other women or even themselves. Misogyny functions as an ideology or belief system that has accompanied patriarchal, or male-dominated societies for thousands of years and continues to place women in subordinate positions with limited access to power and decision making. [...] Aristotle contended that women exist as natural deformities or imperfect males [...] Ever since, women in Western cultures have internalised their role as societal scapegoats, influenced in the twenty-first century by multimedia objectification of women with its culturally sanctioned self-loathing and fixations on plastic surgery, anorexia and bulimia.[5]
Dictionaries define misogyny as "hatred of women"[6][7][8] and as "hatred, dislike, or mistrust of women".[9] In 2012, primarily in response to events occurring in the Australian Parliament, the Macquarie Dictionary (which documents Australian English and New Zealand English) expanded the definition to include not only hatred of women but also "entrenched prejudices against women".[10] The counterpart of misogyny is misandry, the hatred or dislike of men; the antonym of misogyny is philogyny, the love or fondness of women.
Classical Greece



Euripides
In his book City of Sokrates: An Introduction to Classical Athens, J.W. Roberts argues that older than tragedy and comedy was a misogynistic tradition in Greek literature, reaching back at least as far as Hesiod.[11]
The word Misogyny had a different meaning in ancient Greece, since they applied the pejorative "woman hater" expression mostly to gay men. Hans Licht (1928), History of Greek Life and Customs, Paul Aretz Verlag
Misogyny comes into English from the ancient Greek word misogunia (μισογυνία), which survives in two passages.[12]
The earlier, longer, and more complete passage comes from a moral tract known as On Marriage (c. 150 BC) by the stoic philosopher Antipater of Tarsus.[13][14] Antipater argues that marriage is the foundation of the state, and considers it to be based on divine (polytheistic) decree. Antipater uses misogunia to describe Euripides' usual writing—tēn misogunian en tō graphein (τὴν μισογυνίαν ἐν τῷ γράφειν "the misogyny in the writing").[14] However, he mentions this by way of contrast. He goes on to quote Euripides at some length, writing in praise of wives. Antipater does not tell us what it is about Euripides' writing that he believes is misogynistic, he simply expresses his belief that even a man thought to hate women (namely Euripides) praises wives, so concluding his argument for the importance of marriage. He says, "This thing is truly heroic."[14]
Euripides' reputation as a misogynist is also evidenced in another source; in Deipnosophistae (Banquet of the Learned), Athenaeus has one of the diners quoting Hieronymus of Cardia, who confirms that the view was widespread, while offering Sophocles' comment on the matter:


Euripides the poet, also, was much addicted to women: at all events Hieronymus in his Historical Commentaries speaks as follows,—"When some one told Sophocles that Euripides was a woman-hater, 'He may be,' said he, 'in his tragedies, but in his bed he is very fond of women.'[15]
—Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists, Book 13
Despite Euripides' reputation, Antipater is not the only writer to see appreciation of women in his writing. Katherine Henderson and Barbara McManus state that he "showed more empathy for women than any other ancient writer", citing "relatively modern critics" to support their claim.[16]
The other surviving use of the original Greek word is by Chrysippus, in a fragment from On affections, quoted by Galen in Hippocrates on Affections.[17] Here, misogyny is the first in a short list of three "disaffections"—women (misogunian), wine (misoinian, μισοινίαν) and humanity (misanthrōpian, μισανθρωπίαν). Chrysippus' point is more abstract than Antipater's, and Galen quotes the passage as an example of an opinion contrary to his own. What is clear, however, is that he groups hatred of women with hatred of humanity generally, and even hatred of wine. "It was the prevailing medical opinion of his day that wine strengthens body and soul alike."[18] So Chrysippus, like his fellow stoic Antipater, views misogyny negatively, as a disease; a dislike of something that is good. It is this issue of conflicted or alternating emotions that was philosophically contentious to the ancient writers. Ricardo Salles suggests that the general stoic view was that "[a] man may not only alternate between philogyny and misogyny, philanthropy and misanthropy, but be prompted to each by the other."[19]
Aristotle has also been accused of being a misogynist; he has written that women were inferior to men. According to Cynthia Freeland (1994):

Aristotle says that the courage of a man lies in commanding, a woman's lies in obeying; that 'matter yearns for form, as the female for the male and the ugly for the beautiful'; that women have fewer teeth than men; that a female is an incomplete male or 'as it were, a deformity': which contributes only matter and not form to the generation of offspring; that in general 'a woman is perhaps an inferior being'; that female characters in a tragedy will be inappropriate if they are too brave or too clever[.][20]
In the Routledge philosophy guidebook to Plato and the Republic, Nickolas Pappas describes the "problem of misogyny" and states:

In the Apology, Socrates calls those who plead for their lives in court "no better than women" (35b)... The Timaeus warns men that if they live immorally they will be reincarnated as women (42b-c; cf. 75d-e). The Republic contains a number of comments in the same spirit (387e, 395d-e, 398e, 431b-c, 469d), evidence of nothing so much as of contempt toward women. Even Socrates' words for his bold new proposal about marriage... suggest that the women are to be "held in common" by men. He never says that the men might be held in common by the women... We also have to acknowledge Socrates' insistence that men surpass women at any task that both sexes attempt (455c, 456a), and his remark in Book 8 that one sign of democracy's moral failure is the sexual equality it promotes (563b).[21]
Misogynist is also found in the Greek—misogunēs (μισογύνης)—in Deipnosophistae (above) and in Plutarch's Parallel Lives, where it is used as the title of Heracles in the history of Phocion. It was the title of a play by Menander, which we know of from book seven (concerning Alexandria) of Strabo's 17 volume Geography,[12][22] and quotations of Menander by Clement of Alexandria and Stobaeus that relate to marriage.[23] Menander also wrote a play called Misoumenos (Μισούμενος) or The Man (She) Hated. Another Greek play with a similar name, Misogunos (Μισόγυνος) or Woman-hater, is reported by Marcus Tullius Cicero (in Latin) and attributed to the poet Marcus Atilius.[24]



Marcus Tullius Cicero
Cicero reports that Greek philosophers considered misogyny to be caused by gynophobia, a fear of women.[25]

It is the same with other diseases; as the desire of glory, a passion for women, to which the Greeks give the name of philogyneia: and thus all other diseases and sicknesses are generated. But those feelings which are the contrary of these are supposed to have fear for their foundation, as a hatred of women, such as is displayed in the Woman-hater of Atilius; or the hatred of the whole human species, as Timon is reported to have done, whom they call the Misanthrope. Of the same kind is inhospitality. And all these diseases proceed from a certain dread of such things as they hate and avoid.[25]
—Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, 1st century BC.
The more common form of this general word for woman hating is misogunaios (μισογύναιος).[12]
There are also some persons easily sated with their connection with the same woman, being at once both mad for women and women haters. — Philo, Of Special Laws, 1st Century.[26]
Allied with Venus in honourable positions Saturn makes his subjects haters of women, lovers of antiquity, solitary, unpleasant to meet, unambitious, hating the beautiful, ... — Ptolemy, "Quality of the Soul", Tetrabiblos, 2nd century.[27][28]
I will prove to you that this wonderful teacher, this woman-hater, is not satisfied with ordinary enjoyments during the night. — Alciphron, "Thais to Euthydemus", 2nd century.[29]
The word is also found in Vettius Valens' Anthology and Damascius' Principles.[30][31]
In summary, Greek literature considered misogyny to be a disease—an anti-social condition—in that it ran contrary to their perceptions of the value of women as wives and of the family as the foundation of society. These points are widely noted in the secondary literature.[14]
Religion
See also: Feminist theology and Sex differences in religion
Ancient Greek
In Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice, Jack Holland claims that there is evidence of misogyny in the mythology of the ancient world. In Greek mythology according to Hesiod, the human race had already experienced a peaceful, autonomous existence as a companion to the gods before the creation of women. When Prometheus decides to steal the secret of fire from the gods, Zeus becomes infuriated and decides to punish humankind with an "evil thing for their delight". This "evil thing" is Pandora, the first woman, who carried a jar (usually described—incorrectly—as a box) which she was told to never open. Epimetheus (the brother of Prometheus) is overwhelmed by her beauty, disregards Prometheus' warnings about her, and marries her. Pandora cannot resist peeking into the jar, and by opening it she unleashes into the world all evil; labour, sickness, old age, and death.[32]
Buddhism
Main article: Women in Buddhism
In his book The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender, professor Bernard Faure of Columbia University argued generally that "Buddhism is paradoxically neither as sexist nor as egalitarian as is usually thought." He remarked, "Many feminist scholars have emphasized the misogynistic (or at least androcentric) nature of Buddhism" and stated that Buddhism morally exalts its male monks while the mothers and wives of the monks also have important roles. Additionally, he wrote:

While some scholars see Buddhism as part of a movement of emancipation, others see it as a source of oppression. Perhaps this is only a distinction between optimists and pessimists, if not between idealists and realists... As we begin to realize, the term "Buddhism" does not designate a monolithic entity, but covers a number of doctrines, ideologies, and practices--some of which seem to invite, tolerate, and even cultivate "otherness" on their margins.[33]
Christianity



Eve rides astride the Serpent on a capital in Laach Abbey church, 13th century
Main article: Gender roles in Christianity
See also: Complementarianism and Christian egalitarianism
Differences in tradition and interpretations of scripture have caused sects of Christianity to differ in their beliefs with regard their treatment of women.
In The Troublesome Helpmate, Katharine M. Rogers claims that Christianity is misogynistic, and she lists what she says are specific examples of misogyny in the Pauline epistles. She states:

The foundations of early Christian misogyny — its guilt about sex, its insistence on female subjection, its dread of female seduction — are all in St. Paul's epistles.[34]
In K. K. Ruthven's Feminist Literary Studies: An Introduction, Ruthven makes reference to Rogers' book and argues that the "legacy of Christian misogyny was consolidated by the so-called 'Fathers' of the Church, like Tertullian, who thought a woman was not only 'the gateway of the devil' but also 'a temple built over a sewer'."[35]
However, some other scholars have argued that Christianity does not include misogynistic principles, or at least that a proper interpretation of Christianity would not include misogynistic principles. David M. Scholer, a biblical scholar at Fuller Theological Seminary, stated that the verse Galatians 3:28 ("There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus") is "the fundamental Pauline theological basis for the inclusion of women and men as equal and mutual partners in all of the ministries of the church."[36][37] In his book Equality in Christ? Galatians 3.28 and the Gender Dispute, Richard Hove argues that—while Galatians 3:28 does mean that one's sex does not affect salvation—"there remains a pattern in which the wife is to emulate the church's submission to Christ (Eph 5:21-33) and the husband is to emulate Christ's love for the church."[38]
In Christian Men Who Hate Women, clinical psychologist Margaret J. Rinck has written that Christian social culture often allows a misogynist "misuse of the biblical ideal of submission". However, she argues that this a distortion of the "healthy relationship of mutual submission" which is actually specified in Christian doctrine, where "[l]ove is based on a deep, mutual respect as the guiding principle behind all decisions, actions, and plans".[39] Similarly, Catholic scholar Christopher West argues that "male domination violates God's plan and is the specific result of sin".[40]
Islam
Main article: Women in Islam
See also: Namus and Islam and domestic violence
The fourth chapter (or sura) of the Quran is called "Women" (An-Nisa). The 34th verse is a key verse in feminist criticism of Islam.[41] The verse reads: "Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient, guarding the unseen as Allah has guarded; and (as to) those on whose part you fear desertion, admonish them, and leave them alone in the sleeping-places and beat them; then if they obey you, do not seek a way against them; surely Allah is High, Great."
In his book Popular Islam and Misogyny: A Case Study of Bangladesh, Taj Hashmi discusses misogyny in relation to Muslim culture (and to Bangladesh in particular), writing:

[T]hanks to the subjective interpretations of the Quran (almost exclusively by men), the preponderance of the misogynic mullahs and the regressive Shariah law in most "Muslim" countries, Islam is synonymously known as a promoter of misogyny in its worst form. Although there is no way of defending the so-called "great" traditions of Islam as libertarian and egalitarian with regard to women, we may draw a line between the Quranic texts and the corpus of avowedly misogynic writing and spoken words by the mullah having very little or no relevance to the Quran.[42]
In his book No god but God, University of Southern California professor Reza Aslan wrote that "misogynistic interpretation" has been persistently attached to An-Nisa, 34 because commentary on the Quran "has been the exclusive domain of Muslim men".[43]
Sikhism



Guru Nanak in the center, amongst other Sikh figures
See also: Women in Sikhism
Scholars William M. Reynolds and Julie A. Webber have written that Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh faith tradition, was a "fighter for women's rights" that was "in no way misogynistic" in contrast to some of his contemporaries.[44]
Scientology
See also: Scientology and marriage
In his book Scientology: A New Slant on Life, L. Ron Hubbard wrote the following passage:

A society in which women are taught anything but the management of a family, the care of men, and the creation of the future generation is a society which is on its way out.
In the same book, he also wrote:

The historian can peg the point where a society begins its sharpest decline at the instant when women begin to take part, on an equal footing with men, in political and business affairs, since this means that the men are decadent and the women are no longer women. This is not a sermon on the role or position of women; it is a statement of bald and basic fact.
These passages, along with other ones of a similar nature from Hubbard, have been criticised by Alan Scherstuhl of The Village Voice as expressions of hatred towards women.[45] However, Baylor University professor J. Gordon Melton has written that Hubbard later disregarded and abrogated much of his earlier views about women, which Melton views as merely echoes of common prejudices at the time. Melton has also stated that the Church of Scientology welcomes both genders equally at all levels—from leadership positions to auditing and so on—since Scientologists view people as spiritual beings.[46]
Philosophers (17th to 20th century)
Numerous influential Western philosophers have been accused of being misogynistic, including René Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, G. W. F. Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, Otto Weininger, Oswald Spengler, and John Lucas.[3]
Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer has been accused of misogyny for his essay "On Women" (Über die Weiber), in which he expressed his opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" on female affairs. He argued that women are "by nature meant to obey" as they are "childish, frivolous, and short sighted".[3] He claimed that no woman had ever produced great art or "any work of permanent value".[3] He also argued that women did not possess any real beauty:[47]

It is only a man whose intellect is clouded by his sexual impulse that could give the name of the fair sex to that under-sized, narrow-shouldered, broad-hipped, and short-legged race; for the whole beauty of the sex is bound up with this impulse. Instead of calling them beautiful there would be more warrant for describing women as the unaesthetic sex.
Nietzsche
Main article: Friedrich Nietzsche's views on women
In Beyond Good and Evil, Friedrich Nietzsche stated that stricter controls on women was a condition of "every elevation of culture".[48] In his Thus Spoke Zarathustra, he has a female character say "You are going to women? Do not forget the whip!"[49] In Twilight of the Idols, Nietzsche writes "Women are considered profound. Why? Because we never fathom their depths. But women aren't even shallow."[50] There is controversy over the questions of whether or not this amounts to misogyny, whether his polemic against women is meant to be taken literally, and the exact nature of his opinions of women.[51]
Hegel
Hegel's view of women has been said to be misogynistic.[52] Passages from Hegel's Elements of the Philosophy of Right are frequently used to illustrate Hegel's supposed misogyny:[53]

Women are capable of education, but they are not made for activities which demand a universal faculty such as the more advanced sciences, philosophy and certain forms of artistic production... Women regulate their actions not by the demands of universality, but by arbitrary inclinations and opinions.
Internet misogyny
Misogynistic rhetoric is prevalent online and has grown rhetorically more aggressive. The public debate over gendered attacks has increased significantly, leading to calls for policy interventions and better responses by social networks like Facebook and Twitter.[54][55]
Most targets are women who are visible in the public sphere, women who speak out about the threats they receive, and women who are perceived to be associated with feminism or feminist gains. Authors of misogynistic messages are usually anonymous or otherwise difficult to identify. Their rhetoric involves misogynistic epithets and graphic and sexualized imagery, centers on the women's physical appearance, and prescribes sexual violence as a corrective for the targeted women. Examples of famous women who spoke out about misogynistic attacks are Anita Sarkeesian, Laurie Penny, Caroline Criado-Perez, Stella Creasy, and Lindy West.[54]
The insults and threats directed at different women tend to be very similar. Sady Doyle who has been the target of online threats noted the "overwhelmingly impersonal, repetitive, stereotyped quality" of the abuse, the fact that "all of us are being called the same things, in the same tone."[54]
Feminist theory
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Subscribers to one model claim that some misogyny results from the Madonna–whore complex, which is the inability to see women as anything other than "mothers" or "whores"; people with this complex place each encountered woman into one of these categories. Another variant model is the one alleging that one cause of misogyny is some men thinking in terms of a virgin/whore dichotomy, which results in them considering as "whores" any women who do not adhere to an Abrahamic standard of moral purity.[56]
Feminist theorist Marilyn Frye claims that misogyny is, at its root, phallogocentric and homoerotic. In The Politics of Reality, Frye says that there is a misogynistic character to C. S. Lewis' fiction and Christian apologetics, and argues that such misogyny privileges the masculine as a subject of erotic attention. She compares Lewis' ideal of gender relations to underground male prostitution rings, contending that they share the quality of men seeking to dominate subjects seen as less likely to take on submissive roles by a patriarchal society, but do so as a theatrical mockery of women.[57][clarification needed]
In the late 20th century, second-wave feminist theorists claimed that misogyny is both a cause and a result of patriarchal social structures.[58]
Sociologist Michael Flood has argued that "misandry lacks the systemic, transhistoric, institutionalized, and legislated antipathy of misogyny."[59]
Criticism of the concept
Camille Paglia, a self-described "dissident feminist" who has often been at odds with other academic feminists, argues that there are serious flaws in the Marxism-inspired interpretation of misogyny that is prevalent in second-wave feminism. In contrast, Paglia argues that a close reading of historical texts reveals that men do not hate women but fear them.[60] Christian Groes-Green has argued that misogyny must be seen in relation to its opposite which he terms philogyny. Criticizing Connell's theory of hegemonic masculinities he shows how philogynous masculinities play out among youth in Maputo, Mozambique.[61]
See also
Honor killing
Misandry
Misanthropy
Misogyny in horror films
Misogyny and mass media
Misogyny in hip hop culture
Object relations theory
Wife selling
The Bro Code: How Contemporary Culture Creates Sexist Men
Misogyny in sports
Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta
Notes and references
1.^ Jump up to: a b Code, Lorraine (2000). Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories (1st ed.). London: Routledge. p. 346. ISBN 0-415-13274-6.
2.Jump up ^ Kramarae, Cheris (2000). Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women. New York: Routledge. pp. 1374–1377. ISBN 0-415-92088-4.
3.^ Jump up to: a b c d Clack, Beverley (1999). Misogyny in the Western Philosophical Tradition: A Reader. New York: Routledge. pp. 95–241. ISBN 0415921821.
4.Jump up ^ Johnson, Allan G (2000). "The Blackwell dictionary of sociology: A user's guide to sociological language". ISBN 978-0-631-21681-0. Retrieved November 21, 2011., ("ideology" in all small capitals in original).
5.Jump up ^ Flood, Michael (2007-07-18). "International encyclopedia of men and masculinities". ISBN 978-0-415-33343-6.
6.Jump up ^ The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (Oxford: Clarendon Press (Oxford Univ. Press), [4th] ed. 1993 (ISBN 0-19-861271-0)) (SOED) ("[h]atred of women").
7.Jump up ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1992 (ISBN 0-395-44895-6)) ("[h]atred of women").
8.Jump up ^ Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (G. & C. Merriam, 1966) ("a hatred of women").
9.Jump up ^ Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary (N.Y.: Random House, 2d ed. 2001 (ISBN 0-375-42566-7)).
10.Jump up ^ Daley, Gemma (17 October 2012). "Macquarie Dictionary has last word on misogyny". Retrieved 21 October 2012.
11.Jump up ^ Roberts, J.W (2002-06-01). "City of Sokrates: An Introduction to Classical Athens". ISBN 978-0-203-19479-9.
12.^ Jump up to: a b c Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon (LSJ), revised and augmented by Henry Stuart Jones and Roderick McKenzie, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940). ISBN 0-19-864226-1
13.Jump up ^ The editio princeps is on page 255 of volume three of Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta (SVF, Old Stoic Fragments), see External links.
14.^ Jump up to: a b c d A recent critical text with translation is in Appendix A to Will Deming, Paul on Marriage and Celibacy: The Hellenistic Background of 1 Corinthians 7, pp. 221–226. Misogunia appears in the accusative case on page 224 of Deming, as the fifth word in line 33 of his Greek text. It is split over lines 25–26 in von Arnim.
15.Jump up ^ Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists, Book 13 Book 13
16.Jump up ^ "Although Euripides showed more empathy for women than any other ancient writer, many of his lines out of context sound misogynistic; only relatively modern critics have been able to rescue him from his centuries-old reputation as a woman-hater." Katherine Usher Henderson and Barbara F. McManus, Half Humankind: Contexts and Texts of the Controversy about Women in England, 1540-1640, (University of Illinois Press, 1985), p. 6. ISBN 978-0-252-01174-0
17.Jump up ^ SVF 3:103. Misogyny is the first word on the page.
18.Jump up ^ Teun L. Tieleman, Chrysippus' on Affections: Reconstruction and Interpretations, (Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2003), p. 162. ISBN 90-04-12998-7
19.Jump up ^ Ricardo Salles, Metaphysics, Soul, and Ethics in Ancient Thought: Themes from the Work of Richard Sorabji, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005), 485.
20.Jump up ^ "Feminist History of Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2013-10-01.
21.Jump up ^ Pappas, Nickolas (2003-09-09). "Routledge philosophy guidebook to Plato and the Republic". ISBN 978-0-415-29996-1.
22.Jump up ^ Strabo,Geography, Book 7 [Alexandria] Chapter 3.
23.Jump up ^ Menander, The Plays and Fragments, translated by Maurice Balme, contributor Peter Brown[disambiguation needed], Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-283983-7
24.Jump up ^ He is supported (or followed) by Theognostus the Grammarian's 9th century Canones, edited by John Antony Cramer, Anecdota Graeca e codd. manuscriptis bibliothecarum Oxoniensium, vol. 2, (Oxford University Press, 1835), p. 88.
25.^ Jump up to: a b Marcus Tullius Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, Book 4, Chapter 11.
26.Jump up ^ γυναικομανεῖς ἐν ταὐτῷ καὶ μισογῦναιοι. Editio critica: Philo, De Specialibus Legibus, (Greek) edited by Leopold Cohn, Johann Theodor Wendland and S. Reiter, Philonis Alexandrini opera quæ supersunt, 6 vols, (Berlin, 1896–1915): (vol. 5) book 3, chapter 14 § 79. [Misprint in LSJ has 2:312]. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge (London, 1854–1855).
27.Jump up ^ Ptolemy, 'Of the Quality of the Soul', in Four Books, edited by Joachim Camerarius (Nuremberg, 1535), Latin translation by Philipp Melanchthon, reprinted (Basel, 1553): p. 159. Book 3 § 13. English translation.
28.Jump up ^ "Quality of the Soul". AstrologyWeekly. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
29.Jump up ^ τὸν διδάσκαλον τουτονὶ τὸν μισογύναιον. Alciphron, 'Thais to Euthyedmus', in Letters, (Greek) edited by MA Schepers, (Leipzig, 1905): as book 4, letter 7, page 115, line 15. ISBN 3-598-71023-2.Translated by the Athenian Society (1896): as book 1, letter 34.
30.Jump up ^ Vettius Valens, Anthology, edited by Wilhelm Kroll (1908): p. 17, line 11.
31.Jump up ^ Damascius, Principles, edited by CA Ruelle (Paris, 1889): p. 388.
32.Jump up ^ Holland, J: Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice, pp. 12-13. Avalon Publishing Group, 2006.
33.Jump up ^ "Sample Chapter for Faure, B.: The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender". Press.princeton.edu. Retrieved 2013-10-01.
34.Jump up ^ Rogers, Katharine M. The Troublesome Helpmate: A History of Misogyny in Literature, 1966.
35.Jump up ^ Ruthven, K. K (1990). "Feminist literary studies: An introduction". ISBN 978-0-521-39852-7.
36.Jump up ^ "Galatians 3:28 – prooftext or context?". The council on biblical manhood and womanhood. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
37.Jump up ^ Hove, Richard. Equality in Christ? Galatians 3:28 and the Gender Dispute. (Wheaton: Crossway, 1999) Page 17.
38.Jump up ^ Campbell, Ken M (2003-10-01). "Marriage and family in the biblical world". ISBN 978-0-8308-2737-4.
39.Jump up ^ Rinck, Margaret J. (1990). Christian Men Who Hate Women: Healing Hurting Relationships. Zondervan. pp. 81–85. ISBN 978-0-310-51751-1.
40.Jump up ^ Weigel, Christopher West ; with a foreword by George (2003). Theology of the body explained : a commentary on John Paul II's "Gospel of the body". Leominster, Herefordshire: Gracewing. ISBN 0852446004.
41.Jump up ^ "Verse 34 of Chapter 4 is an oft-cited Verse in the Qur'an used to demonstrate that Islam is structurally patriarchal, and thus Islam internalizes male dominance." Dahlia Eissa, "Constructing the Notion of Male Superiority over Women in Islam: The influence of sex and gender stereotyping in the interpretation of the Qur'an and the implications for a modernist exegesis of rights", Occasional Paper 11 in Occasional Papers (Empowerment International, 1999).
42.Jump up ^ Hashmi, Taj. Popular Islam and Misogyny: A Case Study of Bangladesh. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
43.Jump up ^ Nomani, Asra Q. (October 22, 2006). "Clothes Aren't the Issue". Washington Post.
44.Jump up ^ Julie A. Webber (2004). Expanding curriculum theory: dis/positions and lines of flight. Psychology Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-8058-4665-2.
45.Jump up ^ Scherstuhl, Alan (June 21, 2010). "The Church of Scientology does not want you to see L. Ron Hubbard's woman-hatin' book chapter". The Village Voice.
46.Jump up ^ "Gender and Sexuality". Patheos.com. 2012-07-26. Retrieved 2013-10-01.
47.Jump up ^ Durant, Will (1983). The Story of Philosophy. New York, N.Y.: Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 067120159X.
48.Jump up ^ Nietzsche, Friedrich (1886). Beyond Good and Evil. Germany. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
49.Jump up ^ Burgard, Peter J. (May 1994). Nietzsche and the Feminine. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-8139-1495-7.
50.Jump up ^ Nietzsche, Friedrich (1889). Twilight of the Idols. Germany. ISBN 978-0140445145. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
51.Jump up ^ Robert C. Holub, Nietzsche and The Women's Question. Coursework for Berkley University
52.Jump up ^ Gallagher, Shaun (1997). Hegel, history, and interpretation. SUNY Press. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-7914-3381-2.
53.Jump up ^ Alanen, Lilli; Witt, Charlotte (2004). "Feminist Reflections on the History of Philosophy". ISBN 978-1-4020-2488-7.
54.^ Jump up to: a b c Jane, Emma Alice (2014). "'Back to the kitchen, cunt': speaking the unspeakable about online misogyny". Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies 28 (4): 558–570. doi:10.1080/10304312.2014.924479.
55.Jump up ^ Philipovic, Jill (2007). "Blogging While Female: How Internet Misogyny Parallels Real-World Harassment". Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 19 (2): 295–303.
56.Jump up ^ Wyman, Leah M.; Dionisopolous, George N. (2000). "Transcending The Virgin/Whore Dichotomy: Telling Mina's Story in Bram Stoker's Dracula". Women's Studies in Communication (Taylor & Francis) 23 (2): 209–237. doi:10.1080/07491409.2000.10162569. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
57.Jump up ^ Frye, Marilyn. The Politics of Reality: Essays in Feminist Theory. Trumansburg, NY: Crossing, 1983.
58.Jump up ^ E.g., Kate Millet's Sexual Politics, adapted from her doctoral dissertation is normally cited as the originator of this viewpoint; though Katharine M Rogers had also published similar ideas previously.
59.Jump up ^ Flood, Michael (2007-07-18). "International encyclopedia of men and masculinities". ISBN 978-0-415-33343-6.
60.Jump up ^ Paglia, Camille (1991). Sexual Personae, NY:Vintage, Chapter 1 and passim.
61.Jump up ^ Groes-Green, C. 2012. "Philogynous masculinities: Contextualizing alternative manhood in Mozambique". Men and Masculinities 15(2):91-111. http://jmm.sagepub.com/content/15/2/91
Bibliography
Boteach, Shmuley. Hating Women: America's Hostile Campaign Against the Fairer Sex. 2005.
Brownmiller, Susan. Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975.
Clack, Beverley, comp. Misogyny in the Western Philosophical Tradition: a reader. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999.
Dijkstra, Bram. Idols of Perversity: Fantasies of Feminine Evil. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
Chodorow, Nancy. The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender. Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley, 1978.
Dworkin, Andrea. Woman Hating. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974.
Ellmann, Mary. Thinking About Women. 1968.
Ferguson, Frances and R. Howard Bloch. Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-520-06544-4
Forward, Susan, and Joan Torres. Men Who Hate Women and the Women Who Love Them: When Loving Hurts and You Don't Know Why. Bantam Books, 1986. ISBN 0-553-28037-6
Gilmore, David D. Misogyny: the Male Malady. 2001.
Haskell, Molly. From Reverence to Rape: The Treatment of Women in the Movies. 1974. University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Holland, Jack. Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice. 2006.
Kipnis, Laura. The Female Thing: Dirt, Sex, Envy, Vulnerability. 2006. ISBN 0-375-42417-2
Klein, Melanie. The Collected Writings of Melanie Klein. 4 volumes. London: Hogarth Press, 1975.
Marshall, Gordon. 'Misogyny'. In Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford University Press, 1998.
Johnson, Allan G. 'Misogyny'. In Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology: A User's Guide to Sociological Language. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2000.
Millett, Kate. Sexual Politics. New York: Doubleday, 1970.
Morgan, Fidelis. A Misogynist's Source Book.
Patai, Daphne, and Noretta Koertge. Professing Feminism: Cautionary Tales from the Strange World of Women's Studies. 1995. ISBN 0-465-09827-4
Penelope, Julia. Speaking Freely: Unlearning the Lies of our Fathers' Tongues. Toronto: Pergamon Press Canada, 1990.
Rich, Adrienne. :,.
Rogers, Katharine M. The Troublesome Helpmate: A History of Misogyny in Literature. 1966.
Smith, Joan. Misogynies. 1989. Revised 1993.
Tumanov, Vladimir. "Mary versus Eve: Paternal Uncertainty and the Christian View of Women." Neophilologus: International Journal of Modern and Mediaeval Language and Literature 95 (4) 2011: 507-521.
World Health Organization Multi-country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women* 2005.
External links
 Look up misogyny in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 Wikiquote has quotations related to: Misogyny
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Misogyny.
Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy


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Categories: Discrimination
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