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Miscegenation (/mɪˌsɛdʒɨˈneɪʃən/; from the Latin miscere "to mix" + genus "kind") is the mixing of different racial groups through marriage, cohabitation, sexual relations, or procreation.[1]
The term miscegenation has been used since the 19th century to refer to interracial marriage and interracial sexual relations,[1] and more generally to the process of genetic admixture. Historically, the term has been used in the context of laws banning interracial marriage and sex, known as anti-miscegenation laws.[2] The Latin term entered historical records during European colonialism and the Age of Discovery, but societies such as China and Japan also had restrictions on marrying with peoples whom they considered to be of a different race.


Contents  [hide]
1 Usage
2 Etymological history
3 The concept of miscegenation
4 Laws banning miscegenation
5 History of ethnoracial admixture and attitudes towards miscegenation 5.1 Africa 5.1.1 Mauritius
5.1.2 Réunion
5.1.3 Madagascar
5.2 Americas 5.2.1 United States 5.2.1.1 Hawaii
5.2.2 Latin America 5.2.2.1 Peru
5.2.2.2 Cuba
5.2.2.3 Costa Rica
5.2.2.4 West Indies
5.2.2.5 Mexico
5.2.2.6 Venezuela
5.2.2.7 Argentina
5.2.2.8 Guatemala
5.2.2.9 El Salvador
5.2.2.10 Bolivia
5.2.2.11 Jamaica and Haiti

5.3 Asia 5.3.1 Central Asia
5.3.2 Caucasus
5.3.3 China
5.3.4 Taiwan
5.3.5 Hong Kong
5.3.6 Macao
5.3.7 Indian subcontinent
5.3.8 Japan
5.3.9 Korea
5.3.10 Vietnam
5.3.11 Malaysia and Singapore
5.3.12 Burma
5.3.13 Philippines
5.4 Europe 5.4.1 Germany
5.4.2 Hungary
5.4.3 Iberian Peninsula
5.4.4 Italian Peninsula
5.4.5 Russia
5.4.6 Southeastern and Eastern Europe
5.4.7 United Kingdom
5.5 Middle East 5.5.1 Israel
5.5.2 United Arab Emirates
5.6 Oceania 5.6.1 Australia
5.6.2 New Zealand
5.7 Portuguese colonies
6 Demographics of ethnoracial admixture 6.1 U.S.
6.2 Brazil
7 Genetic admixture 7.1 Admixture in the United States
7.2 Admixture in Latin America 7.2.1 Background
7.2.2 Recent studies
7.3 Admixture in the Philippines
7.4 Admixture among the Romani people
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 Bibliography
11 Other sources
12 External links

Usage
In the present day, the word miscegenation is avoided by many scholars, because the term suggests a concrete biological phenomenon, rather than a categorization imposed on certain relationships. The term's historical use in contexts that typically implied disapproval is also a reason why more unambiguously neutral terms such as interracial, interethnic or cross-cultural are more common in contemporary usage.[3] The term remains in use among scholars when referring to past practices concerning multiraciality, such as anti-miscegenation laws that banned interracial marriages.[4]
In Spanish, Portuguese and French, the words used to describe the mixing of races are mestizaje, mestiçagem and métissage. These words, much older than the term miscegenation, are derived from the Late Latin mixticius for "mixed", which is also the root of the Spanish word mestizo. Portuguese also uses miscigenação, derived from the same Latin root as the English word. These non-English terms for "race-mixing" are not considered as offensive as "miscegenation", although they have historically been tied to the caste system (Casta) that was established during the colonial era in Spanish-speaking Latin America. Some groups in South America, however, consider the use of the word mestizo offensive because it was used during the times of the colony to refer specifically to the mixing between the conquistadores and the indigenous people.
Today, the mixes among races and ethnicities are diverse, so it is considered preferable to use the term "mixed-race" or simply "mixed" (mezcla). In Portuguese-speaking Latin America (i.e., Brazil), a milder form of caste system existed, although it also provided for legal and social discrimination among individuals belonging to different races, since slavery for blacks existed until the late 19th century. Intermarriage occurred significantly from the very first settlements, with their descendants achieving high rank in government and society.[citation needed] To this day, the Brazilian class system is drawn mostly around socio-economic lines, not racial ones (in a manner similar to other former Portuguese colonies).
The concept of miscegenation is tied to concepts of racial difference. As the different connotations and etymologies of miscegenation and mestizaje suggest, definitions of race, "race mixing" and multiraciality have diverged globally as well as historically, depending on changing social circumstances and cultural perceptions. Mestizo are people of mixed white and indigenous, usually Amerindian ancestry, who do not self-identify as indigenous peoples or Native Americans. In Canada, however, the Métis, who also have partly Amerindian and partly white, often French-Canadian, ancestry, have identified as an ethnic group and are a constitutionally recognized aboriginal people.
The differences between related terms and words which encompass aspects of racial admixture show the impact of different historical and cultural factors leading to changing social interpretations of race and ethnicity. Thus the Comte de Montlosier, in exile during the French Revolution, equated class difference in 18th-century France with racial difference. Borrowing Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", he showed his contempt for the lowest social class, the Third Estate, calling it "this new people born of slaves ... mixture of all races and of all times".[citation needed]
Etymological history
Miscegenation comes from the Latin miscere, "to mix" and genus, "kind". The word was coined in the U.S. in 1863, and the etymology of the word is tied up with political conflicts during the American Civil War over the abolition of slavery and over the racial segregation of African-Americans. The reference to genus was made to emphasize the supposedly distinct biological differences between whites and non-whites, though all humans belong to the same genus, Homo, and the same species, Homo sapiens.
The word was coined in an anonymous propaganda pamphlet published in New York City in December 1863, during the American Civil War. The pamphlet was entitled Miscegenation: The Theory of the Blending of the Races, Applied to the American White Man and Negro.[5] It purported to advocate the intermarriage of whites and blacks until they were indistinguishably mixed, as a desirable goal, and further asserted that this was the goal of the Republican Party. The pamphlet was a hoax, concocted by Democrats, to discredit the Republicans by imputing to them what were then radical views that offended against the attitudes of the vast majority of whites, including those who opposed slavery. There was already much opposition to the war effort.
The pamphlet and variations on it were reprinted widely in both the north and south by Democrats and Confederates. Only in November 1864 was the pamphlet exposed as a hoax. The hoax pamphlet was written by David Goodman Croly, managing editor of the New York World, a Democratic Party paper, and George Wakeman, a World reporter.
By then, the word miscegenation had entered the common language of the day as a popular buzzword in political and social discourse. The issue of miscegenation, raised by the opponents of Abraham Lincoln, featured prominently in the election campaign of 1864.
In the United States, miscegenation has referred primarily to the intermarriage between whites and non-whites, especially blacks.
Before the publication of Miscegenation, the word amalgamation, borrowed from metallurgy, had been in use as a general term for ethnic and racial intermixing. A contemporary usage of this metaphor was that of Ralph Waldo Emerson's private vision in 1845 of America as an ethnic and racial smelting-pot, a variation on the concept of the melting pot. Opinions in the U.S on the desirability of such intermixing, including that between white Protestants and Irish Catholic immigrants, were divided. The term miscegenation was coined to refer specifically to the intermarriage of blacks and whites, with the intent of galvanising opposition to the war.[6]
The concept of miscegenation
Franz Boas (considered to be the father of American cultural anthropology) as well as many of his students, such as Ashley Montagu, considered race to be an invalid concept.[7] From this point of view, if the concept of race is invalid, then miscegenation as the crossing of races is equally invalid. This is because of the fact that there is only one race—that of human.[citation needed] All differences in various people(s) are superficial. These ideas are pursued in greater depth in Ashley Montagu's books on the subject.[8][9]
Laws banning miscegenation

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Main article: Anti-miscegenation laws
Laws banning "race-mixing" were enforced in certain U.S. states from 1691[10] until 1967 (though still on the books in some states till 2000),[11] in Nazi Germany (the Nuremberg Laws) from 1935 until 1945, and in South Africa during the early part of the Apartheid era (1949–1985). All these laws primarily banned marriage between persons of different racially or ethnically defined groups, which was termed "amalgamation" or "miscegenation" in the U.S. The laws in Nazi Germany and many of the U.S. states, as well as South Africa, also banned sexual relations between such individuals.
In the United States, the various state laws prohibited the marriage of whites and blacks, and in many states also the intermarriage of whites with Native Americans or Asians.[12] In the U.S., such laws were known as anti-miscegenation laws. From 1913 until 1948, 30 out of the then 48 states enforced such laws.[13] Although an "Anti-Miscegenation Amendment" to the United States Constitution was proposed in 1871, in 1912–1913, and in 1928,[14][15] no nation-wide law against racially mixed marriages was ever enacted. In 1967, the United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled in Loving v. Virginia that anti-miscegenation laws are unconstitutional. With this ruling, these laws were no longer in effect in the remaining 16 states that still had them.
The Nazi ban on interracial sexual relations and marriages was enacted in September 1935 as part of the Nuremberg Laws, the Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre (The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour). The Nuremberg Laws classified Jews as a race, and forbade extramarital sexual relations and marriage between persons classified as "Aryan" and "non-Aryan". Violation of this was condemned as Rassenschande (lit. "race-disgrace") and could be punished by imprisonment (usually followed by deportation to a concentration camp) and even by death.
The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act in South Africa, enacted in 1949, banned intermarriage between different racial groups, including between whites and non-whites. The Immorality Act, enacted in 1950, also made it a criminal offense for a white person to have any sexual relations with a person of a different race. Both laws were repealed in 1985.
History of ethnoracial admixture and attitudes towards miscegenation
Africa



Jean Ping the Deputy Prime Minister of Gabon who has a Chinese father and a black Gabonese mother was elected as Chairperson of the Commission of the African Union on 1 February 2008.


 Jerry John Rawlings, the ex-President of Ghana is the son of a Scottish father and a black Ghanaian mother.
Africa has a long history of interracial mixing with male Arab and European explorers, traders and soldiers having sexual relations with black African women as well as taking them as wives. Arabs played a big role in the African slave trade and unlike the trans-atlantic slave trade most of the black African slaves in the Arab slave trade were women. Most of them were used as sexual slaves by the Arab men and some were even taken as wives.[16]
Sir Richard Francis Burton writes during his expedition to Africa about relationships between black women and white men. He writes, "The women are well disposed toward strangers of fair complexion, apparently with the permission of their husbands." There are several mulatto populations throughout Africa mostly the results of interracial relationships between Arab and European men and black women. In South Africa there are big mulatto communities like the Coloureds and Griqua formed by White colonists taking native African wives. In Namibia there is a community called the Rehoboth Basters formed by the interracial marriage of Dutch/German men and black African women.
In the former Portuguese Africa (now known as Angola, Mozambique and Cape Verde) racial mixing between white Portuguese and black Africans was fairly common, especially in Cape Verde where the majority of the population is of mixed descent.
There have been some recorded cases of Chinese merchants and labourers taking African wives throughout Africa as many Chinese workers were employed to build railways and other infrastructural projects in Africa. These labour groups were made up completely of men with very few Chinese women coming to Africa.
In West Africa, especially Nigeria there are many cases of Lebanese men taking African women. Many of their offsprings have gained prominent positions in Africa. Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings, who has a Scottish father and a black Ghanaian mother became the President and Head of State of Ghana. Jean Ping, the son of a Chinese trader and a black Gabonese mother, became the Deputy Prime Minister as well as the Foreign minister of Gabon and was the Chairperson of the Commission of the African Union from 2009 to 2012. Current President of Botswana, Ian Khama, is the son of Botswana's first president, Seretse Khama and a white (British) woman, Ruth Williams.
Indian men, who have long been traders in East Africa, at times married among local African women. The British Empire brought many Indian workers into East Africa to build the Uganda Railway. Indians eventually populated South Africa, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Rwanda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Zaire in small numbers. These interracial unions were mostly unilateral marriages between Indian men and East African women.[17]
Mauritius
In the late 19th to early 20th century, Chinese men in Mauritius married Indian women due to both a lack of Chinese women and the availability of Indian women on the island.[18][19] The 1921 census in Mauritius counted that Indian women there had a total of 148 children with Chinese men.[20][21][22]
Réunion
The majority of the population of Réunion is defined as mixed race. In the last 350 years, various ethnic groups (Africans, Chinese, English, French, Gujarati Indians, Tamil Indians) have arrived and settled on the island. There have been mixed race people on the island since its first permanent inhabitation in 1665.
Madagascar
There was frequent intermixing between the Austronesian and Bantu-speaking populations of Madagascar. A large number of the Malagasy today are the result of admixture between Austronesians and Africans. This is most evident in the Mikea, who are also the last known Malagasy population to still practice a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Additional information is that most of the African admixture is patrilineal while most of the Austronesian admixture is matrilineal. This means that the majority of the intermixing were between black African males and Austronesian females.[23][24] Maximum-likelihood estimates favour a scenario in which Madagascar was settled approximately 1200 years ago by a very small group of women (approx. 30)[25] with an even smaller number of men. In the study of "The Dual Origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from Maternal and Paternal Lineages" shows the African Maternal origin to be 38% and Paternal 51% while the Asian Paternal to be 34% and Maternal 62%.[26] In the study of Malagasy Autosomal DNA shows the highlanders ethnic group like Merina are almost an even mixture of Asian and African origin, while the Coastal ethnic group have much higher African mixture in their autosomal DNA suggesting they are mixture of new African migrants and the already established highlander ethnic group. Inter-mixture dated back to the small founding population of Madagascar.
Intermarriage between Chinese men and native Malagasy women was not uncommon.[27] Several thousand Cantonese men intermarried and cohabited with Malagasy women. 98% of the Chinese traced their origin from Guangdong—more specifically, the Cantonese district of Shunde. For example, the 1954 census found 1,111 "irregular" Chinese-Malagasy unions and 125 legitimate, i.e., legally married. Children were registered by their mothers under a Malagasy name.[clarification needed] Intermarriage between French men and Native Malagasy women was not uncommon either.
Americas
United States
See also: Race in the United States and Multiracial American



 US President Barack Obama is the son of a white American mother and a black Kenyan father.
Historically, "race mixing" between black and white people was taboo in the United States. So-called anti-miscegenation laws, barring blacks and whites from marrying or having sex, were established in colonial America as early as 1691.[10] The 1691 Virginia law was amended in 1705 to remove "Indian-white" from the prohibition. Thomas Jefferson's policy proposal for dealing with Native Americans was "to let our settlements and theirs meet and blend together, to intermix, and become one people."[28]
The taboo among American whites surrounding white-black can be seen as a historical consequence of the oppression and racial segregation of African-Americans.[29][30] In many U.S. states interracial marriage was already illegal when the term miscegenation was invented in 1863. The first laws banning interracial marriage were introduced in the late 17th century in the slave-holding colonies of Virginia (1691) and Maryland (1692). Later these laws also spread to colonies and states where slavery did not exist.
It has also been argued[by whom?] that the first laws banning interracial marriage were a response by the planter elite to the problems they were facing due to the socio-economic dynamics of the plantation system in the Southern colonies. The bans in Virginia and Maryland were established at a time when slavery was not yet fully institutionalized. At the time, most forced laborers on the plantations were indentured servants, and they were mostly white. Some historians have suggested that the at-the-time unprecedented laws banning interracial marriage were originally invented by planters as a divide and rule tactic after the uprising of servants in Bacon's Rebellion. According to this theory, the ban on interracial marriage was issued to split up the racially mixed, increasingly mixed-race labour force into whites, who were given their freedom, and blacks, who were later treated as slaves rather than as indentured servants. By forbidding interracial marriage, it became possible to keep these two new groups separated and prevent a new rebellion.[31]



 U.S States, by the date of repeal of anti-miscegenation laws:
  No laws passed
  Before 1887
  1948 to 1967
  12 June 1967
In 1918, there was considerable controversy in Arizona when an Asian Indian farmer B. K. Singh married the sixteen-year-old daughter of one of his white tenants.[32] During and after slavery, most American whites regarded interracial marriage between whites and blacks as taboo. However, during slavery many white American men and women did conceive children with black partners. These children automatically became slaves if the mother was a slave or were born free if the mother was free, as slavery was matrilineal.[citation needed] Some children were freed by their slave-holding fathers or bought to be emancipated if the father was not the owner. Many children of these unions formed enclaves under names such as Colored and Gens de couleur, etc.[citation needed] Most mixed-raced descendants merged into the African-American ethnic group during Jim Crow.
Genetic research suggests that a considerable minority of white Americans (estimated at 1/3 of the population by some geneticists such as Mark Shriver) has some distant African-American ancestry,[citation needed] and that the majority of black Americans have some European ancestry.[citation needed] After the Civil War and the abolition of slavery in 1865, the marriage of white and black Americans continued to be taboo, especially but not only in the former slave states.
The Motion Picture Production Code of 1930, also known as Hays Code, explicitly stated that the depiction of "miscegenation... is forbidden."[citation needed] One important strategy intended to discourage the marriage of white Americans and Americans of partly African descent was the promulgation of the one-drop theory, which held that any person with any known African ancestry, however remote, must be regarded as "black." This definition of blackness was encoded in the anti-miscegenation laws of various U.S. states, such as Virginia's Racial Integrity Act of 1924. The plaintiffs in Loving v. Virginia, Mildred Jeter and Richard Loving became the historically most prominent interracial couple in the US through their legal struggle against this act.



Robert De Niro and his wife Grace Hightower. Census data showed 117,000 black wife-white husband couples in 2006.[33]
Throughout American history, there has been frequent mixing between Native Americans and black Africans. When Native Americans invaded the European colony of Jamestown, Virginia in 1622, they killed the Europeans but took the African slaves as captives, gradually integrating them. Interracial relationships occurred between African Americans and members of other tribes along coastal states. During the transitional period of Africans becoming the primary race enslaved, Native Americans were sometimes enslaved with them. Africans and Native Americans worked together, some even intermarried and had mixed children. The relationship between Africans and Native-Americans was seen as a threat to Europeans and European-Americans, who actively tried to divide Native-Americans and Africans and put them against each other.[34]
During the 18th Century, some Native American women turned to freed or runaway African men due to a major decline in the male population in Native American villages. At the same time, the early slave population in America was disproportionately male. Records show that some Native American women bought African men as slaves. Unknown to European sellers, the women freed and married the men into their tribe. Some African men chose Native American women as their partners because their children would be free, as the child's status followed that of the mother. The men could marry into some of the matrilineal tribes and be accepted, as their children were still considered to belong to the mother's people. As European expansion increased in the Southeast, African and Native American marriages became more numerous.[35]
From the mid 19th to 20th centuries, many black people and ethnic Mexicans intermarried with each other in the Lower Rio Grande Valley in South Texas (mostly in Cameron County and Hidalga County). In Cameron County, 38% of black people were interracially married (7/18 families) while in Hidalgo County the number was 72% (18/25 families). These two counties had the highest rates of interracial marriages involving at least one black spouse in the United States. The vast majority of these marriages involved black men marrying ethnic Mexican women or first generation Tejanas (Texas-born women of Mexican descent). Since ethnic Mexicans were considered white by Texas officials and the U.S. government, such marriages were a violation of the state's anti-miscegenation laws. Yet, there is no evidence that anyone in South Texas was prosecuted for violating this law. The rates of this unusual interracial marriage dynamic can be traced back to when black men moved into the Lower Rio Grande Valley after the Civil War ended. They married into ethnic Mexican families and joined other black people who found sanctuary on the U.S./Mexico border.[36]
In the mid 19th to 20th centuries, the Chinese that migrated were almost entirely of Cantonese origin. Hundreds of thousands of Chinese men in the U.S, mostly of Cantonese origin from Taishan migrated to the United States. Anti-miscegenation laws in many states prohibited Chinese men from marrying white women.[37] After the Emancipation Proclamation, many intermarriages in some states were not recorded and historically, Chinese American men married African American women in high proportions to their total marriage numbers due to few Chinese American women being in the United States. After the Emancipation Proclamation, many Chinese Americans immigrated to the Southern states, particularly Arkansas, to work on plantations. For example, in 1880, the tenth US Census of Louisiana alone counted 57% of interracial marriages between these Chinese Americans to be with African Americans and 43% to be with European American women.[38] Between 20 and 30 percent of the Chinese who lived in Mississippi married black women before 1940.[39] In a genetic study of 199 samples from African American males found one belong to haplogroup O2a ( or 0.5% )[40] It was discovered by historian Henry Louis Gates, Jr in the African American Lives documentary miniseries that NASA astronaut Mae Jemison has a significant (above 10%) genetic East Asian admixture. Gates speculated that the intermarriage/relations between migrant Chinese workers during the 19th century and black, or African-American slaves or ex-slaves may have contributed to her ethnic genetic make-up. In the mid 1850s, 70 to 150 Chinese were living in New York City and 11 of them married Irish women. In 1906 the New York Times (6 August) reported that 300 white women (Irish American) were married to Chinese men in New York, with many more cohabited. In 1900, based on Liang research, of the 120,000 men in more than 20 Chinese communities in the United States, he estimated that one out of every twenty Chinese men (Cantonese) was married to white women.[41] In the 1960s census showed 3500 Chinese men married to white women and 2900 Chinese women married to white men.[42]
Accusations of support for miscegenation were commonly made by slavery defenders against Abolitionists before the Civil War. After the war, similar charges were used by white segregationists against advocates of equal rights for African Americans. They were said to be secretly plotting the destruction of the white race through miscegenation. In the 1950s, segregationists alleged a Communist plot funded by the Soviet Union with that goal. In 1957, segregationists cite the anti-semitic hoax A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century as evidence for these claims.
Bob Jones University banned interracial dating until 2000.[43]
Asians were specifically included in some state laws. California continued to ban Asian/white marriages until the Perez v. Sharp decision in 1948.



Tiger Woods refers to his ethnic make-up as "Cablinasian" (Caucasian, black, Indian and Asian) to describe the racial mixture he inherited from his African-American father and Thai mother.[44]
In the United States, segregationists, including modern Christian Identity groups, have claimed that several passages in the Bible,[45] for example the stories of Phinehas and of the so-called "curse of Ham," should be understood as referring to miscegenation and that certain verses expressly forbid it. Most theologians read these verses and references as forbidding interreligious marriage, rather than interracial marriage.[46]
Interracial marriage has become increasingly accepted in the United States since the Civil Rights movement and up to the present day.[47] Approval of mixed marriages in national opinion polls has risen from 4% in 1958, 20% in 1968 (at the time of the SCOTUS decision), 36% in 1978, to 48% in 1991, 65% in 2002, 77% in 2007 and 86% in 2011.[48][49] The most notable American of mixed race is the current President of the United States, Barack Obama, who is the product of a mixed marriage between a black father and white mother. Nevertheless, as late as 2009, a Louisiana justice of the peace refused to issue a marriage license to an interracial couple, justifying the decision on grounds of concern for any children the couple might have.[50]
Hawaii
The majority of Hawaiian Chinese were Cantonese migrants from Guangdong with a minority from Hakka. If all people with Chinese ancestry in Hawaii (including the Chinese-Hawaiians) are included, they form about 1/3 of Hawaii's entire population. Many thousands of them married women of Hawaiian, Hawaiian/European and European origin. A large percentage of the Chinese men married Hawaiian and Hawaiian/European women. The 12,592 Asiatic-Hawaiians enumerated in 1930 were the result of Chinese men intermarrying with Hawaiian and part Hawaiian/European. Most Asiatic-Hawaiians men also married Hawaiians and European women (and vice versa). On the census some Chinese with little native blood would be classified as Chinese, not as Asiatic-Hawaiians due to dilution of native blood. Intermarriage started to decline in the 1920s.[51][52] Portuguese and other Caucasian women often married Chinese men.[53][54] These unions between Chinese men and Portuguese women resulted in children of mixed Chinese Portuguese parentage, called Chinese-Portuguese. For two years ending 30 June 1933, 38 of these children were born; they were classified as pure Chinese because their fathers were Chinese.[51] A large amount of mingling took place between Chinese and Portuguese, Chinese men married Portuguese, Spanish, Hawaiian, Caucasian-Hawaiian, etc.[55][56][57][58] Only one Chinese man was recorded marrying an American woman.[59][60] Chinese men in Hawaii also married Puerto Rican, Portuguese, Japanese, Greek, and half -white women.[61][62]
Latin America



Free Women of Color with their Children and Servants, oil painting by Agostino Brunias, Dominica, c.1764-1796


 A Brazilian family each generation becoming "whiter" (black grandmother, mulatto mother and white child), 1895
About 300,000 Cantonese coolies and migrants (almost all males) were shipped during 1849–1874 to Latin America; many of them intermarried and cohabited with the Black, Mestizo, and European population of Cuba, Peru, Guyana, and Trinidad.
In addition, Latin American societies also witnessed growth in both Church-sanctioned and common law marriages between Africans and the non colored.[63]
Peru
About 100,000 Cantonese coolies (almost all males) during 1849–1874 migrated to Peru and intermarried with Peruvian women of Mestizo, European, Ameridian, European/Mestizo, African and mulatto origin. Thus, many Peruvian Chinese today are of mixed Chinese, Spanish, African, or Ameridian ancestry. One estimate for Chinese-Peruvian mixture is about 1.3–1.6 millions. Asian Peruvians are estimated to be 3% of the population, but one source places the number of citizens with some Chinese ancestry at 4.2 million, which equates to 15% of the country's total population.[64]
Cuba
120,000 Cantonese coolies (all males) entered Cuba under contract for 80 years. Most did not marry, but Hung Hui (1975:80) states there was a frequency of sexual activity between black women and Cantonese coolies. According to Osberg, (1965:69) the Chinese often bought slave women and freed them, expressly for marriage. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Chinese men (Cantonese) engaged in sexual activity with white and black Cuban women, and from such relations many children were born. (For a British Caribbean model of Chinese cultural retention through procreation with black women, see Patterson, 322-31).[65] In the 1920s an additional 30000 Cantonese and small groups of Japanese arrived; both immigrations were exclusively male, and there was rapid mingling with white, black, and mulato populations.[66][67] In the CIA World Factbook: Cuba (15 May 2008) the authors estimated 114,240 people with Chinese-Cuban ancestry and only 300 pure Chinese.[68] In the study of genetic origin, admixture, and asymmetry in maternal and paternal human lineages in Cuba, 35 Y-chromosome SNPs were typed in the 132 male individuals of the Cuban sample. The study did not include any people with some Chinese ancestry. All the samples were white and black Cubans. 2 out of 132 male samples belong to East Asian Haplogroup O2 which is found in significant frequencies among Cantonese people.[69]
Costa Rica
The Chinese in Costa Rica originated from Cantonese male migrants. Pure Chinese make up only 1% of the Costa Rican population but, according to Jacqueline M. Newman, as much as ten percent of the people in Costa Rica are Chinese, if we count the people who are Chinese, married to a Chinese, or of mixed Chinese descent. Ten percent of three and a half million is a sizable number.[70] Most Chinese immigrants since then have been Cantonese, but in the last decades of the 20th century, a number of immigrants have also come from Taiwan. Many men came alone to work, married Costa Rican women, and speak Cantonese. However, the majority of the descendants of the first Chinese immigrants no longer speak Cantonese and think of themselves as full Costa Ricans.[71] They married Tican women (who are a blend of European, Castizo, Mestizo, Indian, Black).[72] A Tican is also a white person with small amount of non-white blood, like Castizo. The 1989 census shows about 98% of Costa Ricans were either White, Castizo, Mestizos, with 80% being White or Castizo.
Many Africans in Costa Rica also intermarried with other races. In late colonial Cartago, 33% of 182 married African males and 7% of married African females were married to a spouse of another race. The figures were even more striking in San Jose' where 55% of the 134 married African males and 35% of the 65 married African females were married to another race (mostly mestizos). In Cartago itself, two African males were enumerated with Spanish wives and three with Indian wives, while nine African females were married to Indian males. Spaniards rarely cohabited with mulatto women except in the cattle range region bordering Nicaragua to the north. There as well, two Spanish women were living with African males.[63]



 Mulatto child of a white father and black mother, Mexico, 18th century
West Indies
Around 20,000 mostly Cantonese (and some Hakka) coolies migrated to Jamaica, Guyana, Trinidad. Many of them intermarried with black and East Indian women due to Chinese women being in short supply. Unlike in Trinidad Tobago and Guyana who were predominantly Cantonese men who intermarried with Black women and East Indian women. The Chinese who migrated to Jamaica and married Black women were mostly Hakka. According to the 1946 Census from Jamaica and Trinidad alone, 12,394 Chinese were found. 5,515 of those who lived in Jamaica were Chinese-Jamaicans, and another 3,673 were Chinese-Trinidadians living in Trinidad 4,061 local born, 5,515 Chinese colored (one Chinese parent). In Trinidad, there were 9,314: 2,366 China-born, 2,926 local born, 349 born abroad (from other colonies), 3,673 Chinese colored.[38] In Jamaica and other Caribbean nations as well, over time, many Chinese males took up African wives, gradually assimilating or absorbing many Chinese descendants into the African Caribbean community or the overall mixed-race community.[73] In Guyana, the Chinese were mostly Cantonese men. Because almost all of the Chinese indentured immigrants were men, they tended to intermarry with both East Indians and Africans, and thus the Chinese of Guyana did not remain as physically distinct as other groups.[74] Their offspring also tended to intermarry with the local African and East Indian Guyanese rather than with the Chinese colored; as a result some Guyanese who have little Chinese ancestry are not included in the Census, and some may not know about their Chinese ancestry.
Mexico



Castas painting showing the various race combinations of Colonial Mexico.
In Mexico, the concept of mestizaje (or the cultural and racial amalgamation) is an integral part of the country's identity. While frequently seen as a mixture of the indigenous and Spanish, Mexico has had a notable admixture of African and Asian heritage since the Colonial era. Many black men sought conjugal companionship with the local Amerindian women due to a shortage of black women (there were three times as many male slaves as female ones). Black men, both free and slave, kept Amerindian concubines. Although this was discouraged by the Spanish, it did not deter black men from pursuing Amerindian women. Even if a black man was a slave, by having children with Amerindian women (who were considered free subjects) their offspring would be free. Black male slaves who took Amerindian concubines were in effect circumventing the class stratification of colonial society. As time went on, black men (free or slave) were allowed to marry Amerindian women. However, their offspring would have to pay tribute to the Spanish government. Mixing between black men and Amerindian women led to the process of endoacculturation.[75]
Since there was also a shortage of Spanish women, Spanish men also kept black women (slave or free) as concubines. In the beginning, this was also discouraged by the Spanish government, who tried to prevent these unions. However, whenever these unions had mixed children they would become slaves, thus increasing the number of slaves in the colony. However, some Spaniards were willing to buy these children and grant them freedom after purchase. Although reluctant at first, the Spanish government eventually legalized interracial marriage (which applied to all unions). Such relationships were still not accepted by the church however. Black female slaves also did not gain any freedom from such unions.[75]
The Chinese who migrated to Mexico in the 19th to 20th centuries were almost entirely Cantonese men. They married Mexican women, which led to sentiments against Chinese; many were expelled, while those who were allowed to stay intermarried with the Mexican population. The Mexicali officials estimate that slightly more than 2,000 are full-blooded Chinese and about 8,000 are mixed-blood Chinese-Mexicans. Other estimates claim 50,000 residents—more than thought—who are of Chinese descent.[76] Today, marriage of these people with the general Mexican population is common.[76] Chinese Mexicans in Mexicali consider themselves equally "cachanilla," a term used for locals, as any other resident of the city, even if they speak Cantonese in addition to Spanish. The sentiment against Chinese men was due to (and almost all Chinese immigrants in Mexico were men) stealing employment and Mexican women from Mexican men who had gone off to fight in the Revolution or in World War I.[77] In San Luis Potosí, tests reveal 3.45% of O-M175, which is common marker among Chinese, East Asian, Southeast Asian and Central Asian.[78]
Venezuela
See also: Chinese Venezuelan



 Ethnic mix: German mother (left), Venezuelan father—of German ancestry—(right) and their German Venezuelan daughter (center)
Marriages between European, Mestizo, Amerindians, Africans was not uncommon in the past. Several thousand Chinese from Enping resided in the country, the Chinese were still largely viewed as a foreign population that married foreign brides but seldom integrated into Venezuelan society.[79]
Argentina
In Buenos Aires in 1810, only 2.2 percent of African men and 2.5 percent of African women were married to the non colored (white). In 1827, the figures increased to 3.0 percent for men and 6.0 percent for women. Racial mixing increased even further as more African men began enlisting in the army. Between 1810 and 1820 only 19.9% of African men were enlisted in the army. Between 1850 and 1860, this number increased to 51.1%. This led to a sexual imbalance between African men and women in Argentine. Unions between African women and non-colored men became more common in the wake of massive Italian immigration to the country. This led one African male editorial commentator to quip that, given to the sexual imbalance in the community, black women who "could not get bread would have to settle for pasta".[63]
Guatemala
There were many instances when black and mulatto men would intermarry with Mayan and other native women in Guatemala. These unions were more common in some regions than others. In Escuintla (called Escuintepeque at the time), the Pipil-speaking natives who lived at higher elevations tended to live away from the lowland coastal hot lands where black and mulatto men were concentrated. Yet, as black men grew in number during this period (1671–1701), a tendency developed for them to marry native women. In Zapotitlán (also known as Suchitepéquez), Spaniards were proportionately more significant than in Escuintla. Thus the smaller African population had less opportunity for endogamy and was disappearing by the early 18th Century as blacks married Mayans and mulattoes married mestizos and lower-ranking Spaniards. Finally in Guazacapán, a Pipil district that was 10% non native, church marriages between Mayas or Pipils and free mulattoes were rare. But black men frequently married Mayan women in informal unions, which resulted in a significant population of mestizaje here and throughout the coastal region. In the Valle de las Vacas, black male slaves also intermarried with Mayan women.[80]
El Salvador
In El Salvador, there was frequent intermarriage between black male slaves and Amerindian women. Many of these slaves intermarried with Amerindian women in hopes of gaining freedom (if not for themselves, then their offspring). Many mixed African and Amerindian children resulted from these unions. The Spanish tried to prevent such Afro-Amerindian unions, but the mixing of the two groups could not be prevented. Slaves continued to pursue natives with the prospect of freedom. According to Richard Price's book Maroon Societies (1979), it is documented that during the colonial period that Amerindian women would rather marry black men than Amerindian men, and that black men would rather marry Amerindian women than black women so that their children will be born free. Price quoted this from a history by H.H. Bancroft published in 1877 referring to colonial Mexico. El Salvador's African population lived under similar circumstances, and the mixing between black men and native women was common during colonial times.[81]
Bolivia
During the colonial period, many black people often intermarried with the native population (mostly Aymara). The result of these relationships was the blending between the two cultures (Aymara and Afro-Bolivian).
After Bolivia's Agrarian Reform of 1953, black people (like indigenous people) migrated from their agricultural villages to the cities of La Paz, Cochabamba, and Santa Cruz in search of better educational and employment opportunities. Related to this, black individuals began intermarrying with people of a lighter skin coloring such as blancos (whites) and mestizos. This was done as a means of better integration for themselves, and especially their children, into Bolivian society.[82]
Jamaica and Haiti
By some estimates, 80,000 North American and European women (most of them over the age of 40) visit Jamaica and Haiti every year for sex with young men (mostly in their 20s).[83] They're called "milk bottles."[84] While HIV/AIDS infection rates in the Caribbean are much higher than in Canada or the U.S., female sex tourists often ignore the risk and fail to use condoms.[85] Many thousands of Chinese men (mostly Hakka) and Indian men married local Jamaican women. In the study of "Y-chromosomal diversity in Haiti and Jamaica: Contrasting levels of sex-biased gene flow." shows the paternal Chinese haplogroup O-M175 at a frequency of 3.8% in local Jamaicans (non-Chinese Jamaicans) including the Indian H-M69 (0.6%) and L-M20 (0.6%) in local Jamaicans.[86] Among the country's most notable Afro-Asians are reggae singers Sean Paul, Tami Chynn and Diana King.
Asia
Inter-ethnic marriage in Southeast Asia dates back to the spread of Indian culture, Hinduism and Buddhism to the region. From the 1st century onwards, mostly male traders and merchants from the Indian subcontinent frequently intermarried with the local female populations in Cambodia, Burma, Champa, central Siam, the Malay Peninsula, and Malay Archipelago. Many Indianized kingdoms arose in Southeast Asia during the Middle Ages.[87]
From the 9th century onwards, a large number of mostly male Arab traders from the Middle East settled down in the Malay Peninsula and Malay Archipelago, and they intermarried with the local Malay, Indonesian and female populations in the islands later called the Philippines. This contributed to the spread of Islam in Southeast Asia.[88] From the 14th to the 17th centuries, many Chinese, Indian and Arab traders settled down within the maritime kingdoms of Southeast Asia and intermarried with the local female populations. This tradition continued among Portuguese traders who also intermarried with the local populations.[89] In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese people also travelled to Southeast Asia and intermarried with the local women there.[90]
From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou (Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing multiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions".[91] Multiple women originating from the Persian Gulf lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter, they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦 Po-ssu-fu or Bosifu).[92] Some scholars did not differentiate between Persian and Arab, and some say that the Chinese called all women coming from the Persian Gulf "Persian Women".[93]
Some 100,000 Amerasians stayed in Vietnam after the fall of Saigon.[94] During and after the Indonesian National Revolution (1945–1965) around 300,000 people, pre-dominantly Eurasians, left Indonesia to go to the Netherlands.[95]
In the 19th century and early 20th century, there was a network of small numbers of Chinese and Japanese prostitutes being trafficked across Asia, in countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Singapore and British India, in what was then known as the ’Yellow Slave Traffic’. There was also a network of prostitutes from continental Europe being trafficked to India, Ceylon, Singapore, China and Japan at around the same time, in what was then known as the ’White Slave Traffic’.[96]



Rangoon, Burma. 8 August 1945. A young ethnic Chinese woman who was in one of the Imperial Japanese Army's "comfort stations" is interviewed by an Allied officer.
During World War II, Japanese soldiers engaged in war rape during their invasions across East Asia and Southeast Asia. The term "comfort women" is a euphemism for the estimated 200,000, mostly Korean and Chinese, women who were forced into prostitution in Japanese military brothels during World War II. Some Indo Dutch women, captured in Dutch colonies in Asia, were also forced into sexual slavery.[97] More than 20,000 Indonesian women[98] and nearly 300 Dutch women were so treated.[99]
Sex tourism has emerged in the late 20th century as a controversial aspect of Western tourism and globalization. Sex tourism is typically undertaken internationally by tourists from wealthier countries. Author Nils Ringdal alleges that three out of four men between the ages of 20 and 50 who have visited Asia or Africa have paid for sex.[100]
Female sex tourism also emerged in the late 20th century in Bali. Tens of thousands of single women throng the beaches of Bali in Indonesia every year. For decades, young Balinese men have taken advantage of the louche and laid-back atmosphere to find love and lucre from female tourists—Japanese, European and Australian for the most part—who by all accounts seem perfectly happy with the arrangement.[101]
Central Asia
Today Central Asians are a mixture of various peoples, such as Mongols, Turks and Iranians. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia in the 13th century resulted in the massacre of the mostly Iranic population and other Indo-European people with intermarriage and assimilation. Modern genetic studies show that Central Asian Turkic people and Hazara are an mixture of Northeast Asians and Indo-European people. Caucasian ancestry is prevalent in almost all central Asian Turkic people. Kazakhs, Hazara, Karakalpaks, and Crimean Tatars have more Caucasian maternal Mtdna than Caucasian paternal Y-dna while Kyrgyz have more European Y-dna with substantial Caucasian Mtdna. Other Turkic people like Uyghurs, Uzbeks, have mostly Caucasian Y-DNA but also high percentages of Caucasian Mtdna. Turkmen have predominately Caucasian Y-dna and Mtdna.[102]
Caucasus
The Nogais who live in Southern Russia/North Caucasus are a mixture of Mongoloid and Caucasoid and also have high frequencies of mongoloid paternal y-dna. Some North Caucasus ethnic groups also contain low to moderate frequencies of Mongolian paternal DNA such as haplogroup C-M217.[103][104]
China
There have been various periods in the history of China where a number of Arabs, Persians and Turks from the western regions (Central Asia and West Asia) migrated to China, beginning with the arrival of Islam during the Tang Dynasty in the 7th century. Due to the majority of these immigrants being male, some decided to intermarry with local Chinese females. Intermarriage was initially discouraged by the Tang Dynasty. In 836 Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton, he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage between Chinese and foreigners. Lu enforced separation, banning interracial marriages, and made it illegal for foreigners to own property. Lu Chun believed his principles were just and upright.[105] The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "dark peoples" or "people of colour", which was used to describe foreigners, such as "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", among others.[106][107] The Song Dynasty allowed third-generation immigrants with official titles to intermarry with Chinese imperial princesses.[108]
Iranian, Arab and Turkic women also occasionally migrated to China and mixed with Chinese.[108] From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou (Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing multiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions".[91][109] Multiple women originating from the Persian Gulf lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter; they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦; Po-szu-fu or Bosifu).[110] Iranian female dancers were in demand in China during this period. During the Sui dynasty, ten young dancing girls were sent from Persia to China. During the Tang dynasty bars were often attended by Iranian or Sogdian waitresses who performed dances for clients.[105][111][112][113]
During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (Wudai) (907–960), there are examples of Persian women marrying Chinese emperors. Some Chinese officials from the Song Dynasty era also married women from Dashi (Arabia).[114]
Of the Han Chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, married a Persian or an Arab girl, and brought her back to Quanzhou. He then converted to Islam. Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.[115][116][117]
By the 14th century, the total population of Muslims in China had grown to 4 million.[118] After Mongol rule had been ended by the Ming Dynasty in 1368, this led to a violent Chinese backlash against West and Central Asians. In order to contain the violence, the Ming administration instituted a policy where all West and Central Asian males were required to intermarry with native Chinese females, hence assimilating them into the local population. Their descendants are today known as the Hui people.[108] 6.7% of Hui people's maternal genetics have a Caucasian origin, while slightly over 30% of paternal genetics also have a Caucasian origin.[119]
Han women who married Hui men became Hui, and Han men who married Hui women also became Hui.[120][121][122]
In the frontier districts of Sichuan, numerous half Chinese-Tibetans were found. Tibetan women were glad to marry Chinese traders and soldiers.[123] Some Chinese traders married Tibetan girls.[124] Traders and officials in ancient times were often forbidden to bring Chinese women with them to Tibet, so they tended to marry Tibetan women; the male offspring were considered Chinese and female offspring as Tibetan.[125][126][127] Special names were used for these children of Chinese fathers and Tibetan mothers.[128] They often assimilated into the Tibetan population.[129] Chinese and Nepalese in Tibet married Tibetan women.[130]
In Qinghai, premarital sex between Tibetan girls and Han Chinese men was common; some Tibetan girls boasted of their sexual conquests of Han Chinese boys.[131]
Chinese men also married Turkic Uyghur women in Xinjiang from 1880 to 1949. Sometimes poverty influenced Uyghur women to marry Chinese. These marriages were not recognized by local mullahs since Muslims women were not allowed to marry non-Muslim men under Islamic law. This did not stop the women because they enjoyed advantages, such as not being subject to Islamic law and they were not subjected to certain taxes. Uyghur women married to Chinese also did not have to wear a veil and they received their husband's property upon his death. These women were forbidden from being buried in Muslim graves. The children of Chinese men and Uyghur women were considered as Uyghur. Some Chinese soldiers had Uyghur women as temporary wives, and after the man's military service was up, the wife was left behind or sold, and if it was possible, sons were taken, and daughters were sold.[132]
European travellers noted that many Han Chinese in Xinjiang married Uyghur (who were called turki) women and had children with them. A Chinese was spotted with a "young" and "good looking" Uyghur wife and another Chinese left behind his Uyghur wife and child in Khotan.[133][134][135][136]
After 1950, some intermarriage between Han and Uyghur peoples continued. A Han married a Uyghur woman in 1966 and had three daughters with her, and other cases of intermarriage also continued.[137][138]
Ever since the 1960s, African students were allowed by the Chinese government to study in China as friendly relations with Africans and African-related people was important to CCP's "Third World" coalition. Many African male students began to intermingle with the local Chinese women. Relationships between black men and Chinese women often led to numerous clashes between Chinese and African students in the 1980s as well as grounds for arrest and deportation of African students. The Nanjing anti-African protests of 1988 were triggered by confrontations between Chinese and Africans. New rules and regulations were made in order to stop African men from consorting with Chinese women. Two African men who were escorting Chinese women on a Christmas Eve party were stopped at the gate and along with several other factors escalated. The Nanjing protests lasted from Christmas Eve of 1988 to January 1989. Many new rules were set after the protests ended, including one where black men could only have one Chinese girlfriend at a time whose visits were limited to the lounge area.[139]
There is a small but growing population of mixed marriages between male African (mostly Nigerian) traders and local Chinese women in the city of Guangzhou where it is estimated that in 2013 there are 400 African-Chinese families.[140] The rise in mixed marriages has not been without controversy. The state, fearing fraud marriages, has strictly regulated matters. In order to obtain government-issued identification (which is required to attend school), the children must be registered under the Chinese mother's family name. Many African fathers, fearing that in doing so, they would relinquish their parental rights, have instead chosen to not send their children to school. There are efforts to open an African-Chinese school but it would first require government authorization.[140]
Taiwan
During the Siege of Fort Zeelandia in which Chinese Ming loyalist forces commanded by Koxinga besieged and defeated the Dutch East India Company and conquered Taiwan, the Chinese took Dutch women and children prisoner. Koxinga took Hambroek's teenage daughter as a concubine,[141][142][143] and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives.In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.[144]
Some Dutch physical looks like auburn and red hair among people in regions of south Taiwan are a consequence of this episode of Dutch women becoming concubines to the Chinese commanders.[145]
Hong Kong
Many Tanka women conceived children with foreign men. Ernest John Eitel mentioned in 1889 how an important change had taken place among Eurasian girls, the offspring of illicit connections: instead of becoming concubines, they were commonly brought up respectably and married to Hong Kong Chinese husbands. Many Hong Kong born Eurasians were assimilated into the Hong Kong society by intermarriage with the Cantonese population. A good example of a Cantonese Eurasian is Nancy Kwan, a Hollywood sex symbol. Kwan was of Eurasian origin, born in 1939 in Hong Kong to a father who was a Cantonese architect and mother who is a model of British and Scottish descent. The martial artist Bruce Lee had a Cantonese father and a Eurasian mother.
Main article: Tanka people
Ernest John Eitel controversially claimed that most "half caste" people in Hong Kong were descended exclusively from Europeans having relationship with Tanka women. The theory that most of the Eurasian mixed race Hong Kong people are descended only from Tanka women and European men, and not ordinary Cantonese women, has been backed up by other researchers who pointed out that Tanka women freely consorted with foreigners due to the fact that they were not bound by the same Confucian traditions as the Cantonese, and having a relationship with a European man was advantageous for Tanka women, but Lethbridge criticized it as "a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community". Carl Smith's study in late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, to support Ernest John Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans. The ordinary Cantonese women did not sleep with European men, thus the Eurasian population was formed mostly from Tanka and European admixture.[146][147][148][149]

They invaded Hongkong the moment the settlement was started, living at first on boats in the harbour with their numerous families, gradually settling on shore. They have maintained ever since almost a monopoly of the supply of pilots and ships' crews, of the fish trade and the cattle trade, but unfortunately also of the trade in girls and women. Strange to say, when the settlement was first started, it was estimated that some 2,000 of these Tan-ka people had flocked to Hongkong, but at the present time they are abont the same number, a tendency having set in among them to settle on shore rather than on the water and to disavow their Tan-ka extraction in order to mix on equal terms with the mass of the Chinese community. The half-caste population in Hongkong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuous re-absorption into the mass of the Chinese residents of the Colony.[150]
South Asians have been living in Hong Kong throughout the colonial period, before the independence in 1947 into the nations of India and Pakistan. They migrated to Hong Kong and worked as police officers as well as army officers during colonial rule. 25,000 of the Muslims in Hong Kong trace their roots back to what is now Pakistan. Around half of them belong to 'local boy' families, Muslims of mixed Chinese and South Asian ancestry, descended from early Indian/Pakistani Muslim immigrants who took local Chinese wives and brought their children up as Muslims.[151][152]
Macao
The early Macanese ethnic group was formed from Portuguese men intermarrying with Malay, Japanese and Indian women.[153] The Portuguese encouraged Chinese migration to Macao, and most Macanese in Macao were formed from intermarriages between Portuguese and Chinese. In 1810, the total population of Macao was about 4,033, of which 1,172 were white men, 1,830 were white women, 425 were male slaves, and 606 were female slaves. In 1830, the population increased to 4,480 and the breakdown was 1,202 white men, 2,149 white women, 350 male slaves and 779 female slaves. There is reason to speculate that large numbers of white women were involved in some forms of prostitution which would probably explain the abnormality in the ratio between men and women among the white population.[154]
Rarely did Chinese women marry Portuguese; initially, mostly Goans, Ceylonese (from today's Sri Lanka), Indo China, Malay, and Japanese women were the wives of the Portuguese men in Macau.[155][156][157][158][159] Japanese girls would be purchased in Japan by Portuguese men.[160] Many Chinese became Macanese simply by converting to Catholicism, and had no ancestry from Portuguese, having assimilated into the Macanese people.[161] The majority of the early intermarriages of people from China with Portuguese were between Portuguese men and women of Tanka origin, who were considered the lowest class of people in China and had relations with Portuguese settlers and sailors, or low class Chinese women.[162][163][164] Western men were refused by high class Chinese women, who did not marry foreigners.[165] In fact, in those days, the matrimonial context of production was usually constituted by Chinese women of low socio-economic status who were married to or concubies of Portuguese or Macanese men. Very rarely did Chinese women of higher status agree to marry a Westerner. As Deolinda argues in one of her short stories, "even should they have wanted to do so out of romantic infatuation, they would not be allowed to. Macanese men and women also married with the Portuguese and Chinese; as a result some Macanese became indistinguishable from the Chinese or Portuguese population. Because the majority of the Chinese population who migrated to Macao was Cantonese, Macao became a Cantonese speaking society, and other ethnic groups became fluent in Cantonese. Most Macanese had paternal Portuguese heritage until 1974.[163] It was in the 1980s that Macanese and Portuguese women began to marry men who defined themselves ethnically as Chinese, which resulted in many Macanese with Cantonese paternal ancestry.[165]
Literature in Macao was written about love affairs and marriage between the Tanka women and Portuguese men, like "A-Chan, A Tancareira", by Henrique de Senna Fernandes.[166][167][168]
After the handover of Macao to China in 1999 many Macanese migrated to other countries. Of the Portuguese and Macanese women who stayed in Macao, many married with local Cantonese men, and so many Macanese also now have Cantonese paternal heritage. There are between 25,000–46,000 Macanese, but only 5,000–8,000 live in Macao, while most live in Latin America, America, Portugal. Unlike the Macanese of Macao who are strictly of Chinese and Portuguese heritage, many Macanese living abroad are not entirely of Portuguese and Chinese ancestry. Many Macanese men and women intermarried with the local population of America and Latin America and have only partial Macanese heritage.
Indian subcontinent



 The Indian actress Katrina Kaif is the daughter of an Indian father and a British (English) mother.


 "Lakmé", the Opera deals with the romantic relationship between a British Officer and an Indian Brahmin woman.


 An oil painting of Khair-un-Nissa by George Chinnery. c. 1805. Begum Khair-un-Nissa was a Muslim Indian Hyderabadi noblewoman who fell in love and married the British Lieutenant Colonel James Achilles Kirkpatrick.
The Indian subcontinent has a long history of inter-ethnic marriage dating back to ancient history. Various groups of people have been intermarrying for millennia in South Asia, including speakers of the Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages.
The origins and affinities of the approximately 1 billion people living on the subcontinent of India have long been contested. This is owing, in part, to the many different waves of immigrants that have influenced the genetic structure of India. In the most recent of these waves, Indo-European-speaking nomadic groups from the Near East, Anatolia and the Caucasus migrated to India.[169] According to 19th-century British historians, it was these "Aryans" who established the caste system, an elitist form of social organization that separated the "light-skinned" Indo-Aryan conquerors from the "conquered dark-skinned" indigenous Dravidian population through enforcement of "racial endogamy". Much of this was simply conjecture, fueled by British imperialism;[170] British policies of divide and rule as well as enumeration of the population into rigid categories during the tenure of British rule in India contributed towards the hardening of these segregated caste identities.[171] Since the independence of India from British rule, the British fantasy of an "Aryan Invasion and subjugation of the dark skinned Dravidians in India" has become a staple polemic in South Asian geopolitics, including the propaganda of Indophobia in Pakistan.[172] There is no decisive theory as to the origins of the caste system in India, and globally renowned historians and archaeologists like Jim Shaffer, J.P. Mallory, Edwin Bryant, and others, have disputed the claim of "Aryan Invasion".[173]
Some researchers claim that genetic similarities to Europeans were more common in members of the higher ranks.[174] Their findings, published in Genome Research, supported the idea that members of higher castes are more closely related to Europeans than are the lower castes.[175] According to the research, invading European populations were predominantly male who intermarried with local females and formed the upper castes, i.e., the local females had upward mobility in caste which was denied to local males. However, other researchers have criticized and contradicted this claim.[176] A study by Joanna L. Mountain et al. of Stanford University concluded that there was "no clear separation into three genetically distinct groups along caste lines", although "an inferred tree revealed some clustering according to caste affiliation".[177] A 2006 study by Ismail Thanseem et al. of Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (India) concluded that the "lower caste groups might have originated with the hierarchical divisions that arose within the tribal groups with the spread of Neolithic agriculturalists, much earlier than the arrival of Aryan speakers", and "the Indo-Europeans established themselves as upper castes among this already developed caste-like class structure within the tribes."[178] A 2006 genetic study by the National Institute of Biologicals in India, testing a sample of men from 32 tribal and 45 caste groups, concluded that the Indians have acquired very few genes from Indo-European speakers.[179] More recent studies have also debunked the claims that so-called "Aryans" and "Dravidians" have a "racial divide". A study conducted by the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology in 2009 (in collaboration with Harvard Medical School, Harvard School of Public Health and the Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT) analyzed half a million genetic markers across the genomes of 132 individuals from 25 ethnic groups from 13 states in India across multiple caste groups.[180] The study establishes, based on the impossibility of identifying any genetic indicators across caste lines, that castes in South Asia grew out of traditional tribal organizations during the formation of Indian society, and were not the product of any Aryan invasion and subjugation of Dravidian people.
In Goa, a Portuguese colony in India, during the late 16th century and 17th century, there was a community of over thousand Japanese slaves and traders, who were either Japanese Christians fleeing persecution in Japan,[181] or young Japanese women and girls brought or captured as sexual slaves by Portuguese traders and their South Asian lascar crew members from Japan.[182] In both cases, they often intermarried with the local population in Goa.[181]
One example of an interracial liaison during colonial times involved Hyderabadi noblewoman Khair-un-Nissa and her relationship to Scottish resident James Achilles Kirkpatrick.
The 600,000-strong Anglo-Indian community was formed by British and Indian relationships. Such relationships have had an influence on the arts. Lakmé, an opera by the Frenchman Léo Delibes, deals with the romantic relationship between the British officer Gérald and the daughter of a Hindu high priest Lakmé (Laxmi in Sanskrit).
In Ceylon (present day Sri Lanka), interracial relationships between Dutch, British and Portuguese men and local women were common. The 65,000-strong Burgher community was formed by the interracial marriages of Dutch and Portuguese men with local Sinhalese and Tamil women. In addition to intermarriage, inter-ethnic prostitution in India was also fairly common at the time, when British officers would frequently visit Indian nautch dancers. In the mid-19th century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers but fewer than 2,000 British officials present in India.[183] Many British and other European officers had their own harems made up of Indian women similar to those the Nawabs and kings of India had. In the 19th century and early 20th century, thousands of women and girls from continental Europe were also trafficked into British India (and Ceylon), where they worked as prostitutes servicing both British soldiers and local Indian (and Ceylonese) men.[96][184][185]
As British females began arriving in British India in large numbers from the early-to-mid-19th century, interracial marriage became increasingly uncommon in India. Interracial relationships were also despised after the events of India's First War of Independence, where Indian sepoys rebelled against the British East India Company.
The idea of protecting British female chastity from the "lustful Indian male" had a significant influence on the policies of the British Raj in order to prevent racial miscegenation between the British females and the native Indian male population. While some restrictive policies were imposed on British females in order to protect them from miscegenation, most of these policies were directed against native Indian males.[186][187]
For example, the 1883 Ilbert Bill, which would have granted Indian judges the right to judge British offenders, was opposed by many British colonialists on the grounds that Indian judges cannot be trusted in dealing with cases involving British females.[188] In the aftermath of the 1919 Amritsar Massacre, the long-held stereotype of Indian males as dark-skinned rapists lusting after white British females was challenged by several novels such as A Passage to India (1924) and The Jewel in the Crown (1966), both of which involve an Indian male being wrongly accused of raping a British female.[189]
When Burma was ruled under the administration of British India, millions of Indians, mostly Muslim, migrated there. The small population of mixed descendants of Indian males and local Burmese females are called "Zerbadees", often in a pejorative sense implying mixed race.[190]
In Assam, local Assamese women married several waves of Chinese migrants during British colonial times, to the point where it became hard to physically differentiate Chinese in Assam from locals during the time of their internment during the 1962 war, and the majority of these Chinese in Assam were married to Assamese women.[191]
In the 19th century, when the British Straits Settlement shipped Chinese convicts to be jailed in India, the Chinese men then settled in the Nilgiri mountains near Naduvattam after their release and married Tamil Paraiyan women, having mixed Chinese-Tamil children with them. They were documented by Edgar Thurston.[192][193] Paraiyan is also anglicized as "pariah".
Thurston described the colony of the Chinese men with their Tamil pariah wives and children: "Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of ' marriage ' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating coffee on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs."[194][195] Thurston further describe a specific family: "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones."[196][197][198][199] Thurston's description of the Chinese-Tamil families were cited by others, one mentioned "an instance mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female"[200][201] A 1959 book described attempts made to find out what happened to the colony of mixed Chinese and Tamils.[202]
Japan
See also: Comfort women, Eugenics in Japan and Slavery_in_Japan § Portuguese_trade_in_Japanese_slaves



 Europeans accompanied by Japanese courtesans in Dejima, the Dutch trading colony in the harbor of Nagasaki, early 19th century.
Inter-ethnic marriage in Japan dates back to the 7th century, when Chinese and Korean immigrants began intermarrying with the local Japanese population. In the 1590s, over 50,000 Koreans were forcibly brought to Japan during Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea, where they intermarried with the local population. In the 16th and 17th centuries, around 58,000 Japanese travelled abroad, many of whom intermarried with the local women in Southeast Asia.[90] During the anti-Christian persecutions in 1596, many Japanese Christians fled to Macau and other Portuguese colonies such as Goa, where there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders by the early 17th century. Intermarriage with the local populations in these Portuguese colonies also took place.[181] Portuguese traders in Japan also intermarried with the local Christian women.[203]
From the 15th century, Chinese, Korean and other Far Eastern visitors frequented brothels in Japan.[204] This practice later continued among visitors from the "Western Regions", mainly European traders.[182] This began with the arrival of Portuguese ships to Japan in the 16th century. Portuguese visitors and their South Asian (and sometimes African) crewmembers often engaged in slavery in Japan, where they bought Japanese slaves who were then taken to Macau and other Portuguese colonies in Southeast Asia, the Americas,[182] and India.[181] Later European East India companies, including those of the Dutch and British, also engaged in prostitution in Japan.[205] Marriage and sexual relations between European merchants and Japanese women was usual during this period.[206]
A large-scale slave trade developed in which Portuguese purchased Japanese as slaves in Japan and sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal itself, throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[207][208] Many documents mention the large slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased large amounts of Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church in 1555. King Sebastian feared that it was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization since the slave trade in Japanese was growing to massive proporations, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571.[209][210]
Japanese slave women were even sold as concubines to black African crewmembers, along with their European counterparts serving on Portuguese ships trading in Japan, mentioned by Luis Cerqueira, a Portuguese Jesuit, in a 1598 document.[211] Japanese slaves were brought by the Portuguese to Macau, where some of them not only ended up being enslaved to Portuguese, but as slaves to other slaves, with the Portuguese owning Malay and African slaves, who in turn owned Japanese slaves of their own.[212][213]
In the early part of the Shōwa era, Japanese governments executed a eugenic policy to limit the birth of children with inferior traits, as well as aiming to protect the life and health of mothers.[214] Family Center staff also attempted to discourage marriage between Japanese women and Korean men who had been recruited from the peninsula as laborers following its annexation by Japan in 1910. In 1942, a survey report argued that "the Korean laborers brought to Japan, where they have established permanent residency, are of the lower classes and therefore of inferior constitution...By fathering children with Japanese women, these men could lower the caliber of the Yamato minzoku."
In 1928, journalist Shigenori Ikeda promoted 21 December as the blood-purity day (junketsu de) and sponsored free blood tests at the Tokyo Hygiene laboratory. By the early 1930s, detailed "eugenic marriage" questionnaires were printed or inserted in popular magazines for public consumption. Promoters like Ikeda were convinced that these marriage surveys would not only ensure the eugenic fitness of spouses but also help avoid class differences that could disrupt and even destroy marriage. The goal was to create a database of individuals and their entire households which would enable eugenicists to conduct in-depth surveys of any given family's genealogy.[215]
To prevent venereal diseases and rape by Japanese soldiers and to provide comfort to soldiers and head off espionage, the Imperial Japanese Army established "comfort stations" in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere where around 200,000 women, mostly from Korea and China, were recruited or kidnapped by the Kempeitai or the Tokeitai as comfort women.[216]
One of the last eugenic measures of the Shōwa regime was taken by the Higashikuni government. On 19 August 1945, the Home Ministry ordered local government offices to establish a prostitution service for Allied soldiers to preserve the "purity" of the "Japanese race". The official declaration stated that: "Through the sacrifice of thousands of "Okichis" of the Shōwa era, we shall construct a dike to hold back the mad frenzy of the occupation troops and cultivate and preserve the purity of our race long into the future...."[217]
According to Peter Schrijvers in "The GI War against Japan: American Soldiers in Asia and the Pacific during World War II",[218] rape "reflects a burning need to establish total dominance of the enemy". According to Xavier Guillaume, US soldiers' rape of Japanese women was "general practice". Schrijvers states regarding rapes on Okinawa that "The estimate of one Okinawan historian for the entire three-month period of the campaign exceeds 10,000. A figure that does not seem unlikely when one realizes that during the first 10 days of the occupation of Japan there were 1,336 reported cases of rape of Japanese women by American soldiers in Kanagawa prefecture alone".[218]
However, despite being told by the Japanese military that they would suffer rape, torture and murder at the hands of the Americans, Japanese civilians "were often surprised at the comparatively humane treatment they received from the American enemy."[219][220] According to Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power by Mark Selden, the Americans "did not pursue a policy of torture, rape, and murder of civilians as Japanese military officials had warned."[221]
Japanese society, with its ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally been intolerant of ethnic and other differences.[222] Men or women of mixed ancestry, foreigners, and members of minority groups face discrimination in a variety of forms. In 2005, a United Nations report expressed concerns about racism in Japan and that government recognition of the depth of the problem was not realistic.[223][224] In 2005, Japanese Minister Taro Aso called Japan a "one race" nation.[225]
The Japanese public was thus astounded by the sight of some 45,000 so-called "pan pan girls" (prostitutes) fraternizing with American soldiers during the occupation.[226] In 1946, the 200 wives of U.S. officers landing in Japan to visit their husbands also had a similar impact when many of these reunited couples were seen walking hand in hand and kissing in public.[227] Both prostitution and marks of affection had been hidden from the public until then, and this "democratization of eroticism" was a source of surprise, curiosity, and even envy. The occupation set new relationship models for Japanese men and women: the practice of modern "dating" spread, and activities such as dancing, movies, and coffee were not limited to "pan pan girls" and American troops anymore, and became popular among young Japanese couples.[228]
Korea
Inter-ethnic marriage in Korea dates back to the arrival of Muslims in Korea during the Middle Ages, when Persian and Turkic navigators, traders and slaves settled in Korea and married local Korean people. Some assimilation into Buddhism and Shamanism eventually took place, owing to Korea's geographical isolation from the Muslim world.[229]
There are several Korean clans that are descended from such intermarriages. For example, the Deoksu Jang clan, claiming some 30,000 Korean members, views Jang Sunnyong, a Central Asian who married a Korean female, as their ancestor.[230] Another clan, Gyeongju Seol, claiming at least 2,000 members in Korea, view a Central Asian (probably an Uyghur) named Seol Son as their ancestor.[231][232]
There are even cases of Korean kings marrying princesses from abroad. For example, the Korean text Samguk Yusa about the Gaya kingdom (it was absorbed by the kingdom of Silla later), indicate that in 48 AD, King Kim Suro of Gaya (the progenitor of the Gimhae Kim clan) took a princess (Princess Heo) from the "Ayuta nation" (which is the Korean name for the city of Ayodhya in North India) as his bride and queen. Princess Heo belonged to the Mishra royal family of Ayodhya. According to the Samguk Yusa, the princess had a dream about a heavenly fair handsome king from a far away land who was awaiting heaven's anointed ride. After Princess Heo had the dream, she asked her parents, the king and queen of Ayodhya, for permission to set out and seek the foreign prince, which the king and queen urged with the belief that God orchestrated the whole fate. That king was no other than King Kim Suro of the Korean Gaya kingdom.
6,423 Korean women married US military personnel as war brides during and immediately after the Korean War. The average number of Korean women marrying US military personnel each year was about 1,500 per year in the 1960s and 2,300 per year in the 1970s.[233] Since the beginning of the Korean War in 1950, nearly 100,000 Korean women have immigrated to the United States as the wives of American soldiers. Based on extensive oral interviews and archival research, Beyond the Shadow of the Camptowns tells the stories of these women, from their presumed association with U.S. military camptowns and prostitution to their struggles within the intercultural families they create in the United States.[234]
International marriages now make up 13% of all marriages in South Korea. Most of these marriages are unions between a Korean male and a foreign female[235] usually from China, Japan, Vietnam, the Philippines, United States, Mongolia, Thailand, or Russia. On the other hand, Korean females have married foreign males from Japan, China, the United States, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Philippines, and Nepal. Between 1990 and 2005, there have been 159,942 Korean males and 80,813 Korean females married to foreigners.[236][237]
South Korea is among the world's most ethnically homogeneous nations.[238] Koreans have traditionally valued an unmixed blood as the most important feature of Korean identity. The term "Kosian", referring to someone who has a Korean father and a non-Korean mother, is considered offensive by some who prefer to identify themselves or their children as Korean.[239][240] Moreover, the Korean office of Amnesty International has claimed that the word "Kosian" represents racial discrimination.[241][242] Kosian children, like those of other mixed-race backgrounds in Korea, often face discrimination.[243] There are an estimated 35,000 mixed-raced South Koreans, most of them half Caucasian, according to the Pearl Buck Foundation. Discrimination is far worse against those who have African American fathers.[244]
Vietnam
Main articles: Bụi đời and Women in Vietnam § European rule
Much of the business conducted with foreign men in Southeast Asia was done by the local women, who served engaged in both sexual and mercantile intercourse with foreign male traders. A Portuguese and Malay speaking Vietnamese woman who lived in Macao for an extensive period of time was the person who interpreted for the first diplomatic meeting between Cochin-China and a Dutch delegation, she served as an interpreter for three decades in the Cochin-China court with an old woman who had been married to three husbands, one Vietnamese and two Portuguese.[245][246][247] The cosmopolitan exchange was facilitated by the marriage of Vietnamese women to Portuguese merchants. Those Vietnamese woman were married to Portuguese men and lived in Macao which was how they became fluent in Malay and Portuguese.[248]
Alexander Hamilton said that "The Tonquiners used to be very desirous of having a brood of Europeans in their country, for which reason the greatest nobles thought it no shame or disgrace to marry their daughters to English and Dutch seamen, for the time they were to stay in Tonquin, and often presented their sons-in-law pretty handsomely at their departure, especially if they left their wives with child; but adultery was dangerous to the husband, for they are well versed in the art of poisoning."[249]
Malaysia and Singapore
In West Malaysia and Singapore, the majority of inter-ethnic marriages are between Chinese and Indians. The offspring of such marriages are informally known as "Chindian", although the Malaysian government only classifies them by their father's ethnicity. As the majority of these intermarriages usually involve an Indian groom and Chinese bride, the majority of Chindians in Malaysia are usually classified as "Indian" by the Malaysian government. As for the Malays, who are predominantly Muslim, legal restrictions in Malaysia make it uncommon for them to intermarry with either the Indians, who are predominantly Hindu, or the Chinese, who are predominantly Buddhist and Taoist.[250] Non-Muslims are required to convert to Islam in order to marry Muslims. However, this has not entirely stopped intermarriage between the Malays and the Chinese and Indians. The Muslim Chinese community is small and has only a negligible impact on the socio-economy and demography of the region.
It is common for Arabs in Singapore and Malaysia to take local Malay and Jawi Peranakan wives, due to a common Islamic faith.[88] The Chitty people, in Singapore and the Malacca state of Malaysia, are a Tamil people with considerable Malay descent, which was due to the first Tamil settlers taking local wives, since they did not bring along any of their own women with them. According to government statistics, the population of Singapore as of September 2007 was 4.68 million, of whom multiracial people, including Chindians and Eurasians, formed 2.4%.
In the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, there have been many incidents of intermarriage between Chinese and native tribes such as the Murut and Dusun in Sabah, and the Iban and Bisaya in Sarawak. This phenomenon has resulted in a potpourri of cultures in both states where many people claiming to be of native descent have some Chinese blood in them, and many Chinese have native blood in them. The offspring of these mixed marriages are called 'Sino-(name of tribe)', e.g. Sino-Dusun. Normally, if the father is Chinese, the offspring will adopt Chinese culture and if the father is native then native culture will be adopted, but this is not always the case. These Sino-natives are usually fluent in Malay and English. A smaller number are able to speak Chinese dialects and Mandarin, especially those who have received education in vernacular Chinese schools.
Burma
Burmese Muslims are the descendants of Bengalis, Indian Muslims, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Pathans, Chinese Muslims and Malays who settled and intermarried with the local Burmese population and other Burmese ethnic groups such as the Rakhine, Shan, Karen, and Mon.[251][252]
The oldest Muslim group in Burma (Myanmar) are the Rohingya people, who some believe are descended from Bengalis who intermarried with the native females in the Rakhine State after the 7th century, but this is just a theory. When Burma was ruled by the British India administration, millions of Indians, mostly Muslim, migrated there. The small population of mixed descendants of Indian males and local Burmese females are called "Zerbadees", often in a pejorative sense implying mixed race. The Panthays, a group of Chinese Muslims descended from West Asians and Central Asians, migrated from China and also intermarried with local Burmese females.[190]
In addition, Burma has an estimated 52,000 Anglo-Burmese people, descended from British and Burmese people. Anglo-Burmese people frequently intermarried with Anglo-Indian immigrants, who eventually assimilated into the Anglo-Burmese community.
Philippines



 A Filipina bride and Nigerian groom walk down the aisle.
Historically, admixture has been an ever present and pervasive phenomenon in the Philippines. The Philippines were originally settled by Australoid peoples called Negritos (different from other australoid groups) which now form the country's aboriginal community. Some admixture may have occurred between this earlier group and the mainstream Malayo-Polynesian population.[253]
A considerable number of the population in the town of Cainta, Rizal, are descended from Indian soldiers who mutinied against the British Indian Army when the British briefly occupied the Philippines in 1762–63. These Indian soldiers, called Sepoy, settled in towns and intermarried with native women. Cainta residents of Indian descent are very visible today, particularly in Barrio Dayap near Brgy. Sto Niño.
There has been a Chinese presence in the Philippines since the 9th century. However, large-scale migrations of Chinese to the Philippines only started during the Spanish colonial era, when the world market was opened to the Philippines. It is estimated that among Filipinos, 10%–20% have some Chinese ancestry and 1.5% are "full-blooded" Chinese.[254]
According to the American anthropologist Dr. H. Otley Beyer, the ancestry of Filipinos is 2% Arab. This dates back to when Arab traders intermarried with the local Malay Filipina female populations during the pre-Spanish history of the Philippines.[88] Major Arab migration to the Philippines coincided with the spread of Islam in the region. Filipino-Muslim royal families from the Sultanate of Sulu and the Sultanate of Maguindanao claim Arab descent even going as far as claiming direct lineage from Muhammad.[255] Such intermarriage mostly took place around the Mindanao island area, but the arrival of Spanish Conquistadors to the Philippines abruptly halted the spread of Islam further north into the Philippines. Intermarriage with Spanish people later became more prevalent after the Philippines was colonized by the Spanish Empire.
When the Spanish colonized the Philippines, a significant portion of the Filipino population mixed with the Spanish. When the United States took the Philippines from Spain during the Spanish–American War, much intermixing of Americans, both white and black, took place on the island of Luzon where the US had a Naval Base and Air Force Base, even after the USA gave the Philippines independence after World War II. First children and descendants of male Filipino population with Spanish surnames who intermarried with white American female population may be considered Spanish mestizos. The descendants of Filipinos and Europeans are today known as mestizos, following the term used in other former Spanish colonies.
Much mixing with the Japanese also took place due to the war rapes of Filipina women during World War II. Today there is an increasing number of Japanese men marrying Filipina woman and fathering children by them whose family remain behind in the Philippines and are financially supported by their Japanese fathers who make regular visits to the Philippines. Today mixed-race marriages have a mixed perception in the Philippines. Most urban centers like Manila and Cebu are more willing to accept interracial marriages than rural areas.
Europe
Germany
Main articles: Anti-miscegenation laws § Nazi Germany and Rassenschande



 Poster of the Nazi paper Der Stürmer (1935)


 Chart used to explain the Nuremberg race laws


 1940 poster in German and Polish describing "Obligations of Polish workers in Germany" including death sentence to every man and woman from Poland for sex with a German.
During the years following World War I, the French Army occupied the Rhineland, utilising African soldiers amongst their forces. Their children were known as "Rhineland Bastards".
Beginning in 1933, the mainstream Nazi anti-Semitism considered the Jews as being a group of people bound by close, so-called genetic (blood) ties, to form a unit, which one could not join or secede from. The influence of Jews had been declared to have a detrimental impact on Germany, in order to justify the discriminations and persecutions of Jews. To be spared from those, one had to prove one's affiliation with the group of the Aryan race, as conceived by the Nazis.
It was paradoxical that neither genetic tests nor allegedly racial outward features in one's physiognomy determined one's affiliation, although the Nazis talked a lot about physiognomy, but only the records of the religious affiliations of one's grandparents decided it. However, while earlier the grandparents had still been able to choose their religion, their grandchildren in the Nazi era were compulsorily categorised as Jews, thus non-Aryans, if three or four grandparents had been enrolled as members of a Jewish congregation, regardless of whether the persecuted themselves were Jews according to the Halachah (roughly meaning: Jewish by birth from a Jewish mother or by conversion), apostates, irreligionists or Christians.
The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 forbade persons racially regarded as so-called Aryans and non-Aryans to marry; this included all marriages where at least one partner was a German citizen. Non-Aryans comprised mostly Jewish Germans and Gentile Germans of Jewish descent. Although the laws at first were primarily against Jews, they were later extended to the "Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring".[256][257] The official definition of "Aryan" classified all non-Jewish White Europeans as Aryans,[258] sexual relations between Aryans and non-Aryans now became punishable as Rassenschande or "racial shame".[256] At the bottom of the Nazi racial hierarchy of non-Aryans were Jews, Slavs, Romani, and blacks.[259]
Eventually children—whenever born—within a mixed marriage, as well as children from extramarital mixed relationships born until 31 July 1936, were discriminated against as Mischlinge or crossbreed. However, children later born to mixed parents, not yet married as at the passing of the Nuremberg Laws, were to be discriminated against as Geltungsjuden, regardless of whether the parents had meanwhile married abroad or remained unmarried. Eventually children who were enrolled in a Jewish congregation were also subject to discrimination as Geltungsjuden.
Geltungsjuden were subjected to varying degrees of forced labour in 1940, partly ordered for all Jewish-classified spouses, either only for Jewish-classified husbands or only exempting Jewish-classified wives taking care of minor children. No documents indicate the exemption of a mixed marriage and especially of its Jewish-classified spouse from some persecutions.[260]
Systematic deportations of Jewish Germans and Gentile Germans of Jewish descent started on 18 October 1941.[261] German Jews and German Gentiles of Jewish descent living in mixed marriages were in fact mostly spared from deportation.[262] In the event that a mixed marriage ended by the death of the so-called Aryan spouse or the divorce of the Jewish-classified spouse, the Jewish-classified spouse residing within Germany was usually deported soon after unless the couple still had minor children not counted as Geltungsjuden.[263]
In March 1943 an attempt to deport the Berlin-based Jews and Gentiles of Jewish descent, living in non-privileged mixed marriages, failed due to public protest by their in-laws of so-called Aryan kinship (see Rosenstraße protest). Also the Aryan-classified husbands and Mischling-classified children (starting at the age of 16) from mixed marriages were taken by the Organisation Todt for forced labour, starting in autumn 1944.
A last attempt, undertaken in February/March 1945, ended because the extermination camps were already liberated. However, 2,600 from all over the Reich were deported to Theresienstadt, of whom most survived the last months until their liberation.[264]
After the war began, the race defilement law was extended to include all foreigners.[265] The Gestapo harshly persecuted sexual relations between Germans and workers from Eastern Europe on the grounds of "risk for the racial integrity of the German nation".[265] A decree dated on 7 December 1942 stated any "authorized sexual intercourse" would result in the death penalty.[266] Foreign workers brought to Nazi Germany were treated as a danger to German blood.[267] Particularly with the OST-Arbeiters—Poles, Ukrainians, or Russians, all sexual relations were severely punished.[268] During the war, hundreds of Polish and Russian men were executed for their relations with German women.[269][270]



 Boris Becker with Barbara Feltus in 1992
With the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945 the laws banning so-called mixed marriages were lifted again. If couples who had already lived together during the Nazi era had remained unmarried due to the legal restrictions then got married after the war, their date of marriage was legally retroactively backdated if they wished it to the date they formed a couple.[271] Even if one spouse was already dead, the marriage could be retroactively recognised. In the West German Federal Republic of Germany 1,823 couples applied for recognition, which was granted in 1,255 cases.
It is estimated that up to 7,000 postwar German children with black GI fathers and white German mothers were adopted by Americans.[272]
Hungary
The Hungarians are thought to have originated in an ancient Finno-Ugric population that originally inhabited the forested area between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains.[273] At the time of the Magyar migration in the 10th century, the present-day Hungary was inhabited by Slavs, numbering about 200,000,[274] who were either assimilated or enslaved by the Magyars.[274]
During the Russian campaign in the 13th century, the Mongols drove some 40,000 Cuman families, a nomadic tribe, west of the Carpathian Mountains.[275] The Iranian Jassic people came to Hungary together with the Cumans after they were defeated by the Mongols. Over the centuries they were fully assimilated into the Hungarian population.[276]
Iberian Peninsula



Hadith Bayad wa Riyad (12th century) was an Arabic love story about an Andalusian female and a foreign Damascene male.
In ancient history, the Iberian Peninsula was frequently invaded by foreigners who intermarried with the native population. One of the earliest foreign groups to arrive in the region were the Indo-European Celts who intermarried with the pre-Indo-European Iberians in prehistoric Iberia. They were later followed by the Semitic Phoenicians and Carthaginians and the Indo-European Romans who intermarried with the pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula during Classical Antiquity.
They were in turn followed by the Germanic Visigoths, Suebi and Vandals and the Iranian Sarmatians and Alans who also intermarried with the local population in Hispania during late Antiquity. In the 6th century, the region was reconquered by the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire), when Byzantine Greeks also settled there, before the region was lost again to the Visigothic Kingdom less than a century later.
The offspring of marriages between Arabs and non-Arabs in Iberia (Berbers or local Iberians) were known as Muladi or Muwallad, an Arabic term still used in the modern Arab world to refer to people with Arab fathers and non-Arab mothers.[277] Some sources consider this term the origin for the Spanish word Mulatto.[278][279] However, the Real Academia Española does not endorse such etymology.[280] This is because the term was mainly used during the time period of al-Andalus to refer to local Iberians (Christians and pagans) who converted to Islam or whose ancestors had converted. An example is the Banu Qasi, a Muslim dynasty of Basque origin. In addition, many Muladi were also descended from Saqaliba (Slavic) slaves taken from Eastern Europe via the Arab slave trade. Collectively, Christian Europeans named all the Muslims of Iberia, "Moors", regardless of ethnic origin.
After the Reconquista, which was completed in 1492, most of the Moors were forced to either flee to Islamic territories or convert to Christianity. The ones who converted to Christianity were known as Moriscoes, and they were often persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition as suspects of heresy on the basis of the Limpieza de sangre ("Cleanliness of blood") doctrine, under which anti-miscegenation laws were implemented in the Iberian Peninsula.[281]
Anyone whose ancestors had miscegenated with the Moors or Jews were suspected of secretly practicing Islam or Judaism, so were often particularly monitored by the Inquisition. The claim to universal hidalguía (lowest nobility) of the Basques was justified by erudites like Manuel de Larramendi (1690–1766)[282] because the Arab invasion had not reached the Basque territories, so it was believed that Basques had maintained their original purity, while the rest of Spain was suspect of miscegenation. Hidalguía helped many Basques to official positions in the administration.[283] In December 2008, a genetic study of the current population of the Iberian Peninsula, published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, estimated that about 10% have North African ancestors and 20% have Sephardi Jews as ancestors. Since there is no direct link between genetic makeup and religious affiliation, however, it is difficult to draw direct conclusions between their findings and forced or voluntary conversion.[284] Nevertheless, the Sephardic result is in contradiction[285][286][287][288][289] or not replicated in all the body of genetic studies done in Iberia and has been later questioned by the authors themselves[284][290][291][292] and by Stephen Oppenheimer who estimates that much earlier migrations, 5000 to 10,000 years ago from the Eastern Mediterranean might also have accounted for the Sephardic estimates: "They are really assuming that they are looking at his migration of Jewish immigrants, but the same lineages could have been introduced in the Neolithic".[293] The rest of genetic studies done in Spain estimate the North African contribution ranging from 2.5/3.4%[citation needed] to 7.7%.[294]
Italian Peninsula



 "Othello and Desdemona", a painting by Alexandre-Marie Colin in 1829
As was the case in other areas occupied by Muslims, it was acceptable in Islamic marital law for a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females in southern Italy when under Islamic rule - namely, the Emirate of Sicily, and, of least importance, the short-lived Emirate of Bari between the 8th and 11th centuries. In this case, most intermarriages were between Arab and Berber males from North Africa and the local Greek, Roman and Italian females. Such intermarriages were particularly common in the Emirate of Sicily, where one writer visiting the place in the 970s expressed shock at how common it was in rural areas.[295] After the Norman conquest of southern Italy, all Muslim citizens (whether foreign, native or mixed) of the Kingdom of Sicily were known as "Moors". After a brief period when the Arab-Norman culture had flourished under the reign of Roger II of Sicily, later rulers forced the Moors to either convert to Christianity or be expelled from the kingdom.
In Malta, Arabs and Italians from neighbouring Sicily and Calabria intermarried with the local inhabitants,[296] who were descended from Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans and Vandals. The Maltese people are descended from such unions, and the Maltese language is descended from Siculo-Arabic.
At times, the Italian city-states also played an active role in the Arab slave trade, where Moorish and Italian traders occasionally exchanged slaves.
During World War II, France's Moroccan troops known as Goumiers committed war rapes in Italy after the Battle of Monte Cassino[297] and in Germany. In Italy, victims of the mass rape committed after the Battle of Monte Cassino by Goumiers are known as Marocchinate. According to Italian sources, more than 7,000 Italian civilians, including women and children, were raped by Goumiers.[298]



 An artistic depiction of Ruthenian slave girl Roxelana with Suleiman the Magnificent, by German painter Anton Hickel (1780).
Russia
See also: Afro-Russian and Ethnic Chinese in Russia
The Metis Foundation estimates that there are about 40,000 mixed-race Russians.[299]
Many Chinese men, even those who had left wives and children behind in China, married local women in the 1920s, especially those women who had been widowed during the wars and upheavals of the previous decade. Their mixed race children tended to be given Russian forenames; some retained their fathers' Chinese surnames, while others took on Russian surnames, and a large proportion also invented new surnames using their father's entire family name and given name as the new surname.
Southeastern and Eastern Europe
Vikings explored and eventually settled in territories in Slavic-dominated areas of Eastern Europe. By 950 AD these settlements were largely Slavicized through intermarriage with the local population. Eastern Europe was also an important source for the Arab slave trade at the time, when Saqaliba (Slavic) slaves were taken to the Arab World, where the women and girls often served in harems, some of whom married their Arab masters. When the Mongol Empire annexed much of Eastern Europe in the 13th century, the Mongols also intermarried with the local population and often engaged in war rape during the Mongol invasion of Europe.
In the 11th century, the Byzantine territory of Anatolia was conquered by the Seljuq Turks, who came from Turkestan in Central Asia. Their Ottoman Turkish descendants went on to annex the Balkans and much of Eastern Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Due to Islamic marital law allowing a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females, it was common in the Ottoman Empire for Turkish males to intermarry with European females. For example, various sultans of the Ottoman Dynasty often had Greek (Rûm), Slavic (Saqaliba), Venetian, Northcaucasian and French wives.



 The Mongol invasion of Europe. The Mongols, with captured women, are on the left, the knights, with one saved woman, on the right.
Some of these European wives exerted great influence upon the empire as Valide Sultan ("Mother-Sultan"), some famous examples including Roxelana, a Ukrainian harem slave who later became Suleiman the Magnificent's favourite wife, and Nakşidil Sultan, wife of Abdul Hamid I, who according to legend may have been Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, cousin of French Empress Josephine. Due to the common occurrence of such intermarriages in the Ottoman Empire, they have had a significant impact on the ethnic makeup of the modern Turkish population in Turkey, which now differs from that of the Turkic population in Central Asia.[300] In addition to intermarriage, the large harems of Ottoman sultans often consisted almost entirely of female concubines who were of Christian European origin.[301] Sultan Ibrahim the Mad, Ottoman ruler from 1640 to 1648,　is said to have drowned 280 concubines of his harem in the Bosphorus.[302] At least one of his concubines, Turhan Hatice, Ukrainian girl captured during one of the raids by Tatars and sold into slavery, survived his reign.
United Kingdom
See also: British Mixed-Race
Intermarriage with non-European populations began as early as the Agricultural Revolution. Researchers have found that a majority of British males have DNA that can be traced back to Middle Eastern male farmers (from around present-day Iraq and Syria) who around 8000 BC began migrating to Britain, introducing agriculture to the island, and settling down with local British females.[303]



Seal with ex-wife Heidi Klum.
In the late 15th century, the Romani people, who have Indian origins, arrived in Britain. The Romani in Britain intermarried with the local population and became known to the Romani as the Romanichal. In India, the British East India Company and other European soldiers intermarried with Indian women. The offspring of these mixed marriages between the British and Indians were known as Anglo-Indians.[304] Indian wives sometimes accompanied their husbands back to Britain.[305] The British East India Company brought many South Asian lascars to Britain, where many settled down with local white British wives, due to a lack of Asian women in Britain at the time.[306]
Inter-ethnic relationships have become increasingly accepted over the last several decades. As of 2001, 2% of all marriages in Britain are inter-ethnic. Despite having a much lower non-white population (9%), mixed marriages in the United Kingdom are as common as in the United States, although America has many fewer specific definitions of race (four racial definitions as opposed to the United Kingdom's 86).[307] As of 2005, it is estimated that nearly half of British-born African-Caribbean males, a third of British-born African-Caribbean females, and a fifth of Indian and African males, have white partners.[308] As of 2009, one in 10 children in the UK lives in a mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity family (families headed by one white-British parent and one white parent not of British origin are included in the figure) and two out of five Chinese women have partners of a different race.[309] One out of five Chinese men have partners of a different race. According to the UK 2001 census, black British males were around 50% more likely than black females to marry outside their race. British Chinese women (30%) were twice as likely as their male counterparts (15%) to marry someone from a different ethnic group.
Middle East



The Slave Market, painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, c. 1884
A Stanford team found the greatest diversity outside Africa among people living in the wide crescent of land stretching from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean to northern India. Not only was the region among the first colonized by the African migrants, they theorize, but the large number of European and East Asian genes among the population indicates that it has long been a human highway, with large numbers of migrants from both directions conquering, trading and generally reproducing along its entire length. The same team also found out that the Bedouin nomads of the Middle East actually have some similarities to Europeans and South Asians[citation needed]
Inter-ethnic sexual slavery was common during the Arab slave trade throughout the Middle Ages and early modern period, when women and girls captured from non-Arab lands often ended up as sexual slaves in the harems of the Arab World.[310] Most of these slaves came from places such as Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj), South Asia (Hindus), the North Caucasus (mainly Circassians),[311] Central Asia (mainly Turks), and Central and Eastern Europe (mainly Saqaliba).[312] The Barbary pirates also captured 1,250,000 slaves from Western Europe and North America between the 16th and 19th centuries.[313][314] It was also common for Arab conquerors, traders and explorers to marry local females in the lands they conquered or traded with, in various parts of Africa, Asia (see Asia section) and Europe (see Europe section).
Inter-ethnic relationships were generally accepted in Arabic society and formed a fairly common theme in medieval Arabic literature and Persian literature. For example, the Persian poet Nizami, who had himself married his Kipchak slave girl, wrote The Seven Beauties (1196). Its frame story involves a Persian prince marrying seven foreign princesses, including Byzantine, Chinese, Indian, Khwarezmian, Maghrebian, Slavic and Tartar princesses. Hadith Bayad wa Riyad, a 12th-century Arabic tale from Al-Andalus, was a love story involving an Iberian girl and a Damascene man. The One Thousand and One Nights tale of "The Man of Al-Yaman and His Six Slave-Girls" involves a Yemeni man's relationship with foreign slave girls, four of which are white, black, brown and yellow.[315] Another One Thousand and One Nights tale, "The Ebony Horse", involves the Prince of Persia, Qamar al-Aqmar, rescuing his lover, the Princess of Sana'a, from the Byzantine Emperor who also wishes to marry her.[316]
One study found that some Arabic-speaking populations—Palestinians, Jordanians, Syrians, Iraqis, and Bedouins—have what appears to be substantial mtDNA gene flow from sub-Saharan Africa, amounting to 10–15% of lineages within the past three millennia.[317][318] In the case of Yemenites, the average is higher at 35%.[317]



 A slave market in Khartoum, Sudan, c. 1876
In 1814, Swiss explorer Johann Burckhardt wrote of his travels in Egypt and Nubia, where he saw the practice of slave trading:

I frequently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach Egypt or Arabia in a state of virginity.[319]
A genetic anthropological study known as The Genographic Project has found what is believed to be faint genetic traces left by medieval Crusaders in the Middle East. The team has uncovered a specific DNA signature in Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan that is probably linked to the 7th and 8th Christian crusades. The Crusaders originated from European kingdoms, mostly France, England and the Holy Roman Empire.[320]
In the Ottoman Empire, in addition to the Ottoman elites often taking large numbers of European wives and concubines (see Southeastern and Eastern Europe section), there were also opportunities for the reverse, when the empire recruited young Christian boys (Europeans and Christian Arabs) to become the elite troops of the Turkish Empire, the Janissaries. These Janissaries were stationed throughout the Turkish empire including the Middle-East and North Africa leading to inter-ethnic relationships between European men and women from the Middle East and North Africa.
The concubines of the Ottoman Sultan consisted chiefly of purchased slaves. Because Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims, the Sultan's concubines were generally of Christian origin. The mother of a Sultan, though technically a slave, received the extremely powerful title of Valide Sultan, and at times became effective ruler of the Empire (see Sultanate of women). One notable example was Kösem Sultan, daughter of a Greek Christian priest, who dominated the Ottoman Empire during the early decades of the 17th century.[321] Another notable example was Roxelana, the favourite wife of Suleiman the Magnificent.
Inter-ethnic sexual slavery still continues today in a smaller form in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, where women and children are trafficked from the post-Soviet states, Eastern Europe, Far East, Africa, South Asia and other parts of the Middle East.[322][323][324]
Israel
The modern State of Israel was established as a nation-state for the Jewish people. The Jewish identity contains elements of religion (Judaism), ethnicity, and a sense of a common lineage.
Israeli law concerns itself with miscegenation based on Jewish ethnicity, not miscegenation based on race. Therefore, there are no restrictions on interracial marriages between Jews of different Jewish ethnic divisions, or between other co-religionists of different races, although social stigma may still exist. Furthermore there is no legal impediment to inter-ethnic or inter-religious marriage per se, only that the state does not recognize them when they are solemnized within Israel.
Thus in Israel, all marriages must be approved by religious authorities, while civil marriages are legally recognized if performed abroad. Rules governing marriage are based on strict religious guidelines of each religion. Under Israeli law, authority over all issues related to Judaism in Israel, including marriage, falls under the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, which is Orthodox. Orthodox Judaism is the only form of Judaism recognized by the state, and marriages performed in Israel by non-Orthodox Rabbis are not recognized.
The Rabbinate prohibits marriage in Israel of halakhic Jews (i.e. people born to a Jewish mother or Jewish by conversion), whether they are Orthodox Jews or not, to partners who are non-Jewish or who are of Jewish descent that runs through the paternal line (i.e. not Jewish according to halakha), unless they undergo a formal conversion to Judaism. As a result, in the state of Israel, people of differing religious traditions cannot legally marry someone in another religion and multi-faith couples must leave the country to get married.
The only other option in Israel for the marriage of a halakhic Jew (Orthodox or not) to a non-Jew, or for that matter, a Christian to a non-Christian or Muslim to a non-Muslim, is for one partner to formally convert to the other's religion, be it to Orthodox Judaism, a Christian denomination or a denomination of Islam. As for persons with patrilineal Jewish descent (i.e. not recognized as Jewish according to halakha) who wish to marry a halakhic Jew (i.e., born to a Jewish mother or is Jewish by Orthodox conversion) who is Orthodox or otherwise, is also required to formally convert to Orthodox Judaism or they cannot legally marry.
According to a Haaretz article "Justice Ministry drafts civil marriage law for ‘refuseniks’" 300,000 people, or 150,000 couples, are affected by marriage restrictions based on the partners' disparate religious traditions or non-halakhic Jewish status.[325]
Many Israeli Jews oppose mixed relationships between Jews and non-Jews, although it should be noted that this is not so much an Israeli phenomenon as a Jewish one, through fear of assimilation.[citation needed] There may also be an element in Israel that mixed relationships with Arabs represent an additional danger, politically as well as religiously: a 2007 opinion survey found that more than half of Israeli Jews believed intermarriage is equivalent to "national treason". A poll in 2014 found that three quarters of Israeli Jews and two thirds of Israeli Arabs would not marry someone from a different religion. Inter-faith relationships were opposed by 95 percent of Haredi Jews, 88 percent of traditional and religious Jews and 64 percent of secular Jews.[326]
A group of 35 Jewish men, known as "Fire for Judaism", in Pisgat Ze'ev have started patrolling the town in an effort to stop Jewish women from dating Arab men. The municipality of Petah Tikva has also announced an initiative to prevent interracial relationships, providing a telephone hotline for friends and family to "inform" on Jewish girls who date Arab men as well as psychologists to provide counselling. The town of Kiryat Gat launched a school programme in schools to warn Jewish girls against dating local Bedouin men.[327][328]
In February 2010 Maariv has reported that the Tel Aviv municipality has instituted an official, government-sponsored "counselling program" to discourage Jewish girls from dating and marrying Arab boys. The Times has also reported on a vigilante parents’ group policing the Jerusalem neighborhood of Pisgat Ze'ev to intimidate and discourage local Arab-Jewish couples. The Jewish anti-missionary group Yad L'achim has also performed paramilitary "rescue operations" of Jewish women from non-Jewish husbands and celebrates the "rescued women" on their website.[329]
In the 2014 the marriage of a Muslim groom and a bride who had converted from Judaism to Islam attracted attention when the wedding was protested by Lehava, an organisation opposing Jewish assimilation. An Israeli court allowed the protest to go ahead but ordered protesters to stay at least 200 metres away from the wedding venue in Rishon LeZion. In response a demonstration in support for the couple was also held.[330]
United Arab Emirates
There are tens of thousands of women from eastern Europe and Asia working as prostitutes in Dubai. Men from Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates form a large proportion of the customers.[331]
Oceania



 German immigrant Hermann A. Widemann had a large family with his Hawaiian wife Mary Kaumana, 1886
Australia
Most of the early Chinese-Australia population consisted of Cantonese migrants from Guangzhou and Taishan, including some from Fujian, who came during the gold rush period of the 1850s. Marriage records show that between the 1850s and the start of the 20th century, there were about 2000 legal marriages between white women and Chinese men in Australia’s eastern colonies, probably with similar numbers involved in de facto relationships of various kinds (e.g., cohabitation, sexual intimacy, etc.).[332] The number of such marriages declined, as stories of viciousness and the seduction of white women grew, mixed with opposition to intermarriage. Rallies against Chinese men marrying white women became widespread, with many Australian men reviewing Chinese men marrying and cohabiting with white women as a threat to the white race. In late 1878 there were 181 marriages between European women and Chinese men, and 171 couples cohabiting without matrimony, resulting in 586 Eurasian children.[333] Such numbers of intermarriage continued until the 1880s and the 1930s.
As of 2006, over half of Australian Aboriginals were married to non-Aboriginal partners.[334]
New Zealand
Miscegenation is a politically charged topic in New Zealand, although mixed marriages are very common and almost universally accepted. People who identify as Māori typically have ancestors ('tīpuna'[335]) from at least two distinct ethnicities. Historically this has leant itself to the majority belief that "real" Māori were gradually disappearing from New Zealand and "one people" were forming.[336] This view held sway in New Zealand until the late 1960s and 70s, when a revival and re-establishment of Māori culture and tradition coincided with a rejection of the majority opinion.[337]
The belief that Māori were disappearing was partially founded on the reality of high and ongoing rates of intermarriage between Europeans and Māori before and since colonisation. During the revival of Māori culture and tradition this belief began to be challenged by redefining "Māori" as an ethnic identity as opposed to a racial category.[338] As a result a person may have one European/Asian/Pacific parent and one Māori parent, but be considered no less "authentically Māori" than a descendent of two Māori.
Two-thirds of Māori births, half of Pacific births, and a third of white and Asian births belonged to more than one ethnic group.[339]
Portuguese colonies
See also: Orfas del Rei
According to Gilberto Freyre, a Brazilian sociologist, interracial marriage was commonplace in the Portuguese colonies, and was even supported by the court as a way to boost low populations and guarantee a successful and cohesive settlement. Thus, settlers often released African slaves to become their wives. The children were guaranteed full Portuguese citizenship, provided the parents were married. Some former Portuguese colonies have large mixed-race populations, for instance, Brazil, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Timor Leste, Macau and São Tomé and Príncipe. In the case of Brazil, the influential "Indianist" novels of José de Alencar (O Guarany, Iracema, and Ubirajara) perhaps went farther than in the other colonies, advocating miscegenation in order to create a truly Brazilian race.[340] Mixed marriages between Portuguese and locals in former colonies were very common in all Portuguese colonies. Miscegenation was still common in Africa until the independence of the former Portuguese colonies in the mid-1970s.
Demographics of ethnoracial admixture
U.S.
According to the U.S. Census,[341] in 2000 there were 504,119 Asian-white marriages, 287,576 black-white marriages, and 31,271 Asian-black marriages. The black-white marriages increased from 65,000 in 1970 to 558,000 in 2010,[342] according to Census Bureau figures.[343]



 New Jersey, 2008
In the United States, rates of interracial cohabitation are significantly higher than those of marriage. Although only 7% of married African American men have Caucasian American wives, 13% of cohabitating African American men have Caucasian American partners. 25% of married Asian American women have Caucasian spouses, but 45% of cohabitating Asian American women are with Caucasian American men. Of cohabiting Asian men, slightly over 37% of Asian men have white female partners over 10% married White American women.[47][344] Asian American women and Asian American men who live with a white partner, 40 and 27 percent, respectively (Le, 2006b).In 2008, of new marriages including an Asian man, 80% were to an Asian spouse and 14% to a White spouse; of new marriages involving an Asian woman, 61% were to an Asian spouse and 31% to a White spouse.[345] Almost 30% of Asians and Latinos outmarry, with 86.8 and 90% of these, respectively, being to a white person.[346] According to Karyn Langhorne Folan, "...although the most recent census available reported that 70% of African American women are single, African American women have the greatest resistance to marrying 'out' of the race."[347]
One survey revealed that 19% of black males had engaged in sexual activity with white women.[348] A Gallup poll on interracial dating in June 2006 found 75% of Americans approving of a white man dating a black woman, and 71% approving of a black man dating a white woman. Among people between the ages of 18 and 29, the poll found that 95% approved of blacks and whites dating, and about 60% said they had dated someone of a different race.[349] 69% of Hispanics, 52% of blacks, and 45% of whites said they have dated someone of another race or ethnic group.[350] In 1980, just 17% of all respondents said they had dated someone from a different racial background.[351]



 NAACP President Benjamin Jealous is the son of a white father and a black mother
However, according to a study from the University of California at Berkeley, using data from over 1 million profiles of singles from online dating websites, whites were far more reluctant to date outside their race than non-whites. The study found that over 80% of whites, including whites who stated no racial preference, contacted other whites, whereas about 3% of whites contacted blacks, a result that held for younger and older participants. Only 5% of whites responded to inquiries from blacks. Black participants were ten times more likely to contact whites than whites were to contact blacks, however black participants sent inquiries to other blacks more often than otherwise.[352][353]
Interracial marriage is still relatively uncommon, especially among whites. In 2010, 15% of new marriages were interracial, and of those only 9% of Whites married outside of their race. Although this takes into account inter ethnic marriages. This meaning it counts white Hispanics marrying non-Hispanic whites as interracial marriages, despite both bride and groom being racially white. Of the 275,000 new interracial marriages in 2010, 43% were white-Hispanic, 14.4% were white-Asian, 11.9% were white-black and the rest were other combinations. Black-white marriages are the least common interracial coupling.[354] However, interracial marriage has become more common over the past decades due to increasing racial diversity, and liberalizing attitudes toward the practice. The number of interracial marriages in the U.S. increased by 65% between 1990 ands 2000, and by 20% between 2000 and 2010.[355] "A record 14.6% of all new marriages in the United States in 2008 were between spouses of a different race or ethnicity from one another. ... Rates more than doubled among whites and nearly tripled among blacks between 1980 and 2008. But for both Hispanics and Asians, rates were nearly identical in 2008 and 1980.", according to a Pew Research Center analysis of demographic data from the U.S. Census Bureau.[356]
According to studies by Jenifer L. Bratter and Rosalind B. King made publicly available on the Education Resources Information Center, White female-Black male and White female-Asian male marriages are more prone to divorce than White-White pairings.[357] Conversely, unions between White males and non-White females (and between Hispanics and non-Hispanic persons) have similar or lower risks of divorce than White-White marriages, unions between white male-black female last longer than white-white pairings or white-Asian pairings.[357]
Brazil
See also: Race in Brazil
Multiracial Brazilians make up 42.6% of Brazil's population, 79.782 million people, and they live in all regions of Brazil. Multiracial Brazilians are mainly people of mixed European, African, East Asian (mostly Japanese) and Amerindian ancestry.
Interracial marriages comprised 22.6% of all marriages in 2000. 15.7% of blacks, 24.4% of whites and 27.6% of Pardos (mixed-race/brown) married someone whose race was different from their own.[358]
Genetic admixture
Main article: Genetic admixture
Sexual reproduction between two populations reduces the genetic distance between the populations. During the Age of Discovery which began in the early 15th century, European explorers sailed all across the globe reaching all the major continents. In the process they came into contact with many populations that had been isolated for thousands of years. The Tasmanian aboriginals were one of the most isolated groups on the planet.[359] They were killed by European explorers, but a number of their descendants survive today as a result of admixture with Europeans. This is an example of how modern migrations have begun to reduce the genetic divergence of the human species.
New world demographics were radically changed within a short time following the voyage of Columbus.[359] The colonization of Americas brought Native Americans into contact with the distant populations of Europe, Africa and Asia.[359] As a result many countries in the Americas have significant and complex multiracial populations. Furthermore many who identify themselves by only one race still have multiracial ancestry.
Admixture in the United States
See also: Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas and Multiracial American
Admixture in European-American population

 % European admixture
Frequency
90–100 68%
80–89.9 22%
70–79.9 8%
60–69.9 < 1%
50–59.9 < 1%
40–49.9 < 1%
0–39.9 0
Some claim the vast majority of African-Americans possess varying degrees of European admixture (the average Black American is 20% European) although studies suggest the Native American admixture in Black Americans is highly exaggerated; some estimates put average African-American possession of European admixture at 25% with figures as high as 50% in the Northeast and less than 10% in the south. A recent study by Mark D. Shriver of a European-American sample found that the average admixture in the white population is 0.7% African and 3.2% Native American. However, 70% of the sample had no African admixture. The other 30% had African admixture ranging from 2% to 20% with an average of 2.3%. By extrapolating these figures to the whole population some scholars suggest that up to 74 million European-Americans may have African admixture in the same range (2–20%).
Dr Mark Shriver, the team leader of the study, found that he had 11% West African ancestry though he identifies as white. Studies based on skin reflectance have shown the color line in the US applied selective pressure on genes that code for skin color but did not apply any selective pressure on other invisible African genes. Since there are an estimated 6 genetic loci involved in skin color determination it is possible for someone to have 15–20% African admixture and not possess any of alleles that code for dark skin.[dubious – discuss] This is the basis of the passing phenomenon. Thus, the percentage of African admixture amongst white Americans can be relatively high without any significant change in skin tone.
Within the African-Americans population, the amount of African admixture is directly correlated with darker skin since less selective pressure against dark skin is applied within the group of "non-passing" individuals. Thus, African-Americans may have a much wider range of African admixture (>0–100%), whereas European-Americans have a lower range (2–20%).
A small overlap exists such that it is possible that someone who identifies himself as white may have more African admixture than a person who identifies himself as black.[360][361]



The Trapper's Bride shows a trapper, Francois, paying $600 in trade goods for an Indian woman to be his wife, ca. 1837
A statistical analysis done in 1958 using historical census data and historical data on immigration and birth rates concluded that 21% of the white population had black ancestors. The growth in the white population could not be attributed to births in the white population and immigration from Europe alone, but had received significant contribution from the African American population as well.[362] The author states in 1958:

The data presented in this study indicate that the popular belief in the non-African background of white persons is invalid. Over twenty-eight million white persons are descendants of persons of African origin. Furthermore, the majority of the persons with African ancestry are classified as white.
In the United States intermarriage among Filipinos with other races is common. They have the largest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California.[363] It is also noted that 21.8% of Filipino Americans are of mixed blood, second among Asian Americans, and is the fastest growing.[364]
Admixture in Latin America
Background
Prior to the European conquest of the Americas the demographics of Latin America was naturally 100% American Indian. Today those who identify themselves as Native Americans are small minorities in many countries. For example the CIA lists Argentina's native population at 0.9%, Brazil's at 0.4%, and Uruguay's at 0%.[365] However, the range varies widely from country to country in Latin America with some countries having significantly larger Amerindian minorities. According to official statistics —as reported by the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples or CDI— Amerindians make up 10-14%[366] of the population of Mexico.



 Depiction of casta system in Mexico, 18th century
The early conquest of Latin America was primarily carried out by male soldiers and sailors from Spain and Portugal. Since they carried very few European women on their journeys the new settlers married and fathered children with Amerindian women and also with women imported from Africa. This process of miscegenation was even encouraged by the Spanish monarchy and it led to the system of stratification known as the Casta. This system had Europeans (Spaniards and Portuguese) at the top of the hierarchy followed by those of mixed race. Unmixed Blacks and Native Americans were at the bottom. A philosophy of whitening emerged in which Amerindian and African culture was stigmatized in favor of European values. Many Amerindian languages were lost as mixed race offspring adopted Spanish and Portuguese as their first languages. Only towards the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century did large numbers of Europeans begin to migrate to South America and consequently altering its demographics.
In addition many Africans were shipped to regions all over the Americas and were present in many of the early voyages of the conquistadors. Brazil has the largest population of African descendants outside Africa. Other countries such as Jamaica, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador still have sizeable populations identified as Black. However countries such as Argentina and Chile do not have a visible African presence today. Census information from the early 19th century shows that people categorized as Black made up to 30% of the population, or around 400,000 people.[367] Though almost completely absent today, their contribution to Argentine culture is significant and include the tango, the milonga and the zamba, words of Bantu origin.[368]

Demographics of Brazil in 1835, 1940, 2000 and 2008[369][370]

Year
White
Brown
Black
1835 24.4% 18.2% 51.4%
1940 64% 21% 14%
2000 53.7% 38.5% 6.2%
2008 48.8% 43.8% 6.5%
The ideology of whitening encouraged non-whites to seek white or lighter skinned partners. This dilution of non-white admixture would be beneficial to their offspring as they would face less stigmatization and find it easier to assimilate into mainstream society. After successive generations of European gene flow, non-white admixture levels would drop below levels at which skin color or physical appearance is not affected thus allowing individuals to identify as white. In many regions, the native and black populations were simply overwhelmed by a succession of waves of European immigration.
Historians and scientists are thus interested in tracing the fate of Native Americans and Africans from the past to the future. The questions remain about what proportion of these populations simply died out and what proportion still has descendants alive today including those who do not racially identify themselves as their ancestors would have. Admixture testing has thus become a useful objective tool in shedding light on the demographic history of Latin America.
Recent studies



 A Spaniard plays with his mixed-race daughter while his Mulatto wife looks on, 1763
Unlike in the United States, there were no anti-miscegenation policies in Latin America. Though still a racially stratified society there were no significant barriers to gene flow between the three populations. As a result admixture profiles are a reflection of the colonial populations of Africans, Europeans and Amerindians. The pattern is also sex biased in that the African and Amerindian maternal lines are found in significantly higher proportions than African or Amerindian Y chromosomal lines. This is an indication that the primary mating pattern was that of European males with Amerindian or African females. According to the study more than half the white populations of the Latin American countries studied have some degree of either native American or African admixture (MtDNA or Y Chromosome). In countries such as Chile and Colombia almost the entire white population was shown to have some non-white admixture[371][372][373][374]
Frank Moya Pons, a Dominican historian documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with Taíno women, and, over time, these mestizo descendants intermarried with Africans, creating a tri-racial Creole culture. 1514 census records reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the colony of Santo Domingo had Taíno wives.[375] A 2002 study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that over 61% of the population possess Amerindian mtDNA.[376]
Admixture in the Philippines
Historically, admixture has been a common phenomenon in the Philippines. The Philippines were originally settled by Australoid peoples called Negritos which now form the country's aboriginal community. Admixture occurred between this earlier group and the mainstream Malayo-Polynesian population.[253]
There has been Indian migration to and influence in the Philippines since the precolonial era. About 25% of the words in the Tagalog language are Sanskrit terms and about 5% of the country's population possess Indian ancestry from antiquity.[377] There has been a Chinese presence in the Philippines since the 9th century. However, large-scale migrations of Chinese to the Philippines only started during the Spanish colonial era, when the world market was opened to the Philippines. It is estimated that among Filipinos, 10%–20% have some Chinese ancestry and 1.5% are "full-blooded" Chinese.[254]
According to the American anthropologist Dr. H. Otley Beyer, the ancestry of Filipinos is 2% Arab. This dates back to when Arab traders intermarried with the local Malay Filipina female populations during the pre-Spanish history of the Philippines.[88] A recent genetic study by Stanford University indicates that at least 3.6% of the population are European or of part European descent from both Spanish and United States colonization.[378]
Admixture among the Romani people



 Interior of a gipsy's house in Brazil c. 1820, by Debret


 Romani dancers in Romania
Genetic evidence has shown that the Romani people ("Gypsies") originated from the Indian subcontinent and mixed with the local populations in Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. In the 1990s, it was discovered that Romani populations carried large frequencies of particular Y chromosomes (inherited paternally) that otherwise exist only in populations from South Asia, in addition to fairly significant frequencies of particular mitochondrial DNA (inherited maternally) that is rare outside South Asia.
47.3% of Romani males carry Y chromosomes of haplogroup H-M82 which is rare outside of the Indian subcontinent.[379] Mitochondrial haplogroup M, most common in Indian subjects and rare outside Southern Asia, accounts for nearly 30% of Romani people.[379] A more detailed study of Polish Romani shows this to be of the M5 lineage, which is specific to India.[380] Moreover, a form of the inherited disorder congenital myasthenia is found in Romani subjects. This form of the disorder, caused by the 1267delG mutation, is otherwise only known in subjects of Indian ancestry. This is considered to be the best evidence of the Indian ancestry of the Romanies.[381]
The Romanis have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations",[382] while a number of common Mendelian disorders among Romanies from all over Europe indicates "a common origin and founder effect".[382] See also this table:[383]
A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group".[384] Also the study pointed out that "genetic drift and different levels and sources of admixture, appear to have played a role in the subsequent differentiation of populations".[384] The same study found that "a single lineage ... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males. A similar preservation of a highly resolved male lineage has been reported elsewhere only for Jewish priests".[384] See also the Cohen Modal Haplotype.
A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romani are "a founder population of common origins that has subsequently split into multiple socially divergent and geographically dispersed Gypsy groups".[381] The same study revealed that this population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago".[381]
See also
A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century
Amalgamation (race)
Anti-miscegenation laws
Discrimination based on skin color
Ethnic pornography
Exogamy
Interracial marriage
Interracial romance in film
Melungeon
Mestizo
 Mixed Race Day
Multiculturalism
Multiracial
Passing (racial identity)
Plaçage
Race and genetics
Race and society
Race of the future
Racial Integrity Act of 1924
Racism

Notes and references
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120.Jump up ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
121.Jump up ^ Dru C. Gladney (1996). Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 245. ISBN 0-674-59497-5. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
122.Jump up ^ China archaeology and art digest, Volume 3, Issue 4. Art Text (HK) Ltd. 2000. p. 30. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
123.Jump up ^ Friedrich Ratzel (1898). The history of mankind, Volume 3. Macmillan and co., ltd. p. 355. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
124.Jump up ^ Melvyn C. Goldstein, Dawei Sherap, William Siebenschuh, William R. Siebenschuh (2006). The A Tibetan Revolutionary: The Political Life and Times of Bapa Phüntso Wangye. University of California Press. p. 19. ISBN 0-520-24992-5. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
125.Jump up ^ Eliakim Littell, Robert S. Littell (1891). Littell's living age, Volume 191. T.H. Carter & Co. p. 606. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
126.Jump up ^ The National review, Volume 23. W.H. Allen. 1894. p. 81. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
127.Jump up ^ China Information Committee (1938). China at war, Volumes 1–2. The China Information Publishing Company. p. 54. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
128.Jump up ^ Lhasa. Concept Publishing Company. 1939. p. 100. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
129.Jump up ^ Teichman Eric (2009). Travels of a Consular Officer in Eastern Tibet. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 180. ISBN 1-110-31267-9. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
130.Jump up ^ Charles Bell (1992). Tibet Past and Present. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 243. ISBN 81-208-1048-1. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
131.Jump up ^ B. Michael Frolic (1981). Mao's People: Sixteen Portraits of Life in Revolutionary China. Harvard University Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-674-54845-9. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
132.Jump up ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: towards a historical anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. pp. 83–85. ISBN 90-04-16675-0. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
133.Jump up ^ Henry Lansdell (1894). Chinese Central Asia: A Ride to Little Tibet, Volume 2. p. 77. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
134.Jump up ^ James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8. T. & T. Clark. p. 893. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
135.Jump up ^ Martijn Theodoor Houtsma (1987). E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 2. BRILL. p. 849. ISBN 90-04-08265-4. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
136.Jump up ^ Sven Anders Hedin (1899). Through Asia, Volume 2. Harper and brothers. p. 954. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
137.Jump up ^ Robyn R. Iredale, Naran Bilik, Fei Guo (2003). China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies. M.E. Sharpe. p. 120. ISBN 0-7656-1023-X. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
138.Jump up ^ Günther Schlee (2002). Imagined Differences: Hatred and the Construction of Identity, Volume 2001. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 76. ISBN 1-4039-6031-3. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
139.Jump up ^ "Global Mappings: Nanjing Anti-African Protests of 1988–89". Diaspora.northwestern.edu. 1989-01-16. Retrieved 2014-04-11.
140.^ Jump up to: a b Christian Science Monitor: "In China, mixed marriages can be a labor of love – In one major Chinese city, marriages between Chinese and Africans are on the rise. In a country known for monoculture, it isn't easy" By Yepoka Yeebo September 21, 2013
141.Jump up ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (1998). A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Bishop Henry McNeal Turner Studies in North American Black Religion Series. Volume 2 of A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Volume 2 (Issue 36 of American Society of Missiology series) (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 1-57075-450-0. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
142.Jump up ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (2005). A history of Christianity in Asia, Volume 2 (Issue 36 of American Society of Missiology series) (2 ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 1-57075-450-0. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
143.Jump up ^ Free China Review, Volume 11. W.Y. Tsao. 1961. p. 54. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
144.Jump up ^ Covell, Ralph R. (1998). Pentecost of the Hills in Taiwan: The Christian Faith Among the Original Inhabitants (illustrated ed.). Hope Publishing House. p. 96. ISBN 0-932727-90-5. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
145.Jump up ^ Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan (illustrated ed.). Macmillan. p. 77. ISBN 0-230-61424-8. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
146.Jump up ^ Meiqi Lee (2004). Being Eurasian: memories across racial divides. Hong Kong University Press. p. 262. ISBN 962-209-671-9. "EJ Eitel, in the late 1890s, claims that the 'half-caste population in Hong Kong' were from the earliest days of the settlement almost exclusively the offspring of liaisons between European men and women of outcast ethnic groups such as Tanka. Lethbridge refutes the theory saying it was based on a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community. Carl Smith's study in late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, support Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Custom precluded their intermarriage with the Cantonese and Hakka-speaking populations. The Tanka women did not have bound feet. Their opportunities for settlement on shore were limited. They were hence not as closely tied to Confucian ethics as other Chinese ethnic groups. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans (CT Smith, Chung Chi Bulletin, 27). 'Living under the protection of a foreigner,' says Smith, 'could be a ladder to financial security, if not respectability, for some of the Tanka boat girls' (13 )."
147.Jump up ^ Maria Jaschok; Suzanne Miers, eds. (1994). Women and Chinese patriarchy: submission, servitude, and escape. Zed Books. p. 223. ISBN 1-85649-126-9. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "He states that they had a near-monopoly of the trade in girls and women, and that: The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuous re-absorption in the mass of Chinese residents of the Colony (1895 p. 169)"
148.Jump up ^ Helen F. Siu (2011). Helen F. Siu, ed. Merchants' Daughters: Women, Commerce, and Regional Culture in South. Hong Kong University Press. p. 305. ISBN 988-8083-48-1. Retrieved 2 November 2011. "The half-caste population of Hongkong were . . . almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka women. EJ Eitel, Europe in , the History of Hongkong from the Beginning to the Year 1882 (Taipei: Chen-Wen Publishing Co., originally published in Hong Kong by Kelly and Walsh. 1895, 1968), 169."
149.Jump up ^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day [1895], almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people"
150.Jump up ^ Public Library Ernest John Eitel (1895). Europe in China: the history of Hongkong from the beginning to the year 1882. London: Luzac & Co. p. 169. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
151.Jump up ^ Weiss, A. M. (2008). "South Asian Muslims in Hong Kong: Creation of a 'Local Boy' Identity". Modern Asian Studies 25 (3): 417. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00013895. edit
152.Jump up ^ Ina Baghdiantz McCabe, Gelina Harlaftis, Iōanna Pepelasē Minoglou (2005). Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History. Berg Publishers. p. 256. ISBN 1-85973-880-X.
153.Jump up ^ Jonathan Porter (1996). Macau, the imaginary city: culture and society, 1557 to the present. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-2836-2. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
154.Jump up ^ macau – The Las Vegas of the East >>Inscrutable Chinese>>English>>北京仁和博苑中医药研究院. Bjrhby.com. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
155.Jump up ^ Annabel Jackson (2003). Taste of Macau: Portuguese Cuisine on the China Coast (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. x. ISBN 962-209-638-7. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
156.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 39: To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. […] but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay – they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman.
157.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Volume 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology (illustrated ed.). Berg. p. 39. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5. Retrieved 2012-03-01. "To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. […] but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay – they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman."
158.Jump up ^ C. A. Montalto de Jesus (1902). Historic Macao (2 ed.). Kelly & Walsh, Limited. p. 41. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
159.Jump up ^ Austin Coates (2009). A Macao Narrative. Volume 1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. Hong Kong University Press. p. 44. ISBN 962-209-077-X. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
160.Jump up ^ Camões Center (Columbia University. Research Institute on International Change) (1989). Camões Center Quarterly, Volume 1. Volume 1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. The Center. p. 29. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
161.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 39: When we established ourselves here, the Chinese ostracized us. The Portuguese had their wives, then, that came from abroad, but they could have no contact with the Chinese women, except the fishing folk, the tanka women and the female slaves. Only the lowest class of Chinese contacted with the Portuguese in the first centuries. But later the strength of Christianization, of the priests, started to convince the Chinese to become Catholic. […] But, when they started to be Catholics, they adopted Portuguese baptismal names and were ostracized by the Chinese Buddhists. So they joined the Portuguese community and their sons started having Portuguese education without a single drop of Portuguese blood.
162.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 164: I was personally told of people that, to this day, continue to hide the fact that their mothers had been lower-class Chinese women – often even tanka (fishing folk) women who had relations with Portuguese sailors and soldiers.
163.^ Jump up to: a b Society of Macau: Macanese People, Public Holidays in Macau, Tanka People. Alibris. ISBN 978-1-157-45360-4 Retrieved 29 January 2012.
164.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 164
165.^ Jump up to: a b João de Pina-Cabral, p. 165
166.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 164: Henrique de Senna Fernandes, another Macanese author, wrote a short story about a tanka girl who has an affair with a Portuguese sailor. In the end, the man returns to his native country and takes their little girl with him, leaving the mother abandoned and broken-hearted. As her sailorman picks up the child, A-Chan's words are: 'Cuidadinho ... cuidadinho' ('Careful ... careful'). She resigns herself to ther fate, much as she may never have recovered from the blow (1978).
167.Jump up ^ Christina Miu Bing Cheng, p. 173: Her slave-like submissiveness is her only attraction to him. A-Chan thus becomes his slave/mistress, an outlet for suppressed sexual urges. The story is an archetypical tragedy of miscegenation. Just as the Tanka community despises A-Chan's cohabitation with a foreign barbarian, Manuel's colleagues mock his 'bad taste' ('gosto degenerado') (Senna Fernandes, 1978: 15) in having a tryst with a boat girl … As such, the Tanka girl is nonchalantly reified and dehumanized as a thing (coisa). Manuel reduces human relations to mere consumption not even of her physical beauty (which has been denied in the description of A-Chan), but her 'Orientalness' of being slave-like and submissive.
168.Jump up ^ Christina Miu Bing Cheng, p. 170: We can trace this fleeting and shallow relationship in Henrique de Senna Fernandes' short story, A-Chan, A Tancareira, (Ah Chan, the Tanka Girl) (1978). Senna Fernandes (1923–), a Macanese, had written a series of novels set against the context of Macao and some of which were made into films.
169.Jump up ^ Bamshad, M.; Kivisild, T.; Watkins, W. S.; Dixon, M. E.; Ricker, C. E.; Rao, B. B. et al. (2001). "Genetic evidence on the origins of Indian caste populations". Genome Research 11 (6): 994–1004. doi:10.1101/gr.GR-1733RR. PMC 311057. PMID 11381027. edit
170.Jump up ^ From The Discovery of India by Jawaharlal Nehru, reproduced from History: Modern India (p 108) by S.N. Sen, New Age Publishers, ISBN 81-224-1774-4
171.Jump up ^ Corbridge, Staurt; Harriss, John (2000). Reinventing India: Liberalization, Hindu Nationalism and Popular Democracy. Polity press. p. 8. ISBN 0-7456-2076-0.
172.Jump up ^ Jalal, A. (2009). "Conjuring Pakistan: History as Official Imagining" (PDF). International Journal of Middle East Studies 27: 73. doi:10.1017/S0020743800061596. JSTOR 176188. edit
173.Jump up ^ *Jim Shaffer – "Current archaeological data do not support the existence of an Indo-Aryan or European invasion into South Asia any time in the pre- or protohistoric periods. Instead, it is possible to document archaeologically a series of cultural changes reflecting indigenous cultural developments from prehistoric to historic periods"Jim Shaffer. The Indo-Aryan Invasions: Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality. J.P. Mallory – "... the extraordinary difficulty of making a case for expansions from Andronovo to northern India, and attempts to link the Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent and Vakhsh cultures only gets the Indo-Iranian to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the Medes, Persians or Indo-Aryans".
Edwin Bryant – "India is not the only Indo-European-speaking area that has not revealed any archaeological traces of immigration. There is at least a series of archaeological cultures that can be traced approaching the Indian subcontinent, even if discontinuous, which does not seem to be the case for any hypothetical east-to-west emigration"
Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513777-9.. Bryant, Edwin F.; Patton, Laurie L., eds. (2005). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and inference in Indian history. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1463-4.
174.Jump up ^ Trivedi, Bijal P (14 May 2001). "Genetic evidence suggests European migrants may have influenced the origins of India's caste system". J. Craig Venter Institute. Genome News Network. Retrieved 27 January 2005.
175.Jump up ^ Scientists Connect Indian Castes and European Heritage. Scientific American. 15 May 2001.
176.Jump up ^ Basu, A.; Mukherjee, N.; Roy, S.; Sengupta, S.; Banerjee, S.; Chakraborty, M.; Dey, B.; Roy, M.; Roy, B.; Bhattacharyya, N. P.; Roychoudhury, S.; Majumder, P. P. (2003). "Ethnic India: A Genomic View, with Special Reference to Peopling and Structure". Genome Research 13 (10): 2277–2290. doi:10.1101/gr.1413403. PMC 403703. PMID 14525929. edit
177.Jump up ^ Mountain, J. L.; Hebert, J. M.; Bhattacharyya, S.; Underhill, P. A.; Ottolenghi, C.; Gadgil, M.; Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1995). "Demographic history of India and mtDNA-sequence diversity". American Journal of Human Genetics 56 (4): 979–992. PMC 1801212. PMID 7717409. edit
178.Jump up ^ Thanseem, I.; Thangaraj, K.; Chaubey, G.; Singh, V.; Bhaskar, L. V. S.; Reddy, B. M.; Reddy, A. G.; Singh, L. (2006). "Genetic affinities among the lower castes and tribal groups of India: Inference from Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA". BMC Genetics 7: 42. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-7-42. PMC 1569435. PMID 16893451. edit
179.Jump up ^ Brian Handwerk (10 January 2006). "India Acquired Language, Not Genes, From West, Study Says". National Geographic. Retrieved 8 December 2006.
180.Jump up ^ Indians are one people descended from two tribes. Dnaindia.com (25 September 2009). Retrieved 11 December 2011.
181.^ Jump up to: a b c d Leupp, p. 52
182.^ Jump up to: a b c Leupp, p. 49
183.Jump up ^ Fisher, M. H. (2007). "Excluding and Including "Natives of India": Early-Nineteenth-Century British-Indian Race Relations in Britain". Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27 (2): 301. doi:10.1215/1089201x-2007-007. edit
184.Jump up ^ Tambe, A. (2005). "The Elusive Ingenue: A Transnational Feminist Analysis of European Prostitution in Colonial Bombay". Gender & Society 19 (2): 160. doi:10.1177/0891243204272781. edit
185.Jump up ^ Enloe, Cynthia H. (2000). Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women's Lives. University of California Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-520-22071-4.
186.Jump up ^ Kent, Eliza F. (2004). Converting Women. Oxford University Press US. pp. 85–6. ISBN 0-19-516507-1.
187.Jump up ^ Kaul, S. (1996). "Colonial figures and postcolonial reading". Diacritics 26: 74–89. doi:10.1353/dia.1996.0005. edit
188.Jump up ^ Carter, Sarah (1997). Capturing Women: The Manipulation of Cultural Imagery in Canada's Prairie West. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 17. ISBN 0-7735-1656-5.
189.Jump up ^ Loomba, Ania (1998). Colonialism-postcolonialism. Routledge. pp. 79–80. ISBN 0-415-12809-9.
190.^ Jump up to: a b Muslim Communities in Myanmar. ColorQ World
191.Jump up ^ Chowdhury, Rita (November 18, 2012). "The Assamese Chinese story". The Hindu. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
192.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) DURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, inquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan"
193.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1909). Castes and tribes of southern India, Volume 2 (PDF). Government press. p. 99. Archived from the original on June 21, 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "99 CHINESE-TAMIL CROSS in the Nilgiri jail. It is recorded * that, in 1868, twelve of the Chinamen " broke out during a very stormy night, and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight"
194.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin …, Volumes 2–3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "ON A CHINESE-TAMIL CKOSS. Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of 'marriage' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating cofl'ce on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs. The measurements of a single family, excepting a widowed daughter whom I was not permitted to see, and an infant in arms, who was pacified with cake while I investigated its mother, are recorded in the following table:"
195.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 31. ISBN 81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
196.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin ... 2–3. Madras: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 32. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
197.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 32. ISBN 81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
198.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. pp. 98–99. ISBN 81-206-0288-9. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
199.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India), Edgar Thurston (1897). Note on tours along the Malabar coast. Volumes 2-3 of Bulletin, Government Museum (Madras, India). Superintendent, Government Press. p. 31. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
200.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 273. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "Thurston found the Chinese element to be predominant among the offspring as will be evident from his description. 'The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil Paraiyan. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish"
201.Jump up ^ Mahadeb Prasad Basu (1990). An anthropological study of bodily height of Indian population. Punthi Pustak. p. 84. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "Sarkar (1959) published a pedigree showing Tamil-Chinese-English crosses in a place located in the Nilgiris. Thurston (1909) mentioned an instance of a mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female. Man (Deka 1954) described"
202.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) iURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, enquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan"
203.Jump up ^ Leupp, p. 53
204.Jump up ^ Leupp, p. 48
205.Jump up ^ Leupp, p. 50
206.Jump up ^ Michael S. Laver (2011). The Sakoku Edicts and the Politics of Tokugawa Hegemony. Cambria Press. p. 152. ISBN 1-60497-738-8. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
207.Jump up ^ HOFFMAN, MICHAEL (May 26, 2013). "The rarely, if ever, told story of Japanese sold as slaves by Portuguese traders". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2014-03-02.
208.Jump up ^ "Europeans had Japanese slaves, in case you didn’t know…". Japan Probe. May 10, 2007. Retrieved 2014-03-02.
209.Jump up ^ Nelson, Thomas (Winter 2004). "Monumenta Nipponica (Slavery in Medieval Japan)" 59 (No. 4). Sophia University. p. 463. JSTOR 25066328.
210.Jump up ^ Monumenta Nipponica: Studies on Japanese Culture, Past and Present, Volume 59, Issues 3-4. Jōchi Daigaku. Sophia University. 2004. p. 463. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
211.Jump up ^ Michael Weiner, ed. (2004). Race, Ethnicity and Migration in Modern Japan: Imagined and imaginary minorites (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 408. ISBN 0-415-20857-2. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
212.Jump up ^ Kwame Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., ed. (2005). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 479. ISBN 0-19-517055-5. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
213.Jump up ^ Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, ed. (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 187. ISBN 0-19-533770-0. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
214.Jump up ^ "The National Eugenic Law" The 107th law that Japanese Government promulgated in 1940　(国民優生法) 第一条　本法ハ悪質ナル遺伝性疾患ノ素質ヲ有スル者ノ増加ヲ防遏スルト共ニ健全ナル素質ヲ有スル者ノ増加ヲ図リ以テ国民素質ノ向上ヲ期スルコトヲ目的トス, Kimura, Jurisprudence in Genetics
215.Jump up ^ Robertson, J. (2002). "Blood talks: Eugenic modernity and the creation of new Japanese" (PDF). History and anthropology 13 (3): 191–216 (205–206). doi:10.1080/0275720022000025547. PMID 19499628.
216.Jump up ^ Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, Japanese War Crimes in World War II, 1996, pp. 94–98., Evidence documenting sex-slaves coercion revealed, "An estimated 200,000 to 300,000 women across Asia, predominantly Korean and Chinese, are believed to have been forced to work as sex slaves in Japanese military brothels", BBC 8 December 2000;
 "Historians say thousands of women – as many as 200,000 by some accounts – mostly from Korea, China and Japan worked in the Japanese military brothels", Irish Examiner 8 March 2007;
AP 7 March 2007;
CNN 29 March 2001
217.Jump up ^ Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2001, p. 538, citing Kinkabara Samon and Takemae Eiji, Showashi : kokumin no naka no haran to gekido no hanseiki-zohoban, 1989, p. 244.
218.^ Jump up to: a b A Heterology of American GIs during World War II by Xavier Guillaume, Department of Political Science, University of Geneva July 2003, (H-NET review of Peter Schrijvers. "The GI War against Japan: American Soldiers in Asia and the Pacific during World War II". New York: New York University Press, 2002) The citation is cited to page 212 of "The GI War against Japan".
219.Jump up ^ Molasky, Michael S. (1999). The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa: Literature and Memory. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-415-19194-4.
220.Jump up ^ Molasky, Michael S.; Rabson, Steve (2000). Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-8248-2300-9.
221.Jump up ^ Sheehan, Susan D; Elizabeth, Laura; Selden, Hein Mark. "Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power". p. 18.
222.Jump up ^ Ijime: A Social Illness of Japan by Akiko Dogakinai. Lclark.edu (26 December 1994). Retrieved 11 December 2011.
223.Jump up ^ "Press Conference by Mr Doudou Diène, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights". Retrieved 5 January 2007.
224.Jump up ^ "Japan racism 'deep and profound". BBC News (11 July 2005). Retrieved 5 January 2007.
225.Jump up ^ Aso says Japan is nation of 'one race', The Japan Times, 18 October 2005
226.Jump up ^ McLelland 2010, p. 518.
227.Jump up ^ McLelland 2010, p. 529.
228.Jump up ^ McLelland 2010, pp. 519–520.
229.Jump up ^ "Muslim society in Korea is developing and growing". Pravda. 6 November 2002. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
230.Jump up ^ Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea: A Religious History. Routledge. p. 195. ISBN 0-7007-1605-X.
231.Jump up ^ Baker, Don (Winter 2006). "Islam Struggles for a Toehold in Korea". Harvard Asia Quarterly. Retrieved 23 April 2007.
232.Jump up ^ "덕수장씨". Rootsinfo.co.kr (Korean language). Retrieved 20 March 2006.
233.Jump up ^ Eui-Young Yu and Earl H. Phillips, Korean Women in Transition: At Home and Abroad, Center for Korean-American and Korean Studies, California State University, Los Angeles, 1987, p. 185 ISBN 0-942831-00-4.
234.Jump up ^ Japan PM: Moving US base impossible CCTV News – CNTV English. (5 May 2010) Retrieved 29 January 2012.
235.Jump up ^ Hae-in, Shin (3 August 2006). "Korea Greets New Era of Multiculturalism". The Korea Herald. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
236.Jump up ^ Lee, H. K. (2008). "International marriage and the state in South Korea: Focusing on governmental policy". Citizenship Studies 12: 107–123. doi:10.1080/13621020701794240. edit
237.Jump up ^ Hye-Kyung Lee (2008). "International Marriage and the State in South Korea|" (PDF). Citizenship Studies 12: 107. doi:10.1080/13621020701794240. Retrieved 22 December 2008.
238.Jump up ^ Korea's ethnic nationalism is a source of both pride and prejudice, according to Gi-Wook Shin. Aparc.stanford.edu. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
239.Jump up ^ Park Chung Myth of Pure-Blood Nationalism Blocks Multi-Ethnic Society. The Korean Times. 14 August 2006
240.Jump up ^ "'코시안'(Kosian) 쓰지 마라! (Do not use Kosian)". Naver news (in Korean) February 23, 2006. Retrieved 4 March 2006. See English-language reaction on The Marmot's Hole
241.Jump up ^ Do not use the new word Kosian, AMNESTY International South Korea Section, 2006, 07.
242.Jump up ^ "Ward's Win Brings 'Race' to the Fore". Korea Times. 9 February 2006. Archived from the original on 21 May 2009. Retrieved 4 March 2006.
243.Jump up ^ "For mixed-race children in Korea, happiness is too far away". Yonhap News. Retrieved 4 March 2006.
244.Jump up ^ S. Koreans Reclaim Biracial Football Champion as One of Them, Los Angeles Times, 13 February 2006
245.Jump up ^ Reid, Anthony (1990). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: The lands below the winds. Volume 1 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-300-04750-9. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
246.Jump up ^ MacLeod, Murdo J.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida, eds. (1998). European Intruders and Changes in Behaviour and Customs in Africa, America, and Asia Before 1800. Volume 30 of An Expanding World, the European Impact on World History, 1450–1800 , Vol 30 (Issue 30 of An expanding world) (illustrated, reprint ed.). Ashgate. p. 636. ISBN 0-86078-522-X. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
247.Jump up ^ Hughes, Sarah S.; Hughes, Brady, eds. (1995). Women in World History: Readings from prehistory to 1500. Volume 1 of Sources and studies in world history (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 219. ISBN 1-56324-311-3. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
248.Jump up ^ Tingley, Nancy (2009). Asia Society. Museum, ed. Arts of Ancient Viet Nam: From River Plain to Open Sea. Andreas Reinecke, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (illustrated ed.). Asia Society. p. 249. ISBN 0-300-14696-5. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
249.Jump up ^ Hamilton, Alexander (1997). Smithies, Michael, ed. Alexander Hamilton: A Scottish Sea Captain in Southeast Asia, 1689–1723 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Silkworm Books. p. 205. ISBN 9747100452. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
250.Jump up ^ Daniels, Timothy P. (2005). Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia. Routledge. p. 189. ISBN 0-415-94971-8.
251.Jump up ^ Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 6. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301.
252.Jump up ^ Lay, Pathi U Ko (1973). "Twentieth Anniversary Special Edition of Islam Damma Beikman". Myanmar Pyi and Islamic religion: 109–11.
253.^ Jump up to: a b Thangaraj, K.; Singh, L.; Reddy, A. G.; Rao, V. R.; Sehgal, S. C.; Underhill, P. A. et al. (2003). "Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population". Current Biology 13 (2): 86–93. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01336-2. PMID 12546781. edit
254.^ Jump up to: a b :: Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C. ::. Ocac.gov.tw (24 August 2004). Retrieved 14 August 2010.
255.Jump up ^ Historical Timeline Of The Royal Sultanate Of Sulu Including Related Events Of Neighboring Peoplesby Josiah C. Seasite.niu.edu (30 August 2000). Retrieved 14 August 2010.
256.^ Jump up to: a b S. H. Milton (2001). ""Gypsies" as social outsiders in Nazi Germany". In Robert Gellately and Nathan Stoltzfus. Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany. Princeton University Press. pp. 216, 231. ISBN 978-0-691-08684-2.
257.Jump up ^ Michael Burleigh (7 November 1991). The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-521-39802-2.
258.Jump up ^ the non-Jewish members of the European Volk are Aryans. . . .
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259.Jump up ^ Simone Gigliotti, Berel Lang. The Holocaust: a reader. Malden, Massachusetts, USA; Oxford, England, UK; Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. Pp. 14.
260.Jump up ^ Meldungen aus dem Reich: Auswahl aus den geheimen Lageberichten des Sicherheitsdienstes der SS 1939–1944 (11965; Reports from the Reich: Selection from the secret reviews of the situation of the SS 1939–1944; 1984 extended to 14 vols.), Heinz Boberach (ed. and compilator), Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag (dtv), 21968, (dtv-dokumente; vol. 477) p. 208. ISBN B0000BSLXR
261.Jump up ^ The earlier deportations of Jews and Gentiles of Jewish descent from Austria and Pomerania (both to occupied Poland) as well as Baden and the Palatinate (both to occupied France) had remained a spontaneous episode.
262.Jump up ^ At the Wannsee Conference the participants decided to include persons classified as Jews, but married to persons classified as Aryans, however, only after a divorce. In October 1943 an act, facilitating compulsory divorce imposed by the state, was ready for appointment, however, Hitler never granted the competent referees an audience. Pressure by the NSDAP headquarters in early 1944 also failed. Cf. Uwe Dietrich Adam, Judenpolitik im Dritten Reich, Düsseldorf: 2003, pp. 222–234. ISBN 3-7700-4063-5
263.Jump up ^ Beate Meyer, Die Verfolgung und Ermordung der Hamburger Juden 1933–1945, Landeszentrale für politische Bildung (ed.), Hamburg: Landeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2006, p. 83. ISBN 3-929728-85-0
264.Jump up ^ In summer 1945 all in all 8,000 Berliners whom the Nazis had classified as Jews because of 3 or 4 grandparents survived. Their personal faith – like Jewish, Protestant, Catholic or irreligionist – is mostly not recorded, since only the Nazi files which use the Nazi racial definitions report on them. 4,700 out of the 8,000 survived due to their living in a mixed marriage. 1,400 survived hiding, out of 5,000 who tried. 1,900 had returned from Theresienstadt. Cf. Hans-Rainer Sandvoß, Widerstand in Wedding und Gesundbrunnen, Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 2003, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 14), p. 302. ISSN 0175-3592
265.^ Jump up to: a b Diemut Majer (2003). "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939-1945. JHU Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-8018-6493-3.
266.Jump up ^ Majer, "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich, p.369
267.Jump up ^ Leila J. Rupp, Mobilizing Women for War, p 125, ISBN 0-691-04649-2
268.Jump up ^ Robert Edwin Hertzstein, The War That Hitler Won p139 ISBN 0-399-11845-4
269.Jump up ^ Nazi Ideology and the Holocaust. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. January 2007. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-89604-712-9.
270.Jump up ^ Majer, "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich, p.855
271.Jump up ^ Cf. the Bundesgesetz über die Anerkennung freier Ehen (as of 23 June 1950, Federal law on recognition of free marriages).
272.Jump up ^ Germany's 'Brown Babies'. Spiegel. 13 October 2009.
273.Jump up ^ Origins and Language. Source: U.S. Library of Congress.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
274.^ Jump up to: a b A Country Study: Hungary. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ISBN 0-16-029202-6. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
275.Jump up ^ Józsa Hévizi Autonomies in Europe and Hungary. (PDF). Corvinus Society (2004)
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277.Jump up ^ Kees Versteegh, et al. Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, BRILL, 2006.
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279.Jump up ^ Salloum, Habeeb. "The impact of the Arabic language and culture on English and other European languages". The Honorary Consulate of Syria. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
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281.Jump up ^ Robert Lacey (1983), Aristocrats, p. 67, Little, Brown and Company
282.Jump up ^ de Larramendi, Manuel Corografía de la muy noble y muy leal provincia de Guipúzcoa, Bilbao, 1986, facsimile edition of that from Editorial Ekin, Buenos Aires, 1950. (Also published by Tellechea Idígoras, San Sebastián, 1969.) Quoted in La idea de España entre los vascos de la Edad Moderna, by Jon Arrieta Alberdi, Anales 1997–1998, Real Sociedad Económica Valenciana de Amigos del País
283.Jump up ^ Limpieza de sangre in the Spanish-language Auñamendi Encyclopedia
284.^ Jump up to: a b Adams, S. M.; Bosch, E.; Balaresque, P. L.; Ballereau, S. P. J.; Lee, A. C.; Arroyo, E.; López-Parra, A. M.; Aler, M.; Grifo, M. S. G. (2008). "The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula". The American Journal of Human Genetics 83 (6): 725–736. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007. PMC 2668061. PMID 19061982. edit
285.Jump up ^ Flores, Carlos; Maca-Meyer, Nicole; González, Ana M; Oefner, Peter J; Shen, Peidong; Pérez, Jose A; Rojas, Antonio; Larruga, Jose M; Underhill, Peter A (2004). "Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: Implications for population demography". European Journal of Human Genetics 12 (10): 855–63. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201225. PMID 15280900.
286.Jump up ^ González, AM; Brehm, A; Pérez, JA; Maca-Meyer, N; Flores, C; Cabrera, VM (2003). "Mitochondrial DNA affinities at the Atlantic fringe of Europe". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 120 (4): 391–404. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10168. PMID 12627534.
287.Jump up ^ Giacomo, F.; Luca, F.; Popa, L. O.; Akar, N.; Anagnou, N.; Banyko, J.; Brdicka, R.; Barbujani, G.; Papola, F. et al. (2004). "Y chromosomal haplogroup J as a signature of the post-neolithic colonization of Europe". Human Genetics 115 (5): 357–71. doi:10.1007/s00439-004-1168-9. PMID 15322918.
288.Jump up ^ Sutton, WK; Knight, A; Underhill, PA; Neulander, JS; Disotell, TR; Mountain, JL (2006). "Toward resolution of the debate regarding purported crypto-Jews in a spanish-American population: Evidence from the Y chromosome". Annals of Human Biology 33 (1): 100–11. doi:10.1080/03014460500475870. PMID 16500815.
289.Jump up ^ Zalloua, Pierre A.; Platt, Daniel E.; El Sibai, Mirvat; Khalife, Jade; Makhoul, Nadine; Haber, Marc; Xue, Yali; Izaabel, Hassan; Bosch, Elena et al. (2008). "Identifying Genetic Traces of Historical Expansions: Phoenician Footprints in the Mediterranean". The American Journal of Human Genetics 83 (5): 633–42. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.10.012. PMC 2668035. PMID 18976729.
290.Jump up ^ "La cifra de los sefardíes puede estar sobreestimada, ya que en estos genes hay mucha diversidad y quizá absorbieron otros genes de Oriente Medio" ("The Sephardic result may be overestimated, since there is much diversity in those genes and maybe absorbed other genes from the Middle East"). ¿Pone en duda Calafell la validez de los tests de ancestros? "Están bien para los americanos, nosotros ya sabemos de dónde venimos" (Puts Calafell in doubt the validity of ancestry tests? "They can be good for the Americans, we already know from where we come from)" Yanes, Javier (4 December 2008) Tres culturas en el ADN. publico.es
291.Jump up ^ Saey, Tina Hesman (January 3, 2009). "Spanish Inquisition couldn’t quash Moorish, Jewish genes". ScienceNews 175: 1. doi:10.1002/scin.2009.5591750111. "We think it might be an over estimate .. The genetic makeup of Sephardic Jews is probably common to other Middle Eastern populations, such as the Phoenicians, that also settled the Iberian Peninsula, Calafell says. In our study, that would have all fallen under the Jewish label"
292.Jump up ^ "El doctor Calafell matiza que (...) los marcadores genéticos usados para distinguir a la población con ancestros sefardíes pueden producir distorsiones". "ese 20% de españoles que el estudio señala como descendientes de sefardíes podrían haber heredado ese rasgo de movimiento más antiguos, como el de los fenicios o, incluso, primeros pobladores neolíticos hace miles de años." "Dr. Calafell clarifies that (...) the genetic markers used to distinguish the population with Sephardim ancestry may produce distortions. The 20% of Spaniards that are identified as having Sephardim ancestry in the study could have inherited that same marker from older movements like the Phoenicians, or even the first Neolithic settlers thousands of years ago" Caceres, Pedro (4 December 2008) Uno de cada tres españoles tiene marcadores genéticos de Oriente Medio o el Magreb. elmundo.es
293.Jump up ^ Spanish Inquisition left genetic legacy in Iberia , New Scientist, 4 December 2008.
294.Jump up ^ Capelli, Cristian; Onofri, Valerio; Brisighelli, Francesca; Boschi, Ilaria; Scarnicci, Francesca; Masullo, Mara; Ferri, Gianmarco; Tofanelli, Sergio et al. (2009). "Moors and Saracens in Europe: Estimating the medieval North African male legacy in southern Europe". European Journal of Human Genetics 17 (6): 848–52. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2008.258. PMC 2947089. PMID 19156170.
295.Jump up ^ Emma Blake, Emma (2008). "The Familiar Honeycomb: Byzantine Era Reuse of Sicily's Prehistoric Rock-Cut Tombs". In Ruth M. Van Dyke, Susan E. Alcock. Archaeologies of Memory. Blackwell Publishers. p. 201. doi:10.1002/9780470774304.ch10. ISBN 978-0-470-77430-4.
296.Jump up ^ Alex E. Felice, "Genetic origin of contemporary Maltese," The Sunday Times (of Malta), 5 August 2007, last visited 5 August 2007
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298.Jump up ^ "1952: Il caso delle "marocchinate" al Parlamento". Retrieved 22 November 2008.
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302.Jump up ^ "The Ottoman Empire’s Life-or-Death Race". Smithsonian. March 22, 2012
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304.Jump up ^ Anglo-Indians. Movinghere.org.uk. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
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306.Jump up ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 81-7824-154-4.
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309.Jump up ^ Major new study reveals the rise of mixed-race Britain. Some ethnic groups 'will disappear', The Observer, 18 January 2009
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315.Jump up ^ Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf (2004). The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 289–90. ISBN 1-57607-204-5.
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318.Jump up ^ Zentall, S. (1975). "Optimal stimulation as theoretical basis of hyperactivity". The American journal of orthopsychiatry 45 (4): 549–563. PMID 1180338. edit
319.Jump up ^ John Lewis Burckhardt (2005) [1829]. "Description of a Journey from Upper Egypt through the Deserts of Nubia to Berber and Suakin, and from thence to Djidda in Arabia. Performed in the Year 1814.". Travels in Nubia. The University of Adelaide Library.
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321.Jump up ^ See generally Jay Winik (2007), The Great Upheaval.
322.Jump up ^ United Arab Emirates, US Department of State
323.Jump up ^ Protection Act of 2000: Trafficking in Persons Report 2007, US Department of State
324.Jump up ^ Country Narratives: Near East, US Department of State
325.Jump up ^ Azoulay, Yuval. "Justice Ministry drafts civil marriage law for 'refuseniks'". Haaretz.
326.Jump up ^ "75 Percent of Israeli Jews Oppose Intermarriage, New Poll Says". The Jewish Daily Forward. 22 August 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
327.Jump up ^ "'Protecting' Jewish girls from Arabs". Jerusalem Post. 18 September 2009.
328.Jump up ^ Cook, Jonathan. "Israeli drive to prevent Jewish girls dating Arabs". The National.
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331.Jump up ^ "Why Dubai's Islamic austerity is a sham – sex is for sale in every bar". The Guardian. May 16, 2010.
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348.Jump up ^ Staples, Robert (2006). Exploring black sexuality. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 124. ISBN 0-7425-4659-4.
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350.Jump up ^ "Most Americans Approve of Interracial Dating". Gallup.com. 7 October 2005.
351.Jump up ^ "Interracial and Cross Cultural Dating of Generation Y". St. Cloud State University.
352.Jump up ^ "In online dating, blacks more open to romancing whites than vice versa". Berkely.edu February 11, 2011.
353.Jump up ^ "Love Isn’t Color-Blind: White Online Daters Spurn Blacks". healthland.time.com 22 February. 2011
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373.Jump up ^ Alves-Silva, Juliana; da Silva Santos, Magda; Guimarães, Pedro E. M.; Ferreira, Alessandro C. S.; Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen; Pena, Sérgio D. J. et al. (2000). "The Ancestry of Brazilian mtDNA Lineages". The American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2): 444–461. doi:10.1086/303004. PMC 1287189. PMID 10873790. edit
374.Jump up ^ Salzano, Francisco M.; Cátira Bortolini, Maria (2002). The Evolution and Genetics of Latin American Populations. Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology 28. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 512. ISBN 0-521-65275-8.
375.Jump up ^ Ferbel, Dr. P. J. "Not Everyone Who Speaks Spanish is from Spain: Taíno Survival in the 21st Century Dominican Republic." Kacikie: Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology. . Retrieved 24 September 2009.
376.Jump up ^ Martínez Cruzado, Juan C. (2002). The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean:Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic. Kacike: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology. Lynne Guitar, Ed. (Retrieved 25 September 2006)
377.Jump up ^ Pre Colonial Period. geocities.com
378.Jump up ^ Capelli, C.; Wilson, J. F.; Richards, M.; Stumpf, M. P. H.; Gratrix, F.; Oppenheimer, S.; Underhill, P.; Pascali, V. L.; Ko, T. M.; Goldstein, D. B. (2001). "A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania". The American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2): 432–443. doi:10.1086/318205. PMC 1235276. PMID 11170891. edit
379.^ Jump up to: a b Kalaydjieva, L.; Morar, B.; Chaix, R.; Tang, H. (2005). "A newly discovered founder population: The Roma/Gypsies". BioEssays 27 (10): 1084–1094. doi:10.1002/bies.20287. PMID 16163730. edit
380.Jump up ^ Malyarchuk, B. A.; Grzybowski, T.; Derenko, M. V.; Czarny, J.; Miscicka-Sliwka, D. (2006). "Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in the Polish Roma". Annals of Human Genetics 70 (2): 195–206. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00222.x. PMID 16626330. edit
381.^ Jump up to: a b c Morar, B.; Gresham, D.; Angelicheva, D.; Tournev, I.; Gooding, R.; Guergueltcheva, V. et al. (2004). "Mutation History of the Roma/Gypsies". The American Journal of Human Genetics 75 (4): 596–609. doi:10.1086/424759. PMC 1182047. PMID 15322984. edit
382.^ Jump up to: a b Kalaydjieva, L.; Gresham, D.; Calafell, F. (2001). "Genetic studies of the Roma (Gypsies): A review". BMC Medical Genetics 2: 5. doi:10.1186/1471-2350-2-5. PMC 31389. PMID 11299048. edit
383.Jump up ^ Kalaydjieva, Luba; Gresham, David; Calafell, Francesc (2001). "Genetic studies of the Roma (Gypsies): A review". BMC Medical Genetics 2: 5. doi:10.1186/1471-2350-2-5. PMC 31389. PMID 11299048. Figure 4.
384.^ Jump up to: a b c Gresham, D.; Morar, B.; Underhill, P. A.; Passarino, G.; Lin, A. A.; Wise, C. et al. (2001). "Origins and Divergence of the Roma (Gypsies)". The American Journal of Human Genetics 69 (6): 1314–1331. doi:10.1086/324681. PMC 1235543. PMID 11704928. edit
Bibliography
Christina Miu Bing Cheng (1999). Macau: a cultural Janus. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 962-209-486-4.
João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Volume 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology. Berg. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5.
Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-6074-7.
Pan, Lynn (1994), Sons of the Yellow Emperor: A History of the Chinese Diaspora, Kodansha Globe, ISBN 978-1-56836-032-4
Other sources
Cavanaugh-O'Keefe, John. (23 October 2000). The Roots of Racism and Abortion: An Exploration of Eugenics. Xlibris Corporation. p. 268. ISBN 0-7388-3089-5. See esp. "Chapter Seven: Laws Against Mixing Races"
Croly, David Goodman (1864). Miscegenation, The Theory of the Blending of the Races, Applied to the American White Man and Negro. New York: H. Dexter, Hamilton & Co. ISBN 0-7388-3089-5.
Deschamps, Bénédicte, Le racisme anti-italien aux États-Unis (1880–1940), in Exclure au nom de la race (États-Unis, Irlande, Grande-Bretagne), Michel Prum (Éd.). Paris: Syllepse, 2000. 59–81.
Hodes, Martha, ed. "Miscegenation" (1998). Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History. New York, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-395-67173-6.
Jacobson, Matthew Frye, Whiteness of a different color. European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race, Harvard University Press, 1998.
Kaplan, S. (1949). "The Miscegenation Issue in the Election of 1864". The Journal of Negro History 34 (3): 274–343. doi:10.2307/2715904. edit
Lemire, Elise (July 2002). "Miscegenation": Making Race in America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3664-5.
Novkov, Julie, Racial union: law, intimacy, and the White state in Alabama, 1865–1954, University of Michigan Press, 2008, pp. 125–128.
Novkov, J. (2002). "Racial Constructions: The Legal Regulation of Miscegenation in Alabama, 1890-1934". Law and History Review 20 (2): 225–277. doi:10.2307/744035. edit
Pascoe, Peggy (19 April 2004). "Why the Ugly Rhetoric Against Gay Marriage Is Familiar to this Historian of Miscegenation". George Mason University's History News Network. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
Rosenthal, Debra J. (2004). Race Mixture in Nineteenth-Century U.S and Spanish-American Fiction. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5564-2.
Werner Sollors, ed. (19 October 2000). Interracialism: Black-White Intermarriage in American History, Literature, and Law (Sollors, Werner ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512856-7.
Tehranian, John, Whitewashed: America's invisible Middle Eastern minority, New York University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-8147-8306-1
Ubeysekara, Ruwan Nisantha, Questioning the Revival: White Ethnicities in the Racial Pentagon, PhD Thesis, University of Bath, 2008.
External links
 Look up miscegenation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Miscegenation.
Explore Famous Interracial Couples and Other Race Relations Issues on the About.com Website.
Perez v. Sharp
Historical Background on Miscegenation
Wikisource-logo.svg Ernest Ingersoll (1920). "Cross-Fertilization in Animals and in Man". Encyclopedia Americana.


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Interracial marriage

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Othello, the Moor and Desdemona, his Venetian wife, from William Shakespeare's Othello.
Interracial marriage occurs when two people of differing racial groups marry. This is often a form of exogamy (marrying outside of one's social group), and can be seen in the broader context of miscegenation (mixing of different racial groups in marriage, cohabitation or sexual relations).


Contents  [hide]
1 Legality of interracial marriage
2 Americas 2.1 United States 2.1.1 Hawaii
2.2 Canada
2.3 Latin America
2.4 Peru
2.5 Cuba
2.6 Mexico
2.7 Costa Rica
2.8 Venezuela
2.9 Jamaica
3 Africa and Middle East 3.1 Nigeria
3.2 Middle East and North Africa
3.3 Sub-Saharan Africa
3.4 South Africa
3.5 Indian Ocean islands
4 Australia
5 Asia 5.1 Central Asia
5.2 Eastern Asia 5.2.1 China
5.2.2 Taiwan 5.2.2.1 Hong Kong
5.2.2.2 Macau
5.2.3 Japan
5.2.4 Korea
5.3 Southeast Asia 5.3.1 Vietnam
5.3.2 Burma
5.3.3 Malaysia and Singapore
5.3.4 Philippines
5.4 South Asia
6 Europe 6.1 Balkans
6.2 Caucasus
6.3 France
6.4 Germany
6.5 Iberian Peninsula 6.5.1 Portuguese colonies
6.6 Iceland
6.7 Italian Peninsula
6.8 Ottoman Empire
6.9 United Kingdom
7 Intercultural marriage complications 7.1 Family and society
7.2 Communication style
7.3 Management
8 Interracial marriage benefits
9 See also
10 References
11 External links

Legality of interracial marriage[edit]
Main article: Anti-miscegenation laws
In the Western world certain jurisdictions have had regulations banning or restricting interracial marriage in the past, including Germany during the Nazi period, South Africa under apartheid, and many states in the United States prior to a 1967 Supreme Court decision.
Americas[edit]
United States[edit]
Main article: Interracial marriage in the United States



 U.S States, by the date of repeal of anti-miscegenation laws:
  No laws passed
  Repealed before 1887
  Repealed between 1948 and 1967
  Overturned on 12 June 1967
Interracial marriage in the United States has been fully legal in all U.S. states since the 1967 Supreme Court decision that deemed anti-miscegenation laws unconstitutional, with many states choosing to legalize interracial marriage at much earlier dates. Anti-miscegenation laws have played a large role in defining racial identity and enforcing the racial hierarchy. The United States has many ethnic and racial groups, and interracial marriage is fairly common among most of them. Interracial marriages increased from 2% of married couples in 1970 to 7% in 2005[1][2] and 8.4% in 2010.[3]
The 2010 Pew Research Center Report (U.S. Census Bureau's 2010 American Community Survey) found that record 15.1% of all new marriages in the United States were between spouses of a different race or ethnicity from one another. Furthermore, the 2008 Pew Survey found more than a third of adults (35%) say they have a family member who is married to someone of a different race. And, most Americans say they approve of racial or ethnic intermarriage – not just in the abstract, but in their own families. More than six-in-ten say it would be fine with them if a family member told them they were going to marry someone from any of three major race/ethnic groups other than their own and over 70% approve of interacial marriage in general.[4]
Interracial marriages in the U.S. have climbed to 4.8 million (1 in 12 marriages) in 2010[3] as a steady flow of new Asian and Hispanic immigrants expands the pool of prospective spouses.[5] Blacks are now substantially more likely than before to marry whites.[3] In 2010, 15% of new marriages were interracial.[3] In 2010, 25% of Asians, 25% of Hispanics, 17.1% of blacks, and 9.4% of whites married interracially.[3] Of the 275,500 new interracial marriages in 2010, 43% were white-Hispanic couples, 14.4% were white-Asian, 11.9% were white-black, and the remainder were other combinations.[6]
Although the anti-miscegenation laws have been revoked, the social stigma related to Black interracial marriages still exists in today's society. Research by Tucker and Mitchell-Kerman from 1990 has shown that Blacks intermarry far less than any other non-White group[7] and in 2010, only 17.1% of Blacks married interracially, a rate far lower than the rates for Hispanics and Asians.[3] Black interracial marriages in particular engender problems associated with racist attitudes and perceived relational inappropriateness.[8] There is also a sharp gender imbalance to Black interracial marriages: In 2008, 22% of all black male newlyweds married interracially while only 9% of black female newlyweds married outside their race, making them the least likely of any race or gender to marry outside their race and the least likely to get married at all.[9]
In the mid 19th to 20th centuries, the Chinese that migrated were almost entirely of Cantonese origin. Hundreds of thousands of Chinese men in the U.S, mostly of Cantonese origin from Taishan migrated to the United States. Anti-miscegenation laws in many states prohibited Chinese men from marrying white women.[10] After the Emancipation Proclamation, many intermarriages in some states were not recorded and historically, Chinese American men married African American women in high proportions to their total marriage numbers due to few Chinese American women being in the United States. After the Emancipation Proclamation, many Chinese Americans immigrated to the Southern states, particularly Arkansas, to work on plantations. For example, in 1880, the tenth US Census of Louisiana alone counted 57% of interracial marriages between these Chinese Americans to be with African Americans and 43% to be with European American women.[11] Between 20 and 30 percent of the Chinese who lived in Mississippi married black women before 1940.[12] In a genetic study of 199 samples from African American males found one belong to haplogroup O2a ( or 0.5% )[13] It was discovered by historian Henry Louis Gates, Jr in the African American Lives documentary miniseries that NASA astronaut Mae Jemison has a significant (above 10%) genetic East Asian admixture. Gates speculated that the intermarriage/relations between migrant Chinese workers during the 19th century and black, or African-American slaves or ex-slaves may have contributed to her ethnic genetic make-up. In the mid 1850s, 70 to 150 Chinese were living in New York City and 11 of them married Irish women. In 1906 the New York Times (6 August) reported that 300 white women (Irish American) were married to Chinese men in New York, with many more cohabited. In 1900, based on Liang research, of the 120,000 men in more than 20 Chinese communities in the United States, he estimated that one out of every twenty Chinese men (Cantonese) was married to white women.[14] In the 1960s census showed 3500 Chinese men married to white women and 2900 Chinese women married to white men.[15]
Hawaii[edit]
The majority of the Hawaiian Chinese were Cantonese migrants from Guangdong with minority from Hakka. If all people with Chinese ancestry in Hawaii (including the Chinese-Hawaiians) are included, they form about 1/3 of Hawaii's entire population. Many thousands of them married women of Hawaiian, Hawaiian/European and European origin. A large percentage of the Chinese men married Hawaiian and Hawaiian/European women, while a minority married white women in Hawaii who were of Portuguese descent. The 12592 Asiatic-Hawaiians enumerated in 1930 were the result of Chinese men intermarrying with Hawaiian and part Hawaiian/European. Most Asiatic-Hawaiians men also married Hawaiians and European women (and vice versa). On the census, some Chinese with little native blood would be classified as Chinese – not as Asiatic-Hawaiians – due to dilution of native blood. Intermarriage started to decline in the 1920s.[16] Portuguese and other caucasian women married Chinese men.[17][18] The unions between Chinese men and Portuguese women resulted in children of mixed Chinese Portuguese parentage, called Chinese-Portuguese. For two years to June 30, 1933, 38 of these children who were born were classified as pure Chinese because their fathers were Chinese.[19] A large amount of mingling took place between Chinese and Portuguese, Chinese men married Portuguese, Spanish, Hawaiian, Caucasian-Hawaiian, etc.[20][21][22][23] Only one Chinese man was recorded marrying an American woman.[24][25] Chinese men in Hawaii also married Puerto Rican, Portuguese, Japanese, Greek, and half-white women.[26][27]
Canada[edit]
In Canada, 2011, 4.6% of all civil unions are interracial ones, an 18% increase from 2006 (3.9%), and a 77% increase from 1991 (2.6%).[28] Vancouver, BC reported the highest rate of interracial unions, at 9.6%, and Toronto, ON in second place at 8.2%. Major census metropolitan areas had higher frequencies of mixed unions (6.0%) compared to areas that were not classified as such (1.0%). Younger people were more likely to be in a mixed union; the highest proportion of couples in mixed unions was among persons aged 25 to 34 (7.7%), 35 to 44 (6.8%), 15 to 24 (6.1%), 45 to 54 (4.1%), and 55 and over (2.7%).[28]
The 2006 study had an interesting find, that people born in Canada were more likely to marry someone of another race as opposed to those who immigrated there;[29] only 12% of first generation immigrant visible minorities were in a mixed union, this figure is higher for second generation immigrants (51%) and three or more generation immigrants (69%). There are a few examples of this:
1.63% of Canadian-born Blacks (who were in couples) were in mixed unions, while the numbers for Blacks born in the Caribbean and Bermuda (17%), and Africa (13%) were much lower percentages.
2.For Chinese people born in Canada, 54% (who were in couples) were with someone non-Chinese (it's not noted if this figure refers to anyone who is not East Asian (race), or just not Chinese (nationality)), compared to only 3% of those born in China who immigrated to Canada.
3.33% of South Asian Canadians who were born in Canada, were in a mixed union, compared to only 3% of those who were born in South Asia.
One theory for this may include that those who immigrate as adults, may have already found a partner before immigrating to Canada.[29]
Certain visible minority groups had higher rates of being in mixed unions;
78.7% of Japanese
64.9% of multiracial people
48.2% of Latin Americans
40.2% of Blacks
29.8% of Filipinos
25.4% of Arabs / West Asians
22.5% of Koreans
21.9% of Southeast Asians (other than Filipinos)
19.4% of Chinese
13.0% of South Asians
52.4% of other groups;
There are no statistics that show data for Whites or Aboriginals.
The 2006 study also stated that same-sex couples are about 2.5 times more likely to be in an interracial marriage as opposed to opposite-sex couples, 9.8% of same-sex marriages are interracial.[29] There were some theories as to why; same-sex marriage in Canada become legal in 2005, whereas opposite sex marriage was always legal, and it also mentions that same-sex couples are more likely to be in common-law marriages, and common-law marriages had a higher frequency of mixed unions.
One study done by Reg Bibby found that 92% of Canadians are accepting of interracial marriages.[30]
See also: Metis people (Canada)
Latin America[edit]
In Latin America, much of the population are descended from Amerindians, Europeans and Africans. They formed the Mestizo and Mulatto populations that populate the countries in Latin America. Intermarriage and inter-relations occurred on a larger scale than most places in the world. In some countries, Asian immigrants have also intermarried among the groups. About 300,000 Cantonese coolies and migrants (almost all males) were shipped 1849 to 1874 Latin America, many of them intermarried and cohabited with the Black, Mestizo, and European population of Cuba, Peru, Guyana, Trinidad. Around 20,000 Mostly Cantonese and some Hakka coolies migrated to Jamaica, Guyana, Trinidad. Many of them also intermarried with Black women and East Indian women. Unlike in Trinidad Tobago and Guyana who were predominantly Cantonese men who intermarried with Black women. In Jamaica, the Chinese who married Black women were almost all Hakka. According to the 1946 Census from Jamaica and Trinidad alone, 12,394 Chinese were located between Jamaica and Trinidad. 5,515 of those who lived in Jamaica were Chinese Jamaican and another 3,673 were Chinese-Trinidadians living in Trinidad.[31] In Jamaica and other Caribbean nations as well many Chinese males over past generations took up African wives, gradually assimilating or absorbing many Chinese descendants into the African Caribbean community or the overall mixed-race community.[32] In Guyana, the Chinese were mostly Cantonese men and who intermarried with the local women. Because almost all of the Chinese indentured immigrants were men, they tended to intermarry with both East Indians and Africans, and thus the Chinese of Guyana did not remain as physically distinct as other groups.[33]
Peru[edit]
See also: Chinese Peruvian
About 100,000 Cantonese coolies (almost all males) in 1849 to 1874 migrated to Peru and intermarried with Peruvian women of mestizo, European, Amerindian, European/mestizo, African and mulatto origin. Many Peruvian Chinese today are of mixed Chinese, Spanish, African, Amerindian. Estimates for Chinese-Peruvian is about 1.3 – 1.6 millions. Asian Peruvians are estimated to be 3% of the population, but one source places the number of citizens with some Chinese ancestry at 4.2 million, which equates to 15% of the country's total population.
Cuba[edit]
See also: Chinese Cuban
120,000 Cantonese coolies (all males) entered Cuba under contract for 80 years, most did not marry, but Hung Hui (1975) cites there was frequent sexual activity between black women and Cantonese coolies. According to Osberg (1965) the free Chinese conducted the practice of buying slave women and freeing them expressly for marriage. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Chinese men (Cantonese) engaged in sexual activity with white Cuban women and black Cuban women, and from such relations many children were born.[34]
In the 1920s an additional 30,000 Cantonese and small groups of Japanese also arrived; both immigrations were exclusively male, and there was rapid with white, black, and mulato populations.[35]
In the study of Genetic origin, admixture, and asymmetry in maternal and paternal human lineages in Cuba. Thirty-five Y-chromosome SNPs were typed in the 132 male individuals of the Cuban sample. The study does not include any people with some Chinese ancestry. All the samples were White Cubans and Black Cubans. 2 out of 132 male sample belong to East Asian Haplogroup O2 which is found in significant frequencies among Cantonese people is found in 1.5% of Cuban population.[36]
Mexico[edit]
See also: Chinese immigration to Mexico
The Chinese who migrated to Mexico in the 19th to 20th centuries were almost entirely Cantonese men. They married Mexican women, which led to anti-Chinese prejudice; many were expelled, while those who were allowed to stay intermarried with the Mexican population. The Mexicali officials estimate was that slightly more than 2,000 are full-blooded Chinese and about 8,000 are mixed-blood Chinese-Mexicans. Other estimates claimed 50,000 residents more than thought who are of Chinese descent. 10,000 full-blooded Chinese, down from 35,000 in the 1920s.[37] Marriage of these people to full-blooded Mexicans is diluting the community further.[37] Chinese Mexicans in Mexicali consider themselves equally "cachanilla," a term used for locals, as any other resident of the city, even if they speak Cantonese in addition to Spanish. The sentiment against Chinese men was due to (and almost all Chinese immigrants in Mexico were men) stealing employment and Mexican women from Mexican men who had gone off to fight in the Revolution or in World War I.[38] In San Luis Potosí there is 3.45% of O-M175 which is common marker among Chinese, East Asian, Southeast Asian and Central Asian to an extent.[39]
Costa Rica[edit]
See also: Chinese people in Costa Rica
The Chinese originated from the Cantonese male migrants. Pure Chinese make up only 1% of the Costa Rican population, but according to Jacqueline M. Newman, as close to 10% of the people in Costa Rica are Chinese, if we count the people who are Chinese, married to a Chinese person, or of mixed Chinese descent.[40] Most Chinese immigrants since then have been Cantonese, but in the last decades of the 20th century, a number of immigrants have also come from Taiwan. Many men came alone to work and married Costa Rican women and speak Cantonese. However the majority of the descendants of the first Chinese immigrants no longer speak Cantonese and feel themselves to be Costa Ricans.[41] They married Tican women (a blend of Europeans, Caztizos, Mestizos, Indian, and Black).[42] A Tican is also a White person with a small portion of non-white blood like Caztizos. The census of 1989 shows about 98% of Costa Ricans were either white, Castizos or Mestizos, with 80% being white or Caztizos.
Venezuela[edit]
See also: Chinese Venezuelan
Marriages between European, Mestizo, Amerindians, and Africans was not uncommon in the past. Several thousand Chinese from Enping resided in the country. The Chinese were still largely viewed as a foreign population who married foreign brides but seldom integrated into Venezuelan society.[43]
Jamaica[edit]
See also: Chinese Jamaicans
Many thousands of Chinese men (mostly Hakka) and Indian men married local Jamaican women. The study "Y-chromosomal diversity in Haiti and Jamaica: Contrasting levels of sex-biased gene flow" shows the paternal Chinese haplogroup O-M175 at a frequency of 3.8% in local Jamaicans ( non-Chinese Jamaicans) including the Indian H-M69 (0.6%) and L-M20 (0.6%) in local Jamaicans.[44] Among the country's most notable Afro-Asians are reggae singers Sean Paul, Tami Chynn and Diana King.
Africa and Middle East[edit]
Nigeria[edit]
Historically speaking, interracial relationships in Nigerian culture are less common, particularly among the heavily traditional Igbo people where the general belief is that people should marry within the tribe. In modern times, it is slowly becoming more acceptable, but there are still many who adhere to the ways of old.
Middle East and North Africa[edit]
Interracial marriage between Arab men and their non-Arab harem slave girls was common in the Arab world during the Arab slave trade, which lasted throughout the Middle Ages and early modern period.[45] Most of these slaves came from places such as Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj) the North Caucasus,[46] Central Asia (mainly Tartars), and Central and Europe (mainly Slavs from Serbia – Saqaliba, Spain, France, Italy).[47][48][49] The Barbary pirates from North Africa captured and enslaved 1.25 million white slaves from Western Europe and North America between the 16th and 19th centuries.[50][51] Outside the Arab world, it was also common for Arab conquerors, traders and explorers to intermarry with local females in the lands they conquered or traded with, in various different parts of Africa, Asia (see Asia section) and Europe (see Europe section).
From AD 839, Viking Varangian mercenaries who were in the service of the Byzantine Empire, notably Harald Sigurdsson, campaigned in North Africa, Jerusalem and other places in the Middle East during the Byzantine-Arab Wars. They interbred with the local population as spoils of warfare or through eventual settling with many Scandinavian Viking men taking Arab or Anatolian women as wives. There is archaeological evidence the Vikings had established contact with the city of Baghdad, at the time the center of the Islamic Empire, and connected with the populace there.[52] Regularly plying the Volga with their trade goods (furs, tusks, seal fat, seal boats and notably female slaves; the one period in the history of the slave-trade when females were priced higher than males), the Vikings were active in the Arab slave trade at the time.[53] These slaves, most often Europeans that were captured from the coasts of Europe or during war periods,[54] and sold to Arabic traders in Al-Andalus and the Emirate of Sicily.
Intermarriage was accepted in Arab society, though only if the husband was Muslim. It was a fairly common theme in medieval Arabic literature and Persian literature. For example, the Persian poet Nizami, who married his Central Asian Kipchak slave girl, wrote The Seven Beauties (1196). Its frame story involves a Persian prince marrying seven foreign princesses, who are Byzantine, Chinese, Indian, Khwarezmian, Maghrebian, Slavic and Tartar. Hadith Bayad wa Riyad, a 12th-century Arabic tale from Al-Andalus, was a love story involving an Iberian girl and a Damascene man. The Arabian Nights tale of "The Ebony Horse" involves the Prince of Persia, Qamar al-Aqmar, rescuing his lover, the Princess of Sana'a, from the Byzantine Emperor who also wishes to marry her.[55]
At times, some marriages would have a major impact on the politics of the region. The most notable example was the marriage of As-Salih Ayyub, the Sultan of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty, to Shajar al-Durr, a slave of Turkic origin from Central Asia. Following her husband's death, she became the Sultana of Egypt and the first Mamluk ruler. Her reign marked the end of the Ayyubid dynasty and the beginning of the Mameluk era, when a series of former Mamluk slaves would rule over Egypt and occasionally other neighbouring regions.[56][57][58][59]
Sub-Saharan Africa[edit]



President Ian Khama of Botswana, son of a Motswana man Sir Seretse Khama and an Englishwoman Ruth Williams Khama
Africa has a long history of interracial mixing with Arabs and later Europeans having sexual relations with black Africans. Arabs played a big role in the African slave trade and unlike the trans-atlantic trade most of the black African slaves in the Arab slave trade were women. Most of them were used as sexual slaves by the Arab men and some were taken as wives.
In the former Lusophone Africa (now known as Angola, Mozambique and Cape Verde) racial mixing between white Portuguese and black Africans was fairly common, especially in Cape Verde where the majority of the population is of mixed descent.
There have been several cases of Chinese merchants and laborers marrying black African women as many Chinese workers were employed to build railways and other infrastructural projects in Africa. These labour groups were made up completely of men with very few Chinese women coming to Africa. In Réunion and Madagascar, intermarriage between Chinese men of Cantonese origin and African women is not uncommon.[60]
South Africa[edit]
There is a significant mixed race population, the result of mostly European and African unions, in South Africa, called Coloureds. The term Coloured is also used to describe persons of mixed race in Namibia, to refer to those of part Khoisan, part white descent. The Basters of Namibia constitute a separate ethnic group that are sometimes considered a sub-group of the Coloured population of that country.
Interracial marriage was banned under apartheid. Today there are a number of high profile interracial couples in South Africa, such as the union of Matthew Booth, a white football player, and his wife Sonia Bonneventia, a black former Miss South Africa first princess and international model,[61] and Bryan Habana, a coloured South African rugby union player, and his white wife Janine Viljoen.[62]
Indian Ocean islands[edit]
In the late 19th to early 20th century, Chinese men in Mauritius married Indian women.[63][64] The 1921 census in Mauritius counted that Indian women there had a total of 148 children with Chinese men.[65][66][67]
Australia[edit]
See also: Demographics of Australia
The Australian Government does not release information on the ethnicities of marriage partners, but provide information on their countries of birth.
In 2009 there were 120,118 marriages recorded in Australia. About 42% involved at least one partner who was not Australian-born.
15% of Australian-born women, and 17.4% of Australian-born men, married somebody who was not Australian-born.
American (68%), Greek (62%) and Irish-born (62%) women were the most likely to marry an Australian-born man than a man born elsewhere.
Indian (12%), Chinese (16%) and 'other South and East Asia'-born (16%) women were the least likely to marry an Australian-born man than a man born elsewhere.
American (63%), Lebanese (62%) and Irish-born (62%) men were the most likely to marry an Australian-born woman than a woman born elsewhere.
Chinese (2%), 'other North Asia' (7%) and Vietnamese-born (8%) men were the least likely to marry an Australian-born woman than a woman born elsewhere.
Chinese-born men were the most likely to marry a woman from the same country (91%).
Indigenous Australians have a high interracial marriage rate. According to the 2000 Census in 1996, 64% of all married or de facto married couples involving an Indigenous person were mixed (i.e., only one partner was indigenous). In 55% of such couples, the Indigenous partner was female.[68]
Most of the early Chinese-Australia population was formed by Cantonese migrants from Guangzhou and Taishan, including some from Fujian, who came during the goldrush period of the 1850s. Marriage records show that between the 1850s and around the start of the 20th century, there were about 2000 legal marriages between white women and migrant Chinese men in Australia's eastern colonies, probably with similar numbers involved in de facto relationships of various kinds (ex: cohabitation, sexual intimacy).[69] The number of intermarriages declined, as stories of viciousness and the seduction of white women grew, mixed with opposition to intermarriage. Rallies against Chinese men taking white women became widespread, as many Australian men saw the Chinese men intermarrying and cohabiting with white women as a threat to the white race. In late 1878 there were 181 marriages between European women and Chinese men, and 171 couples cohabiting without matrimony, resulting in 586 Eurasian children.[70] Such numbers of intermarriage would continue until the 1880s and the 1930s.
Asia[edit]
Number of individuals married outside their ethnic group

Ethnic group
Males
Females

1999
2007
2008
1999
2007
2008

Total
18,402 26,632 24,243 18,402 26,632 24,243
Kazakh 2,199 4,981 4,785 1,542 4,062 3,874
Russian 5,957 7,795 6,991 7,431 9,714 8,544
Uzbek 240 714 657 200 600 537
Ukrainian 2,717 3,070 2,555 2,541 2,858 2,466
Uighur 269 658 655 224 530 525
Tatar 948 1,682 1,425 938 1,651 1,413
German 2,844 2,365 2,048 3,137 2,566 2,270
Other 3,180 5,351 4,426 2,313 4,610 4,010
Unknown 48 16 701 76 41 604
Central Asia[edit]
Today Central Asians are a mixture of various peoples, such as Mongols, Turks, and Iranians. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia in the 13th century resulted in the massacre of the mostly Iranic population and other Indo-European people with intermarriage and assimilation. Modern genetic studies show that Central Asian Turkic people and Hazara are a mixture of Northeast Asians and Indo-European people. Caucasian ancestry is prevalent in almost all central Asian Turkic people. Kazakhs, Hazara, Karakalpaks, and Crimean Tatars have more European maternal Mtdna than European paternal Y-dna while Kyrgyz have more European Y-dna with substantial European Mtdna. Other Turkic people like Uyghurs, Uzbeks, have mostly European Y-dna but also high percentages of European Mtdna. Turkmen have predominately European Y-dna and Mtdna.[71]
Interracial marriage between Turkic, European, Central Asians in Kazakhstan are rare but increasing. The most common marriages are between Kazakh and Volga Tatars. Intermarriage usually involves Kazakh men, due to Muslim tradition favouring male over female. For example 1% were between Russians, Tatars, and Kazakhs (792 between Russians and Tatars, 561 between Kazakhs and Tatars, and 212 between Kazakhs and Russians). 701 Kazakh men married Russians or Tatars, against only 72 Kazakh women.[72] Among Kirgiz men living in Uzbekistan and married to non-Kirgiz women, 9.6% had married Russians, 25.6% Uzbeks, and 34.3% Tatars. Among Kazakh men in Uzbekistan, the structure of mixed marriages appeared as follows: 4.4% married Russians.[73]
Eastern Asia[edit]
China[edit]
There have been various periods in the history of China where a number of Arabs, Persians and Turks from the Western Regions (Central Asia and West Asia) migrated to China. Persians intermarried around the time of Manichaeism's spread to China before the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution. Moreover, Persians brought Buddhism to China and there is evidence of close relationship during its pre-Islamic times (see An Shigao).
Moreover, the arrival of Islam during the Tang Dynasty in the 7th century brought an influx of immigrants. Due to the majority of these immigrants being male, many intermarried with local Chinese females. Intermarriage was initially discouraged by the Tang Dynasty. In 836 Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton, and was disgusted to find the Chinese living with foreigners and intermarrying. Lu enforced separation, banned interracial marriages, and made it illegal for foreigners to own property. Lu Chun believed his principles were just and upright.[74] The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "dark peoples" or "people of colour", which was used to describe foreigners, such as "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", among others.[75] The Song Dynasty allowed third-generation immigrants with official titles to intermarry with Chinese imperial princesses.[76]
In 779, the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uighurs to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese. The magristrate who issued the orders may have wanted to protect "purity" in Chinese custom.[77] Han men also married Turkic Uyghur women in Xinjiang from 1880 to 1949. Sometimes poverty influenced Uyghur women to marry Han men. These marriages were not recognized by local mullahs since Muslim women were not allowed to marry non-Muslim men under Islamic law. This did not stop the women because they enjoyed advantages: they were not subject to Islamic law and not subjected to certain taxes. Uyghur women married to Han men also did not have to wear a veil, and they received their husband's property upon his death. These women were forbidden from having burial in Muslim graves. The children of Han men and Uyghur women were considered to be Uyghur. Some Han soldiers had Uyghur women as temporary wives, and after their service was up, the wife was left behind or sold. If it was possible, sons were taken, and daughters were sold.[78]
Iranian, Arab and Turkic women also occasionally migrated to China and mixed with Chinese. Iranian women dancers were in demand in China during this period. During the Sui dynasty, ten young dancers were sent from Persia to China. During the Tang dynasty, bars were often attended by Iranian or Sogdian waitresses who performed dances for clients.[79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89] During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (Wudai) (907–960), there are examples of Persian women marrying Chinese emperors. Some Chinese officials from the Song Dynasty era also married women from Dashi (Arabia).[90] From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou (Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing multiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions".[91][92] Some scholars did not differentiate between Persian and Arab, and some say that the Chinese called all women coming from the Persian Gulf "Persian women".[93] Genetic evidence shows Persian women intermarried with the Cantonese men of Guangzhou. Yao Yonggang et al. reported that Kivisild detected one W mtDNA out of 69 Guangzhou Cantonese population, a common Middle Eastern and Iranian marker.[94] Of the Han Chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, married a Persian or an Arab woman, and brought her back to Quanzhou. He then converted to Islam. Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.[95][96][97]
By the 14th century, the total population of Muslims in China had grown to 4 million.[98] After Mongol rule had been overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368, this led to a violent Chinese backlash against West and Central Asians. In order to contain the violence, the Ming administration instituted a policy where all West and Central Asian males were required to intermarry with native Chinese females, hence assimilating them into the local population. Their descendants are today known as the Hui people.[76][76] 6.7% Hui people's maternal genetics have an Caucasian origin, while slightly over 30% paternal genetics also have an Caucasian origin.[99] In the 19th century, the Hui rebelled against the Chinese government trying to create an independent state.
Han women who married Hui men became Hui, and Han men who married Hui women also became Hui.[100][101][102]
There is a small but growing population of mixed marriages between male African (mostly Nigerian) traders and local Chinese women in the city of Guangzhou; in 2013 there were an estimated 400 African-Chinese families.[103] The rise in mixed marriages has not been without controversy. The state, fearing fraud marriages, has strictly regulated matters. In order to obtain government-issued identification (which is required to attend school), children must be registered under the Chinese mother's family name. Many African fathers, fearing that in doing so, they would relinquish their parental rights, have instead chosen to not send their children to school. There are efforts to open an African-Chinese school but it would first require government authorization.[103]
In recent years, thousands of Indians have migrated to China. While the majority of these Indians are students, some are employees of multinational companies. Most of these marriages are between Indian men and Chinese women. Some of these couples prefer to live in first, and depending on the circumstances marriages take place.[104]
Taiwan[edit]
During the Siege of Fort Zeelandia in which Chinese Ming loyalist forces commanded by Koxinga besieged and defeated the Dutch East India Company and conquered Taiwan, the Chinese took Dutch women and children prisoner. Koxinga took Hambroek's teenage daughter as a concubine,[105][106][107] and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives.In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.[108]
Some Dutch physical features like auburn and red hair among people in regions of south Taiwan are a consequence of this episode of Dutch women becoming concubines to the Chinese commanders.[109]
Hong Kong[edit]
Main article: Tanka people
Many Tanka women bore children with foreign men. Ernest John Eitel mentioned in 1889 how an important change had taken place among Eurasian girls, the offspring of illicit connections: instead of becoming concubines, they were commonly brought up respectably and married to Hong Kong Chinese husbands. Some believed many Hong Kong-born Eurasians were assimilated into the Hong Kong society by intermarriage with the Cantonese population. The world's most influential martial artist icon, Bruce Lee, was also born to parents of Hong Kong heritage to a Cantonese father and a Eurasian mother.
Ernest John Eitel controversially claimed that most "half-caste" people in Hong Kong were descended exclusively from Europeans having relationships with Tanka women. The theory that most of the Eurasian mixed-race Hong Kong people are descended only from Tanka women and European men, and not ordinary Cantonese women, has been backed up by other researchers who pointed out that Tanka women freely consorted with foreigners because they were not bound by the same Confucian traditions as the Cantonese, and having relationships with European men was advantageous for Tanka women, but Lethbridge criticized it as "a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community". Carl Smith's study in the late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, to support Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans. The ordinary Cantonese women did not sleep with European men; the Eurasian population was formed mostly from Tanka and European admixture.[110][111][112][113]

They invaded Hongkong the moment the settlement was started, living at first on boats in the harbon with their numerons families, and gradually settling on shore. They have maintained ever since almost a monopoly of the supply of pilots and ships' crews, of the fish trade and the cattle trade, but unfortunately also of the trade in girls and women. Strange to say, when the settlement was first started, it was estimated that some 2,000 of these Tan-ka lieople had flocked to Hongkong, but at the present time they are abont the same number, a tendency having set in among them to settle on shore rather than on the water and to disavow their Tan-ka extraction in order to mix on equal terms with the mass of the Chinese community. The half-caste population in Hongkong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuons re-absorption in the mass of the Chinese residents of the Colony.[114]
Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew (1845–1917) and Katharine Caroline Bushnell (February 5, 1856 January 26, 1946), who wrote extensively on the position of women in the British Empire, wrote about the Tanka inhabitants of Hong Kong and their position in the prostitution industry, catering to foreign sailors. The Tanka did not marry with the Chinese; being descendants of the natives, they were restricted to the waterways. They supplied their women as prostitutes to British sailors and assisted the British in their military actions around Hong Kong.[115] The Tanka in Hong Kong were considered "outcasts", and categorized as low class.[116] Tanka women were ostracized from the Cantonese community, and were nicknamed "salt water girls" (ham shui mui) for their services as prostitutes to foreigners in Hong Kong.[117][118]
South Asians have been living in Hong Kong throughout the colonial period, before the partition of India into the nations of India and Pakistan. They migrated to Hong Kong and worked as police officers as well as army officers during colonial rule. 25,000 of the Muslims in Hong Kong trace their roots back to Faisalabad in what is now Pakistan; around half of them belong to 'local boy' families, who descended from early Indian-Pakistani immigrants who took local Chinese wives.[119][120]
Macau[edit]
Due to a few Chinese living in Macau, the early Macanese ethnic group was formed from Portuguese men with Malay, Japanese, Indian women.[121] The Portuguese encouraged Chinese migration to Macau, and most Macanese in Macau were formed from intermarriages between Portuguese and Chinese.
Rarely did Chinese women marry Portuguese; initially, mostly Goans, Ceylonese (from today's Sri Lanka), Indo China, Malay, and Japanese women were the wives of the Portuguese men in Macau.[122][123][124][125][126] Japanese girls would be purchased in Japan by Portuguese men.[127] Many Chinese became Macanese simply by converting to Catholicism, and had no ancestry from Portuguese, having assimilated into the Macanese people.[128] The majority of the early intermarriages of people from China with Portuguese were between Portuguese men and women of Tanka origin, who were considered the lowest class of people in China and had relations with Portuguese settlers and sailors, or low-class Chinese women.[129][130] Western men were refused by high-class Chinese women, who did not marry foreigners, while a minority were Cantonese men and Portuguese women. Macanese men and women also married with the Portuguese and Chinese, and as a result some Macanese became indistinguishable from the Chinese or Portuguese population. Because the majority of the population who migrated to Macau were Cantonese, Macau became a culturally Cantonese speaking society; other ethnic groups became fluent in Cantonese. Most Macanese had paternal Portuguese heritage until 1974.[130] It was in the 1980s that Macanese and Portuguese women began to marry men who defined themselves ethnically as Chinese.[129]
Literature in Macau was written about love affairs and marriage between the Tanka women and Portuguese men, like "A-Chan, A Tancareira", by Henrique de Senna Fernandes.[129][131][132]
After the handover of Macau to China in 1999 many Macanese migrated to other countries. Many of the Portuguese and Macanese women who stayed in Macau married local Cantonese men, and many Macanese also now have Cantonese paternal heritage. There are between 25,000 – 46,000 Macanese, only 5000 – 8000 of whom live in Macau, while most live in America, Latin America, and Portugal. Unlike the Macanese of Macau who are strictly of Chinese and Portuguese heritage, many Macanese living abroad are not entirely of Portuguese and Chinese ancestry. Many Macanese men and women intermarried with the local population of America and Latin America, etc., and have only partial Macanese heritage.
Japan[edit]
Main articles: Marriage in Japan and Slavery in Japan § Portuguese trade in Japanese slaves
Inter-ethnic marriage in Japan dates back to the 7th century, when Chinese and Korean immigrants began intermarrying with the local population. By the early 9th century, over one-third of all noble families in Japan had ancestors of foreign origin.[133] In the 1590s, over 50,000 Koreans were forcibly brought to Japan, where they intermarried with the local population. In the 16th and 17th centuries, around 58,000 Japanese travelled abroad, many of whom intermarried with the local women in Southeast Asia.[134]
Portuguese traders in Japan also intermarried with the local Christian women in the 16th and 17th centuries.[135]
During the anti-Christian persecutions in 1596, many Japanese Christians fled to Macau and other Portuguese colonies such as Goa, where there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders by the early 17th century.[133] The Japanese slaves were brought or captured by Portuguese traders from Japan.[136] Intermarriage with the local populations in these Portuguese colonies also took place.[133] Marriage and sexual relations between European merchants and Japanese women was usual during this period.[137]
A large-scale slave trade developed in which Portuguese purchased Japanese as slaves in Japan and sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal itself, throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[138][139] Many documents mention the large slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased many Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church in 1555. King Sebastian feared that it was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization since the slave trade in Japanese was growing to massive proportions, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571.[140][141]
Japanese slave women were even sold as concubines to Indian and black African crewmembers, along with their European counterparts serving on Portuguese ships trading in Japan, mentioned by Luis Cerqueira, a Portuguese Jesuit, in a 1598 document.[142] Japanese slaves were brought by the Portuguese to Macau, where some of them not only ended up being enslaved to the Portuguese, but as slaves to other slaves, with the Portuguese owning Malay and African slaves, who in turn owned Japanese slaves of their own.[143][144]
In 2003, there were 740,191 marriages in Japan, of which 28,831 involved a non-Japanese bride and 7,208 involved a non-Japanese groom. Non-Japanese women who married a Japanese man were predominantly of Chinese (10,242), Filipino (7,794), Korean (5,318), Thai (1,445) and Brazilian (296) nationality. Non-Japanese men who married a Japanese woman were predominantly of Korean (2,235), United States (1,529), Chinese (890), British (334) and Brazilian (265) nationality.[145]
In 2006 there were 735,132 marriages in Japan, of which 40,154 involved a non-Japanese bride and 8,708 involved a non-Japanese groom. Non-Japanese women who married a Japanese-born man were predominantly of Filipino (12,150), Chinese (12,131), Korean (6,041), Thai (1,676) and Brazilian (285). Non-Japanese men who married a Japanese woman were predominantly of Korean (2,335), United States (1,474), Chinese (1,084), British (386) and Filipino (195) nationality.[146]
Korea[edit]
Main article: Marriage in South Korea
There were 43,121 international marriages between Koreans and non-Koreans in 2005, up 21.6% from a year earlier, according to Korea National Statistics Office[147] data published in the Korea Times newspaper on March 30, 2006. 11% of couples who married in 2007 were international couples. The majority of them involve South Korean males married to foreign females,[148] from China, Japan, Vietnam, the Philippines, United States, Mongolia, Thailand, and Russia. However, majority of these brides are ethnic Koreans from China and Han Chinese.[149][150] The most common explanation for this phenomenon is that there is a lack of South Korean women who are willing to marry men living in rural areas.
In recent times, about one third of South Korean men in rural areas married women from abroad, according to Korea National Statistics Office data published in 2006.[151] Marriages between South Korean men and foreign women are often arranged by marriage brokers or international religious groups. There is mounting evidence to suggest that there is a statistically higher level of poverty, violence and divorce in the Korean men married to foreign women cohort.[152] Most Korean men who marry Southeast Asian women end up with divorces.[citation needed] Currently divorces between Koreans and foreign spouses make up 10% of the total Korean divorce rate.[citation needed]
Interracial marriage in Korea dates back to at least the Three Kingdoms period. Records about the period, in particular the section in the Samguk Yusa about the Gaya kingdom (it was absorbed by the kingdom of Silla later), indicate that in 48 AD, King Kim Suro of Gaya (the progenitor of the Gimhae Kim clan) took a princess (Heo Hwang-ok) from the "Ayuta nation" (which is the Korean name for the city of Ayodhya in North India) as his bride and queen.[153] Two major Korean clans today claim descent from this union.[154]
Somewhat later, during the arrival of Muslims in Korea in the Middle Ages, a number of Arab, Persian and Turkic navigators and traders settled in Korea. They took local Korean wives and established several Muslim villages.[155] Some assimilation into Buddhism and Shamanism eventually took place, owing to Korea's geographical isolation from the Muslim world.[156] At least two or three major Korean clans today claim descent from Muslim families.[157][158]
Southeast Asia[edit]
Interracial marriage in Southeast Asia dates back to the spread of Indian culture, including Hinduism and Buddhism, to the region. From the 1st century onwards, mostly male traders and merchants from the Indian subcontinent frequently intermarried with the local female populations in Cambodia, Burma, Champa, central Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines, and Indonesia. Many Indianized kingdoms rose in Southeast Asia during the Middle Ages.[159]
From the 9th century onwards, some male Arab traders from the Middle East settled in Maritime Southeast Asia and married local Malay, Indonesian and Filipina female populations, which contributed to the spread of Islam in Southeast Asia.[160] From the 14th to the 17th centuries, many Chinese, Indian and Arab traders settled within the kingdoms of Maritime Southeast Asia and married within local female populations. This tradition continued among Spain and Portuguese traders who also married within local populations.[161] In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese people travelled to Southeast Asia and married with local women there.[134]
Vietnam[edit]
Main articles: Bụi đời and Women in Vietnam § European rule
Much of the business conducted with foreign men in southeast Asia was done by the local women, who served engaged in both sexual and mercantile intercourse with foreign male traders. A Portuguese- and Malay-speaking Vietnamese woman who lived in Macao for an extensive period of time was the person who interpreted for the first diplomatic meeting between Cochin-China and a Dutch delegation. She served as an interpreter for three decades in the Cochin-China court with an old woman who had been married to three husbands, one Vietnamese and two Portuguese.[162][163][164] The cosmopolitan exchange was facilitated by the marriage of Vietnamese women to Portuguese merchants. Those Vietnamese woman were married to Portuguese men and lived in Macao which was how they became fluent in Malay and Portuguese.[165]
Foreigners noted that in southeast Asian countries, foreigners would be offered already married local women for sex. William Dampier wrote, "The offering of Women is a Custom used by several nations in the East-Indies, as at Pegu, Siam, Cochinchina, and Cambodia... It is accounted a piece of Policy to do it; for the chief Factors and Captains of Ships have the great men's Daughters offered them, the Mandarins or Noblemen at Tunquin..."[166][167][168] Dampier's full account said, "They are so free of their women, that they would bring them aboard and offer them to us; and many of our men hired them for a small matter. This is a custom used by several nations in the East Indies, as at Pegu, Siam, Cochin-China, and Cambodia, as I have been told. It is used at Tunquin also to my knowledge; for I did afterwards make a voyage thither, and most of our men had women on board all the time of our abode there. In Africa, also, on the coast of Guinea, our merchants, factors, and seamen that reside there, have their black misses. It is accounted a piece of policy to do it; for the chief factors and captains of ships have the great men's daughters offered them, the mandarins' or noblemen's at Tunquin, and even the King's wives in Guinea; and by this sort of alliance the country people are engaged to a greater friendship; and if there should arise any difference about trade, or any thing else, which might provoke the native to seek some treacherous revenge, to which all these heathen nations are very prone, then these Dalilahs would certainly declare it to their white friends, and so hinder their countrymen's design."[169][170][171][172][173][174]
Alexander Hamilton said, "The Tonquiners used to be very desirous of having a brood of Europeans in their country, for which reason the greatest nobles thought it no shame or disgrace to marry their daughters to English and Dutch seamen, for the time they were to stay in Tonquin, and often presented their sons-in-law pretty handsomely at their departure, especially if they left their wives with child; but adultery was dangerous to the husband, for they are well versed in the art of poisoning."[167][168][175][176][177][178]
Burma[edit]
Burmese Muslims are the descendants of Indian Muslims, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Pathans, Chinese Muslims and Malays who settled and intermarried with the local Burmese population and other Burmese ethnic groups such as the Shan, Karen, and Mon.[179][180]
During British Indian rule, millions of Indians, mostly Muslim, migrated there. The small population of mixed descendants of Indian men and local Burmese women are called "Zerbadees", often in a pejorative sense implying mixed race. The Rohingya claim to have descended from Bengalis who intermarried with the local women, but this remains a hotly contested issue. The political situation surrounding the actual history of the Rohingya, the lack of evidence, and the counter-claims, mean that proper ancestry cannot be established. The Panthays, a group of Chinese Muslims descended from West Asians and Central Asians, migrated from China and also intermarried with local Burmese females.[181]
Burma has an estimated 52,000 Anglo-Burmese people, descended from British and Burmese people. Anglo-Burmese people frequently intermarried with Anglo-Indian immigrants, who assimilated into the Anglo-Burmese community.
Malaysia and Singapore[edit]
In Malaysia and Singapore, the majority of inter-ethnic marriages are between Chinese and Indians. The offspring of such marriages are informally known as "Chindian". The Malaysian and Singaporean governments, however, only classify them by their father's ethnicity. As the majority of these marriages involve an Indian groom and Chinese bride, the majority of Chindians in Malaysia are usually classified as "Indian" by the Malaysian government. As for the Malays, who are predominantly Muslim, legal restrictions in Malaysia make it less common for them to intermarry with either the Indians, who are predominantly Hindu, or the Chinese, who are predominantly Buddhist and Taoist.[182]
It is common for Arabs in Singapore and Malaysia to take local Malay wives, due to a common Islamic faith.[160] The Chitty people, in Singapore and the Malacca state of Malaysia, are a Tamil people with considerable Malay descent, which was due to thousands of the first Tamil settlers taking local wives, since they did not bring along any of their own women with them. According to government statistics, the population of Singapore as of September 2007 was 4.68 million, of whom multiracial people, including Chindians and Eurasians, formed 2.4%. In 2007, 16.4% of all marriages in Singapore were inter-ethnic.[183] The Peranakans are descendants of Chinese merchants who settled down in Malaysia and Singapore during the colonial era and married Malay women. There is also a significant minority population of Eurasians who are descended from Europeans – Singapore and Malaysia being former British colonies – and local women.
Philippines[edit]



 A Filipina bride and Nigerian groom walk down the aisle.
Centuries of migration, diaspora, assimilation, and cultural diversity have made most Filipinos open-minded in embracing interracial marriage and multiculturalism. Following independence, the Philippines has seen both small and large-scale immigration into the country, mostly involving Chinese, Americans, British, Europeans, Japanese, and South Asians. More recent migrations into the country by Koreans, Persians, Brazilians and other Southeast Asians have contributed to the enrichment of the country's ethnic landscape.
Thousands of interracial marriages between Americans and Filipinos have taken place since the United States took possession of the Philippines after the Spanish–American War. Due to the strategic location of the Philippines, as many as 21 bases and 100,000 military personnel were stationed there since the U.S. first colonized the islands in 1898. These bases were decommissioned in 1992 after the end of the Cold War, but left behind thousands of Amerasian children. The Pearl S. Buck International foundation estimates there are 52,000 Amerasians scattered throughout the Philippines.
In the United States intermarriage among Filipinos with other races is common. They have the largest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California.[184] It is also noted that 21.8% of Filipino Americans are of mixed blood, second among Asian Americans, and is the fastest growing.[185]
Interracial marriages particularly among Southeast Asians are continually increasing. At present, there is an increasing number of Southeast Asian intermarriages, particularly between Filipinos and Malaysians (Dumanig, 2009). Such marriages have created an impact on language, religion and culture. Dumanig argues that Filipino-Malaysian couples no longer prefer their own ethnic languages as the medium of communication at home. The use of English with some switching in Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, and Filipino is commonly used.[186]
Philippine nationality law is currently based upon the principles of jus sanguinis and therefore descent from a parent who is a citizen/national of the Republic of the Philippines is the primary method of acquiring Philippine citizenship. Birth in the Philippines to foreign parents does not in itself confer Philippine citizenship, although RA9139, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000, does provide a path for administrative naturalization of certain aliens born on Philippine soil (Jus soli). Together, some of these recent immigrants have intermarried with the indigenous Filipinos, as well as with the previous immigrant groups, giving rise to Filipinos of mixed racial and/or ethnic origins also known as mestizos.
South Asia[edit]



 An oil painting of Khair-un-Nissa by George Chinnery. c. 1805. She was an Indian Hyderabadi noblewoman who married British Lieutenant Colonel James Achilles Kirkpatrick.


Rahul Gandhi, a member of the Indian Parliament, is the son of an Indian father (Rajiv Gandhi) and Italian mother (Sonia Gandhi).
The Indian subcontinent has a long history of inter-ethnic marriage dating back to ancient history. Various groups of people have been intermarrying for millennia in South Asia, including speakers of Dravidian, Indo-Aryan (Indic), Iranian, Austroasiatic, and Tibeto-Burman languages. This was particularly common in the northwestern and northeastern parts of the subcontinent. In the northwest (mainly modern-day Pakistan), invading Persians, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Hephthalites, Indo-Greeks and Mughals often took local wives in that region during Antiquity and the Middle Ages.
According to the Indo-Aryan migration theory, Indo-Iranian nomadic groups (Aryans) from Central Asia migrated to India more than 3,000 years ago. In turn, the Indo-Iranian languages are descended from the Indo-European languages speakers from who may have origins around the Black Sea. According to 19th century British historians, it was these Aryans who and established the caste system, an elitist form of social organization that separated the light-skinned Indo-Aryan conquerors from the conquered dark-skinned indigenous Dravidian tribes through enforcement of racial endogamy. Much of this was simply conjecture, fueled by British imperialism.[187] British policies of divide and rule as well as enumeration of the population into rigid categories during the tenure of British rule in India contributed towards the hardening of these segregated caste identities.[188] Since the independence of India from British rule, the British fantasy of an "Aryan Invasion and subjugation of the dark skinned Dravidians in India" has become a staple polemic in South Asian geopolitics, including the propaganda of Indophobia in Pakistan.[189] There is no decisive theory as to the origins of the caste system in India, and globally renowned historians and archaeologists like Jim Shaffer, J.P. Mallory, Edwin Bryant, and others, have disputed the claim of "Aryan Invasion."[190]
Some researchers claim that genetic similarities to Europeans were more common in members of the higher ranks. Their findings, published in Genome Research, supported the idea that members of higher castes are more closely related to Europeans than are the lower castes.[191] According to the research, invading Aryan populations were predominantly males who intermarried with local females and formed the upper castes, i.e. the local females had upward mobility in caste, which was denied to local males.
However, other researchers have criticized and contradicted this claim.[192] A study by Joanna L. Mountain et al. of Stanford University concluded that there was "no clear separation into three genetically distinct groups along caste lines", although "an inferred tree revealed some clustering according to caste affiliation".[193] A 2006 study concluded that the "lower caste groups might have originated with the hierarchical divisions that arose within the tribal groups with the spread of Neolithic agriculturalists, much earlier than the arrival of Aryan speakers", and "the Indo-Europeans established themselves as upper castes among this already developed caste-like class structure within the tribes."[194] A 2006 genetic study by the National Institute of Biologicals in India, testing a sample of men from 32 tribal and 45 caste groups, concluded that the Indians have acquired very few genes from Indo-European speakers.[195] More recent studies have also debunked the claims that so-called "Aryans" and "Dravidians" have a "racial divide". A study conducted by the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology in 2009 (in collaboration with Harvard Medical School, Harvard School of Public Health, Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT) analyzed half a million genetic markers across the genomes of 132 individuals from 25 ethnic groups from 13 states in India across multiple caste groups.[196]
Many Indian traders, merchants and missionaries travelled to Southeast Asia (where Indianized kingdoms were established) and often took local wives from the region. The Romani people ("Gypsies") who have origins in the Indian subcontinent travelled westwards and also took local wives in Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. Genetic studies show that the majority of Romani males carry large frequencies of particular Y chromosomes (inherited paternally) that otherwise exist only in populations from South Asia, in addition to nearly a third of Romani females carrying particular mitochondrial DNA (inherited maternally) that is rare outside South Asia.[197][198] Around 800, a ship carrying Persian Jews crashed in India. They settled in different parts of India and befriended and traded with the local Indian population. Intermarriage occurred, and to this day the Indian Jews physically resemble their surrounding Indian populations due to intermarriage.
There are also cases of Indian princesses marrying kings abroad. For example, the Korean text Samguk Yusa about the Gaya kingdom (it was absorbed by the kingdom of Silla later), indicate that in 48 AD, King Kim Suro of Gaya (the progenitor of the Gimhae Kim clan) took Princess Heo from "Ayuta" (the Korean name for the city of Ayodhya in North India) as his bride and queen. According to the Samguk Yusa, the princess' parents had a dream sent by a god who told them about a king from a faraway land. That was King Kim Suro of the Gaya kingdom, in what is now the southeastern tip of South Korea.
In Goa during the late 16th and 17th centuries, there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders, who were either Japanese Christians fleeing anti-Christian sentiments in Japan,[133] or Japanese slaves brought or captured by Portuguese traders and their South Asian lascar crewmembers from Japan.[136] In both cases, they often intermarried with the local population in Goa.[133] One offspring of such an intermarriage was Maria Guyomar de Pinha, born in Thailand to a Portuguese-speaking Japanese-Bengali father from Goa and a Japanese mother.[199] In turn, she married the Greek adventurer Constantine Phaulkon.[200]
Inter-ethnic marriages between European men and Indian women were very common during colonial times. According to the historian William Dalrymple, about one in three European men (mostly British, as well as Portuguese, French, Dutch, and to a lesser extent Swedes and Danes) had Indian wives in colonial India. One of the most famous intermarriages was between the Anglo-Indian resident James Achilles Kirkpatrick and the Hyderabadi noblewoman and descendant of prophet Mohammed, Khair-un-Nissa. During the British East India Company's rule in India in the late 18th century and early 19th century, it was initially fairly common for British officers and soldiers to take local Indian wives. The 600,000 strong Anglo-Indian community has descended from such unions. There is also a story of an attractive Gujjar princess falling in love with a handsome English nobleman and the nobleman converted to Islam so as to marry her. The 65,000 strong Burgher community of Sri Lanka was formed by the intermarriages of Dutch and Portuguese men with local Sinhalese and Tamil women. Intermarriage also took place in Britain during the 17th to 19th centuries, when the British East India Company brought over many thousands of Indian scholars, lascars and workers (mostly Bengali) who settled down in Britain and took local British wives, some of whom went to India with their husbands.[201] In the mid-19th century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers but less than 2,000 British officials present in India.[202]
In Assam, local Assamese women married several waves of Chinese migrants during British colonial times, to the point where it became hard to physically differentiate Chinese in Assam from locals during the time of their internment during the 1962 war, and the majority of these Chinese in Assam were married to Assamese women.[203]
In the 19th century, when the British Straits Settlement shipped Chinese convicts to be jailed in India, the Chinese men then settled in the Nilgiri mountains near Naduvattam after their release and married Tamil Paraiyan women, having mixed Chinese-Tamil children with them. They were documented by Edgar Thurston.[204][205][206][207][208][209][210][211][212][213] Paraiyan is also anglicized as "pariah".
Edgar Thurston described the colony of the Chinese men with their Tamil pariah wives and children: "Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of ' marriage ' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating coffee on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs."[214][215] Thurston further describe a specific family: "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones."[216][217][218][219][220][221][222][223][224] Thurston's description of the Chinese-Tamil families were cited by others, one mentioned "an instance mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female"[225][226][227][228][229] A 1959 book described attempts made to find out what happened to the colony of mixed Chinese and Tamils.[230]
Europe[edit]
Balkans[edit]
Vikings explored and eventually settled in territories in Slavic-dominated areas of Europe. By 950 AD, these settlements were largely Slavicized through intermarriage with the local population. Europe, especially the Balkans, was an important source of captives for the Arab slave trade then, and Saqaliba (Slavic) slaves taken to the Arab World often intermarried or had unions with their Arab owners.
Caucasus[edit]
The Nogais who live in Southern Russia / North Caucasus are a mixture of Mongoloid and Caucasoid and also have high frequencies mongoloid paternal y-dna. Some North Caucasus ethnic groups also contain low to moderate frequencies of Mongolian paternal DNA such as Haplogroup_C-M217_.[231][232]
France[edit]
The French Normans were descended from Danish Vikings who were given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France—the Duchy of Normandy—in the 8th century. In that respect, descendants of the Vikings in France and Britain continued to have an influence in northern Europe as well. Likewise, King Harold Godwinson, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England who was killed during the Norman invasion in 1066, had Danish ancestors. Many of the medieval kings of Norway and Denmark married into English and Scottish royalty and occasionally got involved in dynastic disputes.
During World War I, there were 135,000 soldiers from British India,[233] a large number of soldiers from French North Africa,[234] and 20,000 labourers from South Africa,[235] who served in France. Much of the French male population had gone to war, leaving behind a surplus of French females,[234] many of whom formed interracial relationships with non-white soldiers, mainly Indian[236][237] and North African.[233] British and French authorities allowed foreign Muslim soldiers to intermarry with local French females on the basis of Islamic law, which allows marriage between Muslim men and Christian women. On the other hand, Hindu soldiers in France were restricted from intermarriage on the basis of the Indian caste system.[237]
According to France's 1999 Census, 38% and 34% of male and female married immigrants, respectively, are intermarried. The highest intermarriage rate was for European immigrants, mainly Spanish and Italian, nearly 50% of whom have had intermarriages. 30% of North African immigrants and 20% of Portuguese immigrants have also had intermarriages. The lowest intermarriage rate was for Turkish immigrants, with 14% for married males and 4% for married females.[238]
Germany[edit]
According to the 2006 figures from Germany's Federal Statistics Office, Turkish men accounted for 14% of foreigners married to German women, followed by Italians and Americans.[239] Conversely, German men marrying non-German women primarily choose Polish women, with Russian, Turkish and Japanese women following in roughly equal numbers.[239]
Comparative sociologist Amparo Gonzalez-Ferrer argues that one of the main reasons why Turkish men marry Germans more than Turkish women do is due to Islam permitting men but not women to marry non-Muslims.[239] Dirk Halm, political scientist for the Center for Turkish Studies in Essen, remarked that considering Turkish citizens make up 25% of all foreign residents in Germany—not counting an additional one-third ethnic Turks who are German citizens—intermarriage rates in Germany are "in reality very low".[239]
Iberian Peninsula[edit]



Hadith Bayad wa Riyad (12th century) was an Arabic love story about an Andalusian female and a foreign Damascene male.
In ancient history, the Iberian Peninsula was frequently invaded by foreigners who intermarried with the native population. One of the earliest foreign groups to arrive to the region were the Indo-European Celts who intermarried with the pre-Indo-European Iberians in prehistoric Iberia. They were later followed by the Phoenician Carthaginians and Indo-European Romans who intermarried with the pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula during Classical Antiquity. They were in turn followed by the Germanic Visigoths, Suebi and Vandals and the Sarmatian Alans who also intermarried with the local population in Hispania during late Antiquity. In the 6th century, the region was reconquered by the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) before it was lost again to the Visigothic Kingdom less than a century later.
After the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the early 8th century, the Islamic state of Al-Andalus was established in Iberia. Due to Islamic marital law allowing a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females, it became common for Arab and Berber males from North Africa to intermarry with the local Germanic, Roman and Iberian females of Hispania.[240][241] The offspring of such marriages were known as Muladi or Muwallad, an Arabic term still used in the modern Arab world to refer to people with Arab fathers and non-Arab mothers.[242] This term was also the origin for the Spanish word Mulatto.[243][244] In addition, many Muladi were also descended from Saqaliba (Slavic) slaves taken from Europe via the Arab slave trade. By the 11th or 12th century, the Muslim population of Al-Andalus had merged into a homogeneous group of people known as the "Moors". After the Reconquista, which was completed in 1492, most of the Moors were forced to either flee to Morocco or convert to Christianity. The ones who converted to Christianity were known as Moriscoes, and they were often persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition on the basis of the Limpieza de sangre ("Cleanliness of blood") or "blue blood" doctrine.[245]
Portuguese colonies[edit]
See also: Orfas del Rei
According to Gilberto Freyre, a Brazilian sociologist, miscegenation was commonplace in the Portuguese colonies, and was even supported by the court as a way to boost low populations and guarantee a successful and cohesive settlement. Thus, settlers often released African slaves to become their wives. The children were guaranteed full Portuguese citizenship, provided the parents were married. Some former Portuguese colonies have large mixed-race populations, for instance, Brazil, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Timor Leste, Macau and São Tomé and Príncipe. In the case of Brazil, the influential "Indianist" novels of José de Alencar (O Guarany, Iracema, and Ubirajara) perhaps went farther than in the other colonies, advocating miscegenation in order to create a truly Brazilian race.[246] Mixed marriages between Portuguese and locals in former colonies were very common in all Portuguese colonies. Miscegenation was still common in Africa until the independence of the former Portuguese colonies in the mid-1970s.
Iceland[edit]
Most Icelanders are descendants of Norwegian settlers and Celts from Ireland and Scotland, brought over as slaves during the age of settlement. Recent DNA analysis suggests that around 66% of the male settler-era population was of Norse ancestry, whereas the female population was 60% Celtic. [247][248] [249] [250]
Italian Peninsula[edit]



 "Othello and Desdemona", a painting by Alexandre-Marie Colin in 1829
As was the case in other areas occupied by Muslims, it was acceptable in Islamic marital law for a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females in southern Italy when under Islamic rule - namely, the Emirate of Sicily, and, of least importance, the short-lived Emirate of Bari between the 8th and 11th centuries. In this case, most intermarriages were between Arab and Berber males from North Africa and the local Greek, Roman and Italian females. Such intermarriages were particularly common in the Emirate of Sicily, where one writer visiting the place in the 970s expressed shock at how common it was in rural areas.[251] After the Norman conquest of southern Italy, all Muslim citizens (whether foreign, native or mixed) of the Kingdom of Sicily were known as "Moors". After a brief period when the Arab-Norman culture had flourished under the reign of Roger II of Sicily, later the mainlander italians migrated to Sicily persecuted the Muslims of Sicily and they killed many of them[252] later the remnants were expelled in 1239 with the persecution of Frederick II who deported the Muslim survivors in Lucera.
In Malta, Arabs and Italians from neighbouring Sicily and Calabria intermarried with the local inhabitants,[253] who were descended from Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans and Vandals. The Maltese people are descended from such unions, and the Maltese language is descended from Siculo-Arabic.
At times, the Italian city-states also played an active role in the Arab slave trade, where Moorish and Italian traders occasionally exchanged slaves. For example two researchers suggest that Leonardo da Vinci's mother Caterina may have been a slave from the Middle East.[254]
Ottoman Empire[edit]
See also: Valide Sultan and Sultanate of women
In the 11th century, the Byzantine territory of Anatolia was conquered by the Seljuq Turks, who came from Turkestan in Central Asia. Their Ottoman Turkish descendants went on to annex the Balkans and southern parts of Central Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Due to Islamic marital law allowing a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females, it was common in the Ottoman Empire for Turkish males to intermarry with European females. For example, various sultans of the Ottoman Dynasty often had Greek (Rûm), Slavic (Saqaliba), Venetian, Northcaucasian and French wives. Some of these European wives exerted great influence upon the empire as Valide Sultan ("Sultan's Parent"); some famous examples included Roxelana, a Slavic harem slave who later became Suleiman the Magnificent's favourite wife, and Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, wife of Abdul Hamid I and cousin of French Empress Josephine. Due to the common occurrence of such intermarriages in the Ottoman Empire, they had a significant impact on the ethnic makeup of the modern Turkish population in Turkey, which now differs from that of the Turkic population in Central Asia.[255]
The concubines of the Ottoman Sultan consisted chiefly of purchased slaves. Because Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims, the Sultan's concubines were generally of Christian origin. The mother of a Sultan, though technically a slave, received the extremely powerful title of Valide Sultan, and at times became effective ruler of the Empire (see Sultanate of women). One notable example was Kösem Sultan, daughter of a Greek Christian priest, who dominated the Ottoman Empire during the early decades of the 17th century.[256]
United Kingdom[edit]
See also: United Kingdom Census 2011



 An inclusive wedding party preparing for formal photographs at Thornbury Castle
Intermarriage with non-European populations began as early as the Agricultural Revolution. Researchers have found that a majority of British males have DNA that can be traced back to Middle Eastern male farmers (from around present-day Iraq and Syria) who around 8000 BC began migrating to Britain, introducing agriculture to the island, and settling down with local British females.[257]
Britain has a long history of inter-ethnic marriage among the various European populations that inhabited the island, including the Celtic, Roman, Viking, Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman peoples. In the late 15th century, the Romani people arrived. The arriving Romani nomads took local British wives, forming a distinct community known as the Romnichal. Due to intermarriage, Romnichal today are often indistinguishable from the general white British population.
Inter-ethnic marriage began occurring more often in Britain since the 17th century, when the British East India Company began bringing over many Indian scholars, lascars and workers. Though mixed marriages were not always accepted in British society, there were no legal restrictions against intermarriage at the time.[258][259] By the mid-19th century, there were more than 40,000 Indian seamen, diplomats, scholars, soldiers, officials, tourists, businessmen and students arriving to Britain.[202] By the late 19th century and early 20th century, there were around 70,000 South Asians in Britain,[260] 51,616 of whom were lascar seamen (when World War I began).[261] Families with South Asian lascar fathers and white mothers established interracial communities in Britain's dock areas.[262] This led to a growing number of "mixed race" children being born in the country, which challenged the efforts of some to "define them using simple dichotomies of British versus Indian, ruler versus ruled."[202] The number of women of colour in Britain were often outnumbered by "half-caste Indian" daughters born from white mothers and Indian fathers.[263] In addition, a number of British officers who had Indian wives and Anglo-Indian children in British India often brought them over to Britain in the 19th century.[264]
Following World War I, there were significantly more females than males in Britain,[265] and there were increasing numbers of seamen from the Indian subcontinent, Arab World, Far East and Caribbean. Many of them intermarried and cohabited with local white females, which raised increasing concerns from a minority over miscegenation and led to a handful of race riots in at the time.[266] By World War II, any form of intimate relationship between a white woman and non-white man was considered offensive by a few.[265] A few concerns were voiced regarding white adolescent girls forming relationships with men of color, including South Asian seamen in the 1920s,[267] Muslim immigrants in the 1920s to 1940s,[265] African American GIs during World War II, Maltese and Cypriot cafe owners in the 1940s to 1950s, Caribbean immigrants in the 1950s to 1960s, and South Asian immigrants in the 1960s although the continuing record of mixed marriages and the later acceptance of successful mixed-race offspring in public and cultural life suggests tolerance at the time was the norm. But a recent ethnographic study[268] demonstrates that there are multiple negative impacts despite the veneer of tolerance.
The first Chinese settlers were mainly Cantonese from south China, with some also from Shanghai. The figures of Chinese for 1921 are 2,157 men and 262 women. Many Chinese men married British women while others remained single, possibly supporting a wife and family back home in China. During the second world war (1939–1945) another wave of Chinese seamen from Shanghai and of Cantonese origin married British women. Records show that about some 300 of these men had married British women and supported families.[269]
According to the UK 2001 census, black British males were around 50% more likely than black females to marry outside their race. British Chinese women (30%) were twice as likely as their male counterparts (15%) to marry someone from a different ethnic group. In 2001, 2% of all marriages in the United Kingdom were inter-ethnic.[270] In 2011 the Census showed that almost one in 10 people in Britain were either married or living with someone from a different ethnic group, with proportions ranging from 85% of mixed-race people to 4% of white people.[271]
In 1948, an international incident was created when the British government took exception to the "difficult problem"[272] of the marriage of Seretse Khama, kgosi (king) of the Bamangwato people of what was then the British Bechuanaland Protectorate, to an English woman, Ruth Williams, whom he had met while studying law in London. The interracial marriage sparked a furore among both the tribal elders of the Bamangwato and the apartheid government of South Africa. The latter objected to the idea of an interracial couple ruling just across their northern border, and exerted pressure to have Khama removed from his chieftainship. Britain's Labour government, then heavily in debt from World War II, could not afford to lose cheap South African gold and uranium supplies. They also feared South Africa might take direct action against Bechuanaland, through economic sanctions or a military incursion.[273][274] The British government began a parliamentary enquiry into Khama's fitness for the chieftainship. Though the investigation reported that he was eminently fit for the rule of Bechuanaland, "but for his unfortunate marriage",[275] the government ordered the report suppressed. (It would remain so for thirty years.) It exiled Khama and his wife from Bechuanaland in 1951. It was many years before the couple was allowed to live in Africa, and several more years before Khama became president of what is now Botswana. Their son Ian Khama is the president of that country.
Intercultural marriage complications[edit]
Oftentimes, couples in intercultural marriages face barriers that most married couples of the same culture are not exposed to. Intercultural marriages are often influenced by external factors that can create dissonance and disagreement in relationships.[276] Different cultures endure vastly diverse moral, ethical and value foundations that influence their perceptions of individual, family and societal lifestyle. When these foundations are operating alongside the foundation of different cultural roots, as in intercultural marriages, problems and disagreement oftentimes occur.[276] However, interracial marriages are not always intercultural marriages, as in some countries, such as the United States, people of different races can share the same cultural background.
Family and society[edit]
The most common external factors influencing intercultural relationships and marriages are the acceptance of the family and the society in which the couple lives.[276] Sometimes, the families of the partners display rejection, resistance, hostility and lack of acceptance for their kin's partner.[276] Specific issues regarding the family; including generational gaps in ideology, and how the wedding will be held; which ties into how tradition will or will not be practiced. Many intercultural couples report conflict arising over issues of how to carry out child raising and religious worship as well. Dealing with racism from outside sources is also a common area of potential conflict.
Communication style[edit]
Intercultural couples may possess differing communication styles. Individuals from a high context culture are not verbally explicit in their communication behaviors.[277] These cultures typically consist of eastern world countries where collectivism and relational harmony underlie communication behavior. By contrast, individuals from a low context culture use direct obvious communication styles to convey information.[277] In situations where marriage occurs between two people from differing communication contextual backgrounds, conflict may arise from relational challenges posed by the underlying assumptions of high/low context cultures. Challenges posed by differing communication styles are common among intercultural marriage couples.[278] The longer the two individuals have existed in the current culture the less likely this is to pose an issue. If one or more partners within the marriage is relatively new to the dominant culture the likelihood for conflict to unfold on these bases increases.[278]
Management[edit]
Intercultural couples tend to face hardships most within-culture relationships do not.[279] Various resources which focus on conflict resolution of intercultural differences in marriage relationships have become available in the media. Specialized counseling and support groups have also become available to these couples. Conflict resolution and mediation of the infrastructural issues faced by intercultural couples leads to a broader understanding of culture and communication.[280] And the concept of racial literacy was developed by sociologist France Winddance Twine to describe the ways in which these families teach their children about race and its impact.
Interracial marriage benefits[edit]
It has been claimed by a limited number of scholars that diversity within a family system "enhances open communication for individuals to cultivate so they can have greater depth, and views of people within our world".[281]
See also[edit]
Exogamy
Miscegenation
Racial literacy
Multiracial
Mixed Race Day
Loving Day
Race of the Future
The Adventure of the Yellow Face
Transnational marriage
Interfaith marriage
Interracial marriage in film
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33.Jump up ^ Chinese in the English-Speaking Caribbean – Settlements. Everyculture.com. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
34.Jump up ^ Dorsey, Joseph C. (2004). "Identity, Rebellion, and Social Justice Among Chinese Contract Workers in Nineteenth-Century Cuba" (PDF). Latin American Perspectives 31 (3): 18–47. doi:10.1177/0094582X04264492.
35.Jump up ^ David Stanley (1997). Cuba: a Lonely Planet travel survival kit. Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-0-86442-403-7.
36.Jump up ^ Mendizabal, I; Sandoval, K; Berniell-Lee, G; Calafell, F; Salas, A; Martínez-Fuentes, A; Comas, D (2008). "Genetic origin, admixture, and asymmetry in maternal and paternal human lineages in Cuba". BMC Evolutionary Biology 8: 213. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-213. PMC 2492877. PMID 18644108.
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38.Jump up ^ Schiavone Camacho, Julia Maria (November 2009). "Crossing Boundaries, Claiming a Homeland: The Mexican Chinese Transpacific Journey to Becoming Mexican, 1930s–1960s". Pacific Historical Review (Berkeley) 78 (4): 552–553. doi:10.1525/phr.2009.78.4.545.
39.Jump up ^ Statistics – Mexico. Iberian Roots (2012-05-03). Retrieved 2013-06-22.
40.Jump up ^ Newman, Jacqueline M. (Spring 2000). "Chinese Food in Costa Rica". Flavor and Fortune 7 (1): 15–16.
41.Jump up ^ Margaret Tyler Mitchell; Scott Pentzer (2008). Costa Rica: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. pp. 249–. ISBN 978-1-85109-992-4.
42.Jump up ^ Costa Rica, People. Philip.greenspun.com. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
43.Jump up ^ The Enduring Legacy: Oil, Culture, and Society in Venezuela By Miguel Tinker Salas [2]
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45.Jump up ^ Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery, BBC
46.Jump up ^ "Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women—Infanticide in Turkey," New York Daily Times, August 6, 1856. Chnm.gmu.edu. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
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48.Jump up ^ History – British History in depth: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast. BBC. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
49.Jump up ^ Jefferson Versus the Muslim Pirates by Christopher Hitchens, City Journal Spring 2007. City-journal.org. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
50.Jump up ^ "When europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed", Oregon State University
51.Jump up ^ Davis, Robert (1999). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800. Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". Stephen Behrendt, "Transatlantic Slave Trade", Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (New York: Basic Civitas Books), ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
52.Jump up ^ "Vikings' Barbaric Bad Rap Beginning to Fade", National Geographic (2004-02-02)
53.Jump up ^ Mary Dobson, Vince Reid (1998). Smelly Old History: Vile Vikings. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910494-8.
54.Jump up ^ Mushin, D. (1998) The Saqaliba Slaves in the Aghlabid State.
55.Jump up ^ Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf (2004). The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 172–4. ISBN 1-57607-204-5.
56.Jump up ^ Some historians regard Shajar al-Durr as the first of the Mamluk Sultans. – (Shayyal, p.115/vol.2)
57.Jump up ^ Al-Maqrizi described Shajar al-Durr as the first of the Mamluk Sultans of Turkic origin. " This woman, Shajar al-Durr, was the first of the Turkish Mamluk Kings who ruled Egypt " – (Al-Maqrizi, p. 459/ vol.1)
58.Jump up ^ Ibn Iyas regarded Shajar al-Durr as an Ayyubid. – (Ibn Iyas, p.89)
59.Jump up ^ According to J. D. Fage " it is difficult to decide whether this queen (Shajar al-Durr) was the last of the Ayyubids or the first of the Mamluks as she was connected with both the vanishing and the oncoming dynasty". Fage, p.37
60.Jump up ^ Pan 1994, p. 157
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64.Jump up ^ Paul Younger Professor Emeritus of Religious Studies McMaster University (2009). New Homelands : Hindu Communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa: Hindu Communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 33. ISBN 0199741921. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
65.Jump up ^ Huguette Ly-Tio-Fane Pineo, Edouard Lim Fat (2008). From alien to citizen: the integration of the Chinese in Mauritius. Éditions de l'océan Indien. p. 174. ISBN 9990305692. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
66.Jump up ^ Huguette Ly Tio Fane-Pineo (1985). Chinese Diaspora in Western Indian Ocean. Ed. de l'océan indien. p. 287. ISBN 9990305692. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
67.Jump up ^ "What Inter-Ethnic Marriage In Mauritius Tells Us About The Nature of Ethnicity". p. 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-10-22. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
68.Jump up ^ "4102.0 – Australian Social Trends, 2000 – Family Formation: Cultural diversity in marriages". Retrieved 2009-11-02.
69.Jump up ^ Australian wives in China. Epress.anu.edu.au (1904-03-01). Retrieved 2012-05-09.
70.Jump up ^ G. W. Trompf; Carole M. Cusack; Christopher Hartney (2010). Religion and Retributive Logic: Essays in Honour of Professor Garry W. Trompf. BRILL. pp. 351–. ISBN 978-90-04-17880-9.
71.Jump up ^ Zerjal, T.; Wells, R. S.; Yuldasheva, N.; Ruzibakiev, R.; Tyler-Smith, C. (2002). "A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia". The American Journal of Human Genetics 71 (3): 466–82. doi:10.1086/342096. PMC 419996. PMID 12145751. edit
72.Jump up ^ ABSEES – Soviet and East European Abstracts Series, Volume 5
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74.Jump up ^ Edward H. Schafer (1985). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'Ang Exotics. University of California Press. pp. 22–. ISBN 978-0-520-05462-2.
75.Jump up ^ Jacques Gernet (1996). A history of Chinese civilization. Cambridge University Press. p. 294. ISBN 0-521-49781-7.
76.^ Jump up to: a b c "Chinese of Arab and Persian descent". ColorQ World. Retrieved 2008-12-23.
77.Jump up ^ Edward H. Schafer (1963). The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics. University of California Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
78.Jump up ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: towards a historical anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. p. 476. ISBN 90-04-16675-0. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
79.Jump up ^ Ryōtarō Shiba (2003). Kukai the universal: scenes from his life. ICG Muse. p. 350. ISBN 4-925080-47-4.
80.Jump up ^ Victor H. Mair (1996). The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature. Columbia University Press. p. 1335. ISBN 0-231-07429-8.
81.Jump up ^ Amnon Shiloah (2003). Music in the World of Islam. Wayne State University Press. p. 213. ISBN 0-8143-2970-5.
82.Jump up ^ Edward H. Schafer (1963). The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 399. ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
83.Jump up ^ Naotaro Kudo (1969). The life and thoughts of Li Ho: the Tʾang poet. Waseda University. p. 108.
84.Jump up ^ Eliot Weinberger (2009). Oranges & Peanuts for Sale. New Directions Publishing. p. 254. ISBN 0-8112-1834-1.
85.Jump up ^ Patricia Buckley Ebrey, Anne Walthall, James Palais (2008). Pre-modern East Asia: to 1800: a cultural, social, and political history. Cengage Learning. p. 294. ISBN 0-547-00539-3.
86.Jump up ^ Mohammad Adnan Bakhit (2000). History of humanity. UNESCO. p. 682. ISBN 92-3-102813-8.
87.Jump up ^ Mahler, Jane Gaston (1959). The Westerners among the figurines of the T'ang dynasty of China. Instituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente. p. 204.
88.Jump up ^ Universiṭat Tel-Aviv. Faḳulṭah le-omanuyot (1993). ASSAPH.: Studies in the theatre, Issues 9–12. Faculty of Visual and Performing Arts, Tel Aviv University. p. 89.
89.Jump up ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan) (1961). Memoirs of the Research Department, Issue 20.
90.Jump up ^ Jaschok, Maria and Shui, Jingjun (2000). The history of women's mosques in Chinese Islam: a mosque of their own. Routledge. p. 361. ISBN 0-7007-1302-6.
91.Jump up ^ Walter Joseph Fischel "Semitic and Oriental studies: a volume presented to William Popper, professor of Semitic languages, emeritus, on the occasion of his seventy-fifth birthday, October 29, 1949" University of California Press (1951) p. 407 Multiple women originating from the Persian Gulf lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter, they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦 Po-ssu-fu or Bosifu).
92.Jump up ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. the University of Michigan: The Toyo Bunko. p. 34. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
93.Jump up ^ History of Science Society, Académie internationale d'histoire des sciences (1939). Isis, Volume 30. Publication and Editorial Office, Dept. of History and Sociology of Science, University of Pennsylvania. p. 120.
94.Jump up ^ Yao, YG; Kong, QP; Bandelt, HJ; Kivisild, T; Zhang, YP (2002). "Phylogeographic Differentiation of Mitochondrial DNA in Han Chinese". American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (3): 635–51. doi:10.1086/338999. PMC 384943. PMID 11836649.
95.Jump up ^ Association for Asian studies (Ann Arbor;Michigan) (1976). A-L, Volumes 1–2. Columbia University Press. p. 1022. ISBN 0-231-03801-1.
96.Jump up ^ Chen, Da-Sheng. "CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T'ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
97.Jump up ^ Needham, Joseph (1971). Science and civilisation in China, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 2120. ISBN 0-521-07060-0.
98.Jump up ^ Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. Lexington Books. p. 285. ISBN 0-7391-0375-X.
99.Jump up ^ Gene Expression: Western barbarian + Han women = Hui. Gnxp.com. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
100.Jump up ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 208. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-08-17.
101.Jump up ^ Dru C. Gladney (1996). Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 481. ISBN 0-674-59497-5.
102.Jump up ^ China archaeology and art digest, Volume 3, Issue 4. Art Text (HK) Ltd. 2000. p. 30. Retrieved 2010-08-17.
103.^ Jump up to: a b Christian Science Monitor: "In China, mixed marriages can be a labor of love - In one major Chinese city, marriages between Chinese and Africans are on the rise. In a country known for monoculture, it isn't easy" By Yepoka Yeebo September 21, 2013
104.Jump up ^ "Indian men marrying Chinese women". Times of India.
105.Jump up ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (1998). A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Bishop Henry McNeal Turner Studies in North American Black Religion Series. Volume 2 of A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Volume 2 (Issue 36 of American Society of Missiology series) (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 1-57075-450-0. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
106.Jump up ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (2005). A history of Christianity in Asia, Volume 2 (Issue 36 of American Society of Missiology series) (2 ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 1-57075-450-0. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
107.Jump up ^ Free China Review, Volume 11. W.Y. Tsao. 1961. p. 54. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
108.Jump up ^ Covell, Ralph R. (1998). Pentecost of the Hills in Taiwan: The Christian Faith Among the Original Inhabitants (illustrated ed.). Hope Publishing House. p. 96. ISBN 0-932727-90-5. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
109.Jump up ^ Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan (illustrated ed.). Macmillan. p. 77. ISBN 0-230-61424-8. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
110.Jump up ^ Meiqi Lee (2004). Being Eurasian: memories across racial divides. Hong Kong University Press. p. 262. ISBN 962-209-671-9.
111.Jump up ^ Maria Jaschok, Suzanne Miers, ed. (1994). Women and Chinese patriarchy: submission, servitude, and escape. Zed Books. p. 223. ISBN 1-85649-126-9.
112.Jump up ^ Helen F. Siu (2011). Helen F. Siu, ed. Merchants' Daughters: Women, Commerce, and Regional Culture in South. Hong Kong University Press. p. 305. ISBN 988-8083-48-1. ""The half-caste population of Hongkong were ... almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka women." EJ Eitel, Europe in , the History of Hongkong from the Beginning to the Year 1882 (Taipei: Chen-Wen Publishing Co., originally published in Hong Kong by Kelly and Walsh. 1895, 1968), 169."
113.Jump up ^ Lethbridge, Henry J. (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. "The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day [1895], almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people"
114.Jump up ^ Eitel, Ernest John (1895). Europe in China: the history of Hongkong from the beginning to the year 1882. London: Luzac & Co. p. 169.
115.Jump up ^ Andrew, Elizabeth Wheeler and Bushnell, Katharine Caroline (2006). Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers. Echo Library. p. 11. ISBN 1-4068-0431-2.
116.Jump up ^ John Mark Carroll (2007). A concise history of Hong Kong. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 36. ISBN 0-7425-3422-7. "Most of the Chinese who came to Hong Kong in the early years were from the lower classes, such as laborers, artisans, Tanka outcasts, prostitutes, wanderers, and smugglers. That these people violated orders from authorities in Canton"
117.Jump up ^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. "This exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat"
118.Jump up ^ Peter Hodge (1980). Peter Hodge, ed. Community problems and social work in Southeast Asia: the Hong Kong and Singapore experience. Hong Kong University Press. p. 33. ISBN 962-209-022-2. "exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat"
119.Jump up ^ Weiss, Anita M. (July 1991). "South Asian Muslims in Hong Kong: Creation of a 'Local Boy' Identity". Modern Asian Studies 25 (3): 417–53. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00013895.
120.Jump up ^ Ina Baghdiantz McCabe, Gelina Harlaftis, Iōanna Pepelasē Minoglou (2005). Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History. Berg Publishers. p. 256. ISBN 1-85973-880-X.
121.Jump up ^ Jonathan Porter (1996). Macau, the imaginary city: culture and society, 1557 to the present. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-2836-2.
122.Jump up ^ Annabel Jackson (2003). Taste of Macau: Portuguese Cuisine on the China Coast (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. x. ISBN 962-209-638-7. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
123.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 39: To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. ... but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay – they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman.
124.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Volume 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology (illustrated ed.). Berg. p. 39. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5. Retrieved 2012-03-01. "To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. ... but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay - they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman."
125.Jump up ^ C. A. Montalto de Jesus (1902). Historic Macao (2 ed.). Kelly & Walsh, Limited. p. 41. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
126.Jump up ^ Austin Coates (2009). A Macao Narrative. Volume 1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. Hong Kong University Press. p. 44. ISBN 962-209-077-X. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
127.Jump up ^ Camões Center (Columbia University. Research Institute on International Change) (1989). Camões Center Quarterly, Volume 1. Volume 1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. The Center. p. 29. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
128.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Volume 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology. Berg. p. 39. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5. "When we established ourselves here, the Chinese ostracized us. The Portuguese had their wives, then, that came from abroad, but they could have no contact with the Chinese women, except the fishing folk, the tanka women and the female slaves. Only the lowest class of Chinese contacted with the Portuguese in the first centuries. But later the strength of Christianization, of the priests, started to convince the Chinese to become Catholic. ... But, when they started to be Catholics, they adopted Portuguese baptismal names and were ostracized by the Chinese Buddhists. So they joined the Portuguese community and their sons started having Portuguese education without a single drop of Portuguese blood."
129.^ Jump up to: a b c João De Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: Person, Culture and Emotion in Macao. Volume 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology. Berg. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-0-8264-5749-3.
130.^ Jump up to: a b 9781157453604: Society of Macau: Macanese People, Public Holidays in Macau, Tanka People (Used, New, Out-of-Print). Alibris. Retrieved 2012-01-29.
131.Jump up ^ Christina Miu Bing Cheng (1999). Macau: a cultural Janus. Hong Kong University Press. p. 173. ISBN 962-209-486-4.
132.Jump up ^ Christina Miu Bing Cheng (1999). Macau: a cultural Janus. Hong Kong University Press. p. 170. ISBN 962-209-486-4. "We can trace this fleeting and shallow relationship in Henrique de Senna Fernandes' short story, A-Chan, A Tancareira, (Ah Chan, the Tanka Girl) (1978). Senna Fernandes (1923–), a Macanese, had written a series of novels set against the context of Macau and some of which were made into films."
133.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 52. ISBN 0-8264-6074-7.
134.^ Jump up to: a b Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 52–3. ISBN 0-8264-6074-7.
135.Jump up ^ Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 53. ISBN 0-8264-6074-7.
136.^ Jump up to: a b Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 49. ISBN 0-8264-6074-7.
137.Jump up ^ Michael S. Laver (2011). The Sakoku Edicts and the Politics of Tokugawa Hegemony. Cambria Press. p. 152. ISBN 1-60497-738-8. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
138.Jump up ^ HOFFMAN, MICHAEL (May 26, 2013). "The rarely, if ever, told story of Japanese sold as slaves by Portuguese traders". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2014-03-02.
139.Jump up ^ "Europeans had Japanese slaves, in case you didn't know ...". Japan Probe. May 10, 2007. Retrieved 2014-03-02.
140.Jump up ^ Nelson, Thomas (Winter 2004). "Monumenta Nipponica (Slavery in Medieval Japan)" 59 (No. 4). Sophia University. p. 463. JSTOR 25066328.
141.Jump up ^ Monumenta Nipponica: Studies on Japanese Culture, Past and Present, Volume 59, Issues 3-4. Jōchi Daigaku. Sophia University. 2004. p. 463. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
142.Jump up ^ Michael Weiner, ed. (2004). Race, Ethnicity and Migration in Modern Japan: Imagined and imaginary minorites (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 408. ISBN 0-415-20857-2. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
143.Jump up ^ Kwame Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., ed. (2005). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 479. ISBN 0-19-517055-5. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
144.Jump up ^ Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, ed. (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 187. ISBN 0-19-533770-0. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
145.Jump up ^ "Now, One Out of 20 Marriages are Mixed!". Japan: Behind the Scenes (Hiragana Times). Archived from the original on 2008-06-02. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
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147.Jump up ^ 통계청 홈페이지 주소변경 안내. Nso.go.kr (2009-01-09). Retrieved 2012-05-09.
148.Jump up ^ Shin, Hae-In (2006-08-03). "Korea Greets New Era of Multiculturalism". The Korea Herald. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
149.Jump up ^ '한족여성 최다' (in Korean). News.
150.Jump up ^ Korean Men Use Brokers to Find Brides in Vietnam. NY Times (2007-02-22)
151.Jump up ^ More Koreans Marry Foreigners or Tie the Knot Again. Chosun Ilbo (March 30, 2006)
152.Jump up ^ Asian men seek brides from poorer nations. Usatoday (2008-02-27)
153.Jump up ^ "The Relations Between Korea and India: Korean-Indian Relations in Ancient History." page 3 of 9.
154.Jump up ^ Amit Bhattacharya (May 12, 2002). "The Korean 'sister' of Ayodhya". The Pioneer. Retrieved 2009-09-30.
155.Jump up ^ Lee, Hee-Soo (1991). "Early Korea-Arabic maritime relations based on Muslim sources". Korea Journal 31 (2): 21–32.
156.Jump up ^ "Muslim society in Korea is developing and growing". Pravda. 6 November 2002. Retrieved 2008-12-23.
157.Jump up ^ Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea: A Religious History. Routledge. p. 195. ISBN 0-7007-1605-X.
158.Jump up ^ Baker, Don (Winter 2006). "Islam Struggles for a Toehold in Korea". Harvard Asia Quarterly.
159.Jump up ^ Albert Hyma, Mary Stanton. Streams of civilization 1. Christian Liberty Press. p. 215. ISBN 0-89051-028-8.
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161.Jump up ^ Tarling, Nicholas (1999). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 149. ISBN 0-521-66370-9.
162.Jump up ^ Reid, Anthony (1990). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: The lands below the winds. Volume 1 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Yale University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0300047509. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
163.Jump up ^ MacLeod, Murdo J.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida, eds. (1998). European Intruders and Changes in Behaviour and Customs in Africa, America, and Asia Before 1800. Volume 30 of An Expanding World, the European Impact on World History, 1450-1800 , Vol 30 (Issue 30 of An expanding world) (illustrated, reprint ed.). Ashgate. p. 636. ISBN 086078522X. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
164.Jump up ^ Hughes, Sarah S.; Hughes, Brady, eds. (1995). Women in World History: Readings from prehistory to 1500. Volume 1 of Sources and studies in world history (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 219. ISBN 1563243113. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
165.Jump up ^ Tingley, Nancy (2009). Asia Society. Museum, ed. Arts of Ancient Viet Nam: From River Plain to Open Sea. Andreas Reinecke, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (illustrated ed.). Asia Society. p. 249. ISBN 0300146965. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
166.Jump up ^ Andaya, Barbara Watson (2006). The Flaming Womb: Repositioning Women in Early Modern Southeast Asia (illustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 155. ISBN 0824829557. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
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168.^ Jump up to: a b Andaya, Barbara Watson. (1/1/1998) "From temporary wife to prostitute: sexuality and economic change in early modern Southeast Asia". Journal of Women's History ) (Hawaii University at Manoa, USA) Indiana University Press
169.Jump up ^ Pinkerton, John (1819). A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in Various Parts of America, Volume 1. Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme and Brown. p. 41. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
170.Jump up ^ Peletz, Michael G. (2009). Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 1135954895. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
171.Jump up ^ Dampier, William (1906). Masefield, John, ed. Dampier's voyages: consisting of a New voyage round the world, a Supplement to the Voyage round the world, Two voyages to Campeachy, a Discourse of winds, a Voyage to New Holland, and a Vindication, in answer to the Chimerical relation of William Funnell, Volume 1. E. Grant Richards. p. 393. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
172.Jump up ^ Dampier, William (1729). A Collection Of Voyages: In Four Volumes : Containing I. Captain William Dampier's Voyages Round the World ... II. The Voyages of Lionel Wafer ... III. A Voyage Round the World ... IV. Capt. Cowley's Voyage Round the Globe ... V. Capt. Sharp's Journey Over the Isthmus of Darien ... VI. Capt. Wood's Voyage Through the Streights of Magellan ... VII. Mr. Roberts's Adventures and Sufferings Amongst the Corfairs of the Levant ... ; Illustrated with Maps and Draughts: Also Several Birds, Fishes, and Plants, Not Found in this Part of the World ; Curiously Engraven on Copper-Plates. ¬A New Voyage Round The World : Describing particularly The Isthmus of America, several Coasts and Islands in the West Indies, the Isles of Cape Verde, ... ; Their Soil, Rivers, Harbours, Plants, Fruits, Animals, and Inhabitants ; Their Customs, Religion, Government, Trade, etc, Volume 1. Knapton. p. 395. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
173.Jump up ^ Purves, David Laing, ed. (1874). The English Circumnavigators: The Most Remarkable Voyages Round the World by English Sailors. William P. Nimmo. p. 256. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
174.Jump up ^ Dampier, William (1699). A New Voyage Round the World, Volume 1 (4 ed.). J. Knapton. p. 395. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
175.Jump up ^ Pinkerton, John (1819). A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in Various Parts of Asia: Many of which are Now First Translated Into English : Digested on a New Plan ; Illustr. with Plates, Volume 2. Longman. p. 484. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
176.Jump up ^ Pinkerton, John, ed. (1811). A general collection of ... voyages and travels, digested by J. Pinkerton. p. 484. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
177.Jump up ^ Cope (Captain.) (1754). A New History of the East-Indies: With Brief Observations on the Religion, Customs, Manners and Trade of the Inhabitants. ... With a Map of the Country, and Several Other Copper-plates, ... By Captain Cope. M. Cooper; W. Reeve, and C. Sympson. p. 379. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
178.Jump up ^ Hamilton, Alexander (1997). Smithies, Michael, ed. Alexander Hamilton: A Scottish Sea Captain in Southeast Asia, 1689-1723 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Silkworm Books. p. 205. ISBN 9747100452. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
179.Jump up ^ Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 6. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301.
180.Jump up ^ Lay, Pathi U Ko (1973). "Twentieth Anniversary Special Edition of Islam Damma Beikman". Myanmar Pyi and Islamic religion: 109–11.
181.Jump up ^ Muslim Communities in Myanmar. ColorQ World. ISBN 0-7391-0356-3.
182.Jump up ^ Daniels, Timothy P. (2005). Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia. Routledge. p. 189. ISBN 0-415-94971-8.
183.Jump up ^ Sheela Narayanan (October 17, 2008). "Go ahead, call me Chindian". AsiaOne. Retrieved 2009-10-08.
184.Jump up ^ "Interracial Dating & Marriage". asian-nation.org. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
185.Jump up ^ "Multiracial / Hapa Asian Americans". asian-nation.org. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
186.Jump up ^ Dumanig, Francisco P. (2009) Language Choice and Accommodation Strategies: The Case of Filipino-Malaysian Couples. 8th ISGC.
187.Jump up ^ From Discovery of India by Jawaharlal Nehru, reproduced from "History : Modern India" (p108) by S.N. Sen, New Age Publishers, ISBN 81-224-1774-4
188.Jump up ^ Corbridge, Staurt and Harriss, John (2000). Reinventing India: Liberalization, Hindu Nationalism and Popular Democracy. Polity press. p. 8. ISBN 0-7456-2076-0.
189.Jump up ^ Ayesha Jalal (1995). "Conjuring Pakistan: History as Official Imagining". International Journal of Middle East Studies 27 (1): 73–89. doi:10.1017/S0020743800061596. JSTOR 176188.
190.Jump up ^ *Jim Shaffer – "Current archaeological data do not support the existence of an Indo-Aryan or European invasion into South Asia any time in the pre- or protohistoric periods. Instead, it is possible to document archaeologically a series of cultural changes reflecting indigenous cultural developments from prehistoric to historic periods" Jim Shaffer. The Indo-Aryan Invasions : Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality. *J.P. Mallory – "... the extraordinary difficulty of making a case for expansions from Andronovo to northern India, and that attempts to link the Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent and Vakhsh cultures only gets the Indo-Iranian to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the Medes, Persians or Indo-Aryans". As quoted in Bryant (see below) *Edwin Bryant – "India is not the only Indo-European-speaking area that has not revealed any archaeological traces of immigration."there is at least a series of archaeological cultures that can be traced approaching the Indian subcontinent, even if discontinuous, which does not seem to be the case for any hypothetical east-to-west emigration" Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513777-9.. Bryant, Edwin F.; Patton, Laurie L., eds. (2005). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and inference in Indian history. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1463-4.
191.Jump up ^ Scientists Connect Indian Castes and European Heritage. Scientific American. May 15, 2001.
192.Jump up ^ Basu, Analabha et al. (2003). "Ethnic India: A Genomic View, With Special Reference to Peopling and Structure". Genome Research 13 (10): 2277–90. doi:10.1101/gr.1413403. PMC 403703. PMID 14525929.
193.Jump up ^ Mountain, Joanna L. et al. (April 1995). "Demographic history of India and mtDNA-sequence diversity". American Journal of Human Genetics 56 (4): 979–92. PMC 1801212. PMID 7717409.
194.Jump up ^ Thanseem, Ismail; Thangaraj, Kumarasamy; Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Singh, Vijay; Bhaskar, Lakkakula VKS; Reddy, B Mohan; Reddy, Alla G; Singh, Lalji et al. (2006). "Genetic affinities among the lower castes and tribal groups of India: inference from Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA". BMC Genetics 7: 42. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-7-42. PMC 1569435. PMID 16893451.
195.Jump up ^ Brian Handwerk (2006-01-10). "India Acquired Language, Not Genes, From West, Study Says". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2006-12-08.
196.Jump up ^ Indians are one people descended from two tribes. Dnaindia.com (2009-09-25). Retrieved 2012-05-09.
197.Jump up ^ Kalaydjieva, L.; Morar, B.; Chaix, R. and Tang, H. (2005). "A Newly Discovered Founder Population: The Roma/Gypsies". BioEssays 27 (10): 1084–94. doi:10.1002/bies.20287. PMID 16163730.
198.Jump up ^ Gresham, D; Morar, B; Underhill, PA; Passarino, G; Lin, AA; Wise, C; Angelicheva, D; Calafell, F et al. (1 December 2001). "Origins and Divergence of the Roma (Gypsies)". American Journal of Human Genetics 69 (6): 1314–31. doi:10.1086/324681. PMC 1235543. PMID 11704928.
199.Jump up ^ Sitsayamkan (1967) The Greek Favourite of the King of Siam, Donald Moore Press, p. 17
200.Jump up ^ Keat Gin Ooi (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1070–. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
201.Jump up ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857. Orient Blackswan. pp. 111–9, 129–30, 140, 154–6, 160–8. ISBN 81-7824-154-4.
202.^ Jump up to: a b c Fisher, Michael H. (2007). "Excluding and Including "Natives of India": Early-Nineteenth-Century British-Indian Race Relations in Britain". Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27 (2): 303–314 [304–5]. doi:10.1215/1089201x-2007-007.
203.Jump up ^ CHOWDHURY, RITA (November 18, 2012). "The Assamese Chinese story". The Hindu. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
204.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) DURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, inquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan"
205.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1909). Castes and tribes of southern India, Volume 2 (PDF). Government press. p. 99. Archived from the original on June 21, 2013. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "99 CHINESE-TAMIL CROSS in the Nilgiri jail. It is recorded * that, in 1868, twelve of the Chinamen " broke out during a very stormy night, and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight"
206.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston (2011). The Madras Presidency with Mysore, Coorg and the Associated States (reissue ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 218. ISBN 1107600685. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
207.Jump up ^ RADHAKRISHNAN, D. (April 19, 2014). "Unravelling Chinese link can boost Nilgiris tourism". The Hindu. Archived from the original on April 19, 2014. Retrieved 2014-05-17.http://www.bulletin247.com/english-news/show/unravelling-chinese-link-can-boost-nilgiris-tourism
208.Jump up ^ Raman, A (May 31, 2010). "Chinese in Madras". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
209.Jump up ^ Raman, A (July 12, 2010). "Quinine factory and Malay-Chinese workers". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
210.Jump up ^ "Chinese connection to the Nilgiris to help promote tourism potential". travel News Digest. 2013. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
211.Jump up ^ W. Francis (1908). The Nilgiris. Volume 1 of Madras District Gazetteers (reprint ed.). Logos Press. p. 184. Archived from the original on unknown. Retrieved 2014-05-17. Check date values in: |archivedate= (help)
212.Jump up ^ Madras (India : State) (1908). Madras District Gazetteers, Volume 1. Superintendent, Government Press. p. 184. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
213.Jump up ^ W. Francis (1908). The Nilgiris. Concept Publishing Company. p. 184. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
214.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin ..., Volumes 2-3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "ON A CHINESE-TAMIL CKOSS. Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of 'marriage' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating cofl'ce on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs. The measurements of a single family, excepting a widowed daughter whom I was not permitted to see, and an infant in arms, who was pacified with cake while I investigated its mother, are recorded in the following table:"
215.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba - Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 31. ISBN 81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
216.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin ..., Volumes 2-3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 32. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones. To have recorded the entire series of measurements of the children would have been useless for the purpose of comparison with those of the parents, and I selected from my repertoire the length and breadth of the head and nose, which plainly indicate the paternal influence on the external anatomy of the offspring. The figures given in the table bring out very clearly the great breadth, as compared with the length of the heads of all the children, and the resultant high cephalic index. In other words, in one case a mesaticephalic (79), and, in the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80"1; 801 ; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78-5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Pariah (76"8). How great is the breadth of the head in the children may be emphasised by noting that the average head-breadth of the adult Tamil Pariah man is only 13"7 cm., whereas that of the three boys, aged ten, nine, and five only, was 14 3, 14, and 13"7 cm. respectively. Quite as strongly marked is the effect of paternal influence on the character of the nose; the nasal index, in the case of each child (68"1 ; 717; 727; 68'3), bearing a much closer relation to that of the long nosed father (71'7) than to the typical Pariah nasal index of the broadnosed mother (78-7). It will be interesting to note, hereafter, what is the future of the younger members of this quaint little colony, and to observe the physical characters, temperament, improvement or deterioration, fecundity, and other points relating to the cross-breed resulting from the union of Chinese and Tamil."
217.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba - Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 32. ISBN 81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
218.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 99. ISBN 81-206-0288-9. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to "cut his tail off." The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil paraiyan,"
219.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 98. ISBN 81-206-0288-9. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
220.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 99. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
221.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India), Edgar Thurston (1897). Note on tours along the Malabar coast. Volumes 2-3 of Bulletin, Government Museum (Madras, India). Superintendent, Government Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
222.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1894). Bulletin, Volumes 1-2. Superintendent, Government Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
223.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1894). Bulletin. v. 2 1897-99. Madras : Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
224.Jump up ^ Madras Government Museum Bulletin. Vol II (No. 1). Madras. 1897. p. 31. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
225.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 273. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "Thurston found the Chinese element to be predominant among the offspring as will be evident from his description. 'The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil Paraiyan. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish"
226.Jump up ^ Mahadeb Prasad Basu (1990). An anthropological study of bodily height of Indian population. Punthi Pustak. p. 84. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "Sarkar (1959) published a pedigree showing Tamil-Chinese-English crosses in a place located in the Nilgiris. Thurston (1909) mentioned an instance of a mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female. Man (Deka 1954) described"
227.Jump up ^ Man in India, Volumes 34-35. A. K. Bose. 1954. p. 272. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male ) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883)."
228.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 272. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male ) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883)."
229.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 100. ISBN 81-206-0288-9. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80-1 ; 80-1 ; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78•5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Paraiyan (76-8)."
230.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* ( Received on 21 September 1959 ) iURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, enquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan"
231.Jump up ^ The Caucasus as an asymmetric semipermeable barrier to ancient human migrations Yunusbayev, B.; Metspalu, M.; Jarve, M.; Kutuev, I.; Rootsi, S.; Metspalu, E.; Behar, D. M.; Varendi, K. et al. (2011). "The Caucasus as an Asymmetric Semipermeable Barrier to Ancient Human Migrations". Molecular Biology and Evolution 29 (1): 359–65. doi:10.1093/molbev/msr221. PMID 21917723.
232.Jump up ^ Dienekes' Anthropology Blog: The Caucasus revisited (Yunusbayev et al. 2011). Dienekes.blogspot.co.uk (2011-09-14). Retrieved 2013-06-22.
233.^ Jump up to: a b Enloe, Cynthia H. (2000). Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women's Lives. University of California Press. p. 61. ISBN 0-520-22071-4.
234.^ Jump up to: a b Greenhut, Jeffrey (April 1981). "Race, Sex, and War: The Impact of Race and Sex on Morale and Health Services for the Indian Corps on the Western Front, 1914". Military Affairs (Society for Military History) 45 (2): 71–74. doi:10.2307/1986964. JSTOR 1986964.
235.Jump up ^ Levine, Philippa (1998). "Battle Colors: Race, Sex, and Colonial Soldiery in World War I". Journal of Women's History 9.
236.Jump up ^ Dowling, Timothy C. (2006). Personal Perspectives: World War I. ABC-CLIO. pp. 35–6. ISBN 1-85109-565-9.
237.^ Jump up to: a b Omissi, David (2007). "Europe Through Indian Eyes: Indian Soldiers Encounter England and France, 1914–1918". English Historical Review (Oxford University Press). CXXII (496): 371–96. doi:10.1093/ehr/cem004.
238.Jump up ^ Xin Meng, Dominique Meurs (January 2007). "Intermarriage, Language, and Economic Assimilation Process: A Case Study of France". Institute for the Study of Labor. p. 5. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
239.^ Jump up to: a b c d "Low Rate of German-Turkish Marriages Impedes Integration". Deutsche Welle. 2008-02-24. Retrieved 2009-01-12.
240.Jump up ^ Thomas F. Glick, Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages
241.Jump up ^ Ivan van Sertima (1992), Golden Age of the Moor, Transaction Publishers, ISBN 1-56000-581-5
242.Jump up ^ Kees Versteegh, et al. Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, BRILL, 2006.
243.Jump up ^ Izquierdo Labrado, Julio. "La esclavitud en Huelva y Palos (1570–1587)" (in Spanish). Retrieved 2008-07-14.
244.Jump up ^ Salloum, Habeeb. "The impact of the Arabic language and culture on English and other European languages". The Honorary Consulate of Syria. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
245.Jump up ^ Robert Lacey (1983), Aristocrats, p. 67, Little, Brown and Company
246.Jump up ^ Sá, Lúcia. Rain Forest Literatures: Amazonian Texts and Latin American Culture. Minneapolis, Minnesota: U of Minnesota Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-8166-4325-7
247.Jump up ^ Helgason, A; Hickey, E; Goodacre, S; Bosnes, V; Stefánsson, K; Ward, R; Sykes, B (2001). "mtDNA and the Islands of the North Atlantic: Estimating the Proportions of Norse and Gaelic Ancestry". American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (3): 723–37. doi:10.1086/318785. PMC 1274484. PMID 11179019.
248.Jump up ^ Helgason, A; Sigureth Ardóttir, S; Gulcher, JR; Ward, R; Stefánsson, K (2000). "mtDNA and the Origin of the Icelanders: Deciphering Signals of Recent Population History". American Journal of Human Genetics 66 (3): 999–1016. doi:10.1086/302816. PMC 1288180. PMID 10712214.
249.Jump up ^ Ellrodt, AG; Conner, L; Riedinger, MS; Weingarten, S; Hill, Emmeline W.; Bradley, Daniel G.; Bosnes, Vidar; Gulcher, Jeffery R. et al. (2000). "Estimating Scandinavian and Gaelic Ancestry in the Male Settlers of Iceland". American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (12): 697–717. doi:10.1086/303046. PMC 1287529. PMID 10931763.
250.Jump up ^ ''Icelanders, a diverse bunch?''. Genomenewsnetwork.org (2000-08-11). Retrieved 2012-05-09.
251.Jump up ^ Emma Blake, Emma (2008). "The Familiar Honeycomb: Byzantine Era Reuse of Sicily's Prehistoric Rock-Cut Tombs". In Ruth M. Van Dyke, Susan E. Alcock. Archaeologies of Memory. Blackwell Publishers. p. 201. doi:10.1002/9780470774304.ch10. ISBN 978-0-470-77430-4.
252.Jump up ^ https://books.google.it/books?id=sQZ9hpwtiHkC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=cepit+seditionem+in+Sicilia+excitare,+terram+de+demanio+regis+invadere+et+Sarracenos+ubicumque+invenire+poterat+trucidare&source=bl&ots=l0O4VrbB-w&sig=36vleB1t_SKWDGsaFe2lfOftJok&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAWoVChMI14ja_uOCxgIVIsByCh2mggB4#v=onepage&q=cepit%20seditionem%20in%20Sicilia%20excitare%2C%20terram%20de%20demanio%20regis%20invadere%20et%20Sarracenos%20ubicumque%20invenire%20poterat%20trucidare&f=false
253.Jump up ^ Alex E. Felice, "Genetic origin of contemporary Maltese," The Sunday Times (of Malta), 5 August 2007, last visited 5 August 2007
254.Jump up ^ According to Alessandro Vezzosi, Head of the Leonardo Museum in Vinci, there is evidence that Piero owned a Middle Eastern slave called Caterina who gave birth to a boy called Leonardo. That Leonardo had Middle Eastern blood is supported by the reconstruction of a fingerprint: Falconi, Marta (2006-12-01). "Experts Reconstruct Leonardo Fingerprint". The Associated Press.
255.Jump up ^ Donald Quataert (2000). The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-521-63328-1.
256.Jump up ^ Jay Winik (2007), The Great Upheaval, Harper Perennial, ISBN 0-06-008314-X.
257.Jump up ^ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1244654/Study-finds-Britons-descended-farmers-left-Iraq-Syria-10-000-years-ago.html
258.Jump up ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857. Orient Blackswan. pp. 106, 111–6, 119–20, 129–35, 140–2, 154–6, 160–8, 172, 181. ISBN 81-7824-154-4.
259.Jump up ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). "Working across the Seas: Indian Maritime Labourers in India, Britain, and in Between, 1600–1857". International Review of Social History 51: 21–45. doi:10.1017/S0020859006002604.
260.Jump up ^ Radhakrishnan Nayar (January 5, 2003). "The lascars' lot". The Hindu. Retrieved 2009-01-16.
261.Jump up ^ Ansari, Humayun (2004). The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 37. ISBN 1-85065-685-1.
262.Jump up ^ "Growing Up". Moving Here. Retrieved 2009-02-12.
263.Jump up ^ Laura Levine Frader, Sonya O. Rose (1996). Gender and Class in Modern Europe. Cornell University Press. p. 184. ISBN 0-8014-8146-5.
264.Jump up ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857. Orient Blackswan. pp. 180–2. ISBN 81-7824-154-4.
265.^ Jump up to: a b c Ansari, Humayun (2004). The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 93–4. ISBN 1-85065-685-1.
266.Jump up ^ Bland, Lucy (April 2005). "White Women and Men of Colour: Miscegenation Fears in Britain after the Great War". Gender & History 17 (1): 29–61. doi:10.1111/j.0953-5233.2005.00371.x.
267.Jump up ^ Jackson, Louise Ainsley (2006). Women Police: Gender, Welfare and Surveillance in the Twentieth Century. Manchester University Press. p. 154. ISBN 0-7190-7390-1.
268.Jump up ^ A White Side of Black Britain (2011) by France Winddance Twine Routledge
269.Jump up ^ UK Chinese. Sacu.org (2006-01-23). Retrieved 2013-06-22.
270.Jump up ^ "Inter-Ethnic Marriage: 2% of all Marriages are Inter-Ethnic". National Statistics. 2005-03-21. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
271.Jump up ^ Love across the divide: interracial relationships growing in Britain, The Telegraph 3 Jul 2014
272.Jump up ^ Memorandum to British Cabinet by Patrick Gordon Walker, Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations, July 19, 1949.
273.Jump up ^ Redfern, John (1955). "An appeal". Ruth and Seretse: "A Very Disreputable Transaction". London: Victor Gollancz. p. 221. "The British government knew well enough, throughout the dispute, that the Union [of South Africa]'s Nationalist Government was playing up the theme of the protectorates, and that it was within the Union's power to apply economic sanctions at any time. (The latest available figures show that more than half the cattle exported from Bechuanaland go to the Union ...)"
274.Jump up ^ Rider, Clare (2003). "The "Unfortunate Marriage" of Seretse Khama". The Inner Temple Yearbook 2002/2003. Inner Temple. Archived from the original on 2006-07-19. Retrieved 2006-08-06. "Under the provisions of the South Africa Act of 1909, the Union laid claim to the neighbouring tribal territories and, as the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations pointed out to the Cabinet in 1949, the 'demand for this transfer might become more insistent if we disregard the Union government's views'. He went on, 'indeed, we cannot exclude the possibility of an armed incursion into the Bechuanaland Protectorate from the Union if Serestse were to be recognised forthwith, while feeling on the subject is inflamed'."
275.Jump up ^ Rider, Clare (2003). "The "Unfortunate Marriage" of Seretse Khama". The Inner Temple Yearbook 2002/2003. Inner Temple. Archived from the original on 2006-07-19. Retrieved 2006-08-06. "Since, in their opinion, friendly and co-operative relations with South Africa and Rhodesia were essential to the well-being of the Bamangwato Tribe and the whole of the Protectorate, Serestse, who enjoyed neither, could not be deemed fit to rule. They concluded: 'We have no hesitation in finding that, but for his unfortunate marriage, his prospects as Chief are as bright as those of any native in Africa with whom we have come into contact'."
276.^ Jump up to: a b c d McFadden, J., Moore, J.L. (2001). International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling 23 (4): 261–268. doi:10.1023/A:1014420107362. Missing or empty |title= (help)
277.^ Jump up to: a b Communicating Across Cultures. Culture-at-work.com (2003-07-23). Retrieved 2012-05-09.
278.^ Jump up to: a b "Interracial Couples". Archived from the original on 2007-10-15. Retrieved 2010-01-13.
279.Jump up ^ A White Side of Black Britain: Interracial Intimacy and Racial Literacy, in Ethnic and Racial Studies, (a special issue on racial hierarchy) vol. 27, no. 6 (November, 2004): 1-30.
280.Jump up ^ Donovan, S. (2004) Stress and coping techniques in successful intercultural marriages. Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1–87.
281.Jump up ^ Thompson J, Collier M (2006). "Toward Contingent Understandings of Intersecting Identifications among Selected U.S. Interracial Couples: Integrating Interpretive and Critical Views". Communication Quarterly 54 (4): 487–506. doi:10.1080/01463370601036671.
External links[edit]
A Black Nurse, a German Soldier and an Unlikely WWII Romance, The New York Times


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Interracial marriage

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Othello, the Moor and Desdemona, his Venetian wife, from William Shakespeare's Othello.
Interracial marriage occurs when two people of differing racial groups marry. This is often a form of exogamy (marrying outside of one's social group), and can be seen in the broader context of miscegenation (mixing of different racial groups in marriage, cohabitation or sexual relations).


Contents  [hide]
1 Legality of interracial marriage
2 Americas 2.1 United States 2.1.1 Hawaii
2.2 Canada
2.3 Latin America
2.4 Peru
2.5 Cuba
2.6 Mexico
2.7 Costa Rica
2.8 Venezuela
2.9 Jamaica
3 Africa and Middle East 3.1 Nigeria
3.2 Middle East and North Africa
3.3 Sub-Saharan Africa
3.4 South Africa
3.5 Indian Ocean islands
4 Australia
5 Asia 5.1 Central Asia
5.2 Eastern Asia 5.2.1 China
5.2.2 Taiwan 5.2.2.1 Hong Kong
5.2.2.2 Macau
5.2.3 Japan
5.2.4 Korea
5.3 Southeast Asia 5.3.1 Vietnam
5.3.2 Burma
5.3.3 Malaysia and Singapore
5.3.4 Philippines
5.4 South Asia
6 Europe 6.1 Balkans
6.2 Caucasus
6.3 France
6.4 Germany
6.5 Iberian Peninsula 6.5.1 Portuguese colonies
6.6 Iceland
6.7 Italian Peninsula
6.8 Ottoman Empire
6.9 United Kingdom
7 Intercultural marriage complications 7.1 Family and society
7.2 Communication style
7.3 Management
8 Interracial marriage benefits
9 See also
10 References
11 External links

Legality of interracial marriage[edit]
Main article: Anti-miscegenation laws
In the Western world certain jurisdictions have had regulations banning or restricting interracial marriage in the past, including Germany during the Nazi period, South Africa under apartheid, and many states in the United States prior to a 1967 Supreme Court decision.
Americas[edit]
United States[edit]
Main article: Interracial marriage in the United States



 U.S States, by the date of repeal of anti-miscegenation laws:
  No laws passed
  Repealed before 1887
  Repealed between 1948 and 1967
  Overturned on 12 June 1967
Interracial marriage in the United States has been fully legal in all U.S. states since the 1967 Supreme Court decision that deemed anti-miscegenation laws unconstitutional, with many states choosing to legalize interracial marriage at much earlier dates. Anti-miscegenation laws have played a large role in defining racial identity and enforcing the racial hierarchy. The United States has many ethnic and racial groups, and interracial marriage is fairly common among most of them. Interracial marriages increased from 2% of married couples in 1970 to 7% in 2005[1][2] and 8.4% in 2010.[3]
The 2010 Pew Research Center Report (U.S. Census Bureau's 2010 American Community Survey) found that record 15.1% of all new marriages in the United States were between spouses of a different race or ethnicity from one another. Furthermore, the 2008 Pew Survey found more than a third of adults (35%) say they have a family member who is married to someone of a different race. And, most Americans say they approve of racial or ethnic intermarriage – not just in the abstract, but in their own families. More than six-in-ten say it would be fine with them if a family member told them they were going to marry someone from any of three major race/ethnic groups other than their own and over 70% approve of interacial marriage in general.[4]
Interracial marriages in the U.S. have climbed to 4.8 million (1 in 12 marriages) in 2010[3] as a steady flow of new Asian and Hispanic immigrants expands the pool of prospective spouses.[5] Blacks are now substantially more likely than before to marry whites.[3] In 2010, 15% of new marriages were interracial.[3] In 2010, 25% of Asians, 25% of Hispanics, 17.1% of blacks, and 9.4% of whites married interracially.[3] Of the 275,500 new interracial marriages in 2010, 43% were white-Hispanic couples, 14.4% were white-Asian, 11.9% were white-black, and the remainder were other combinations.[6]
Although the anti-miscegenation laws have been revoked, the social stigma related to Black interracial marriages still exists in today's society. Research by Tucker and Mitchell-Kerman from 1990 has shown that Blacks intermarry far less than any other non-White group[7] and in 2010, only 17.1% of Blacks married interracially, a rate far lower than the rates for Hispanics and Asians.[3] Black interracial marriages in particular engender problems associated with racist attitudes and perceived relational inappropriateness.[8] There is also a sharp gender imbalance to Black interracial marriages: In 2008, 22% of all black male newlyweds married interracially while only 9% of black female newlyweds married outside their race, making them the least likely of any race or gender to marry outside their race and the least likely to get married at all.[9]
In the mid 19th to 20th centuries, the Chinese that migrated were almost entirely of Cantonese origin. Hundreds of thousands of Chinese men in the U.S, mostly of Cantonese origin from Taishan migrated to the United States. Anti-miscegenation laws in many states prohibited Chinese men from marrying white women.[10] After the Emancipation Proclamation, many intermarriages in some states were not recorded and historically, Chinese American men married African American women in high proportions to their total marriage numbers due to few Chinese American women being in the United States. After the Emancipation Proclamation, many Chinese Americans immigrated to the Southern states, particularly Arkansas, to work on plantations. For example, in 1880, the tenth US Census of Louisiana alone counted 57% of interracial marriages between these Chinese Americans to be with African Americans and 43% to be with European American women.[11] Between 20 and 30 percent of the Chinese who lived in Mississippi married black women before 1940.[12] In a genetic study of 199 samples from African American males found one belong to haplogroup O2a ( or 0.5% )[13] It was discovered by historian Henry Louis Gates, Jr in the African American Lives documentary miniseries that NASA astronaut Mae Jemison has a significant (above 10%) genetic East Asian admixture. Gates speculated that the intermarriage/relations between migrant Chinese workers during the 19th century and black, or African-American slaves or ex-slaves may have contributed to her ethnic genetic make-up. In the mid 1850s, 70 to 150 Chinese were living in New York City and 11 of them married Irish women. In 1906 the New York Times (6 August) reported that 300 white women (Irish American) were married to Chinese men in New York, with many more cohabited. In 1900, based on Liang research, of the 120,000 men in more than 20 Chinese communities in the United States, he estimated that one out of every twenty Chinese men (Cantonese) was married to white women.[14] In the 1960s census showed 3500 Chinese men married to white women and 2900 Chinese women married to white men.[15]
Hawaii[edit]
The majority of the Hawaiian Chinese were Cantonese migrants from Guangdong with minority from Hakka. If all people with Chinese ancestry in Hawaii (including the Chinese-Hawaiians) are included, they form about 1/3 of Hawaii's entire population. Many thousands of them married women of Hawaiian, Hawaiian/European and European origin. A large percentage of the Chinese men married Hawaiian and Hawaiian/European women, while a minority married white women in Hawaii who were of Portuguese descent. The 12592 Asiatic-Hawaiians enumerated in 1930 were the result of Chinese men intermarrying with Hawaiian and part Hawaiian/European. Most Asiatic-Hawaiians men also married Hawaiians and European women (and vice versa). On the census, some Chinese with little native blood would be classified as Chinese – not as Asiatic-Hawaiians – due to dilution of native blood. Intermarriage started to decline in the 1920s.[16] Portuguese and other caucasian women married Chinese men.[17][18] The unions between Chinese men and Portuguese women resulted in children of mixed Chinese Portuguese parentage, called Chinese-Portuguese. For two years to June 30, 1933, 38 of these children who were born were classified as pure Chinese because their fathers were Chinese.[19] A large amount of mingling took place between Chinese and Portuguese, Chinese men married Portuguese, Spanish, Hawaiian, Caucasian-Hawaiian, etc.[20][21][22][23] Only one Chinese man was recorded marrying an American woman.[24][25] Chinese men in Hawaii also married Puerto Rican, Portuguese, Japanese, Greek, and half-white women.[26][27]
Canada[edit]
In Canada, 2011, 4.6% of all civil unions are interracial ones, an 18% increase from 2006 (3.9%), and a 77% increase from 1991 (2.6%).[28] Vancouver, BC reported the highest rate of interracial unions, at 9.6%, and Toronto, ON in second place at 8.2%. Major census metropolitan areas had higher frequencies of mixed unions (6.0%) compared to areas that were not classified as such (1.0%). Younger people were more likely to be in a mixed union; the highest proportion of couples in mixed unions was among persons aged 25 to 34 (7.7%), 35 to 44 (6.8%), 15 to 24 (6.1%), 45 to 54 (4.1%), and 55 and over (2.7%).[28]
The 2006 study had an interesting find, that people born in Canada were more likely to marry someone of another race as opposed to those who immigrated there;[29] only 12% of first generation immigrant visible minorities were in a mixed union, this figure is higher for second generation immigrants (51%) and three or more generation immigrants (69%). There are a few examples of this:
1.63% of Canadian-born Blacks (who were in couples) were in mixed unions, while the numbers for Blacks born in the Caribbean and Bermuda (17%), and Africa (13%) were much lower percentages.
2.For Chinese people born in Canada, 54% (who were in couples) were with someone non-Chinese (it's not noted if this figure refers to anyone who is not East Asian (race), or just not Chinese (nationality)), compared to only 3% of those born in China who immigrated to Canada.
3.33% of South Asian Canadians who were born in Canada, were in a mixed union, compared to only 3% of those who were born in South Asia.
One theory for this may include that those who immigrate as adults, may have already found a partner before immigrating to Canada.[29]
Certain visible minority groups had higher rates of being in mixed unions;
78.7% of Japanese
64.9% of multiracial people
48.2% of Latin Americans
40.2% of Blacks
29.8% of Filipinos
25.4% of Arabs / West Asians
22.5% of Koreans
21.9% of Southeast Asians (other than Filipinos)
19.4% of Chinese
13.0% of South Asians
52.4% of other groups;
There are no statistics that show data for Whites or Aboriginals.
The 2006 study also stated that same-sex couples are about 2.5 times more likely to be in an interracial marriage as opposed to opposite-sex couples, 9.8% of same-sex marriages are interracial.[29] There were some theories as to why; same-sex marriage in Canada become legal in 2005, whereas opposite sex marriage was always legal, and it also mentions that same-sex couples are more likely to be in common-law marriages, and common-law marriages had a higher frequency of mixed unions.
One study done by Reg Bibby found that 92% of Canadians are accepting of interracial marriages.[30]
See also: Metis people (Canada)
Latin America[edit]
In Latin America, much of the population are descended from Amerindians, Europeans and Africans. They formed the Mestizo and Mulatto populations that populate the countries in Latin America. Intermarriage and inter-relations occurred on a larger scale than most places in the world. In some countries, Asian immigrants have also intermarried among the groups. About 300,000 Cantonese coolies and migrants (almost all males) were shipped 1849 to 1874 Latin America, many of them intermarried and cohabited with the Black, Mestizo, and European population of Cuba, Peru, Guyana, Trinidad. Around 20,000 Mostly Cantonese and some Hakka coolies migrated to Jamaica, Guyana, Trinidad. Many of them also intermarried with Black women and East Indian women. Unlike in Trinidad Tobago and Guyana who were predominantly Cantonese men who intermarried with Black women. In Jamaica, the Chinese who married Black women were almost all Hakka. According to the 1946 Census from Jamaica and Trinidad alone, 12,394 Chinese were located between Jamaica and Trinidad. 5,515 of those who lived in Jamaica were Chinese Jamaican and another 3,673 were Chinese-Trinidadians living in Trinidad.[31] In Jamaica and other Caribbean nations as well many Chinese males over past generations took up African wives, gradually assimilating or absorbing many Chinese descendants into the African Caribbean community or the overall mixed-race community.[32] In Guyana, the Chinese were mostly Cantonese men and who intermarried with the local women. Because almost all of the Chinese indentured immigrants were men, they tended to intermarry with both East Indians and Africans, and thus the Chinese of Guyana did not remain as physically distinct as other groups.[33]
Peru[edit]
See also: Chinese Peruvian
About 100,000 Cantonese coolies (almost all males) in 1849 to 1874 migrated to Peru and intermarried with Peruvian women of mestizo, European, Amerindian, European/mestizo, African and mulatto origin. Many Peruvian Chinese today are of mixed Chinese, Spanish, African, Amerindian. Estimates for Chinese-Peruvian is about 1.3 – 1.6 millions. Asian Peruvians are estimated to be 3% of the population, but one source places the number of citizens with some Chinese ancestry at 4.2 million, which equates to 15% of the country's total population.
Cuba[edit]
See also: Chinese Cuban
120,000 Cantonese coolies (all males) entered Cuba under contract for 80 years, most did not marry, but Hung Hui (1975) cites there was frequent sexual activity between black women and Cantonese coolies. According to Osberg (1965) the free Chinese conducted the practice of buying slave women and freeing them expressly for marriage. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Chinese men (Cantonese) engaged in sexual activity with white Cuban women and black Cuban women, and from such relations many children were born.[34]
In the 1920s an additional 30,000 Cantonese and small groups of Japanese also arrived; both immigrations were exclusively male, and there was rapid with white, black, and mulato populations.[35]
In the study of Genetic origin, admixture, and asymmetry in maternal and paternal human lineages in Cuba. Thirty-five Y-chromosome SNPs were typed in the 132 male individuals of the Cuban sample. The study does not include any people with some Chinese ancestry. All the samples were White Cubans and Black Cubans. 2 out of 132 male sample belong to East Asian Haplogroup O2 which is found in significant frequencies among Cantonese people is found in 1.5% of Cuban population.[36]
Mexico[edit]
See also: Chinese immigration to Mexico
The Chinese who migrated to Mexico in the 19th to 20th centuries were almost entirely Cantonese men. They married Mexican women, which led to anti-Chinese prejudice; many were expelled, while those who were allowed to stay intermarried with the Mexican population. The Mexicali officials estimate was that slightly more than 2,000 are full-blooded Chinese and about 8,000 are mixed-blood Chinese-Mexicans. Other estimates claimed 50,000 residents more than thought who are of Chinese descent. 10,000 full-blooded Chinese, down from 35,000 in the 1920s.[37] Marriage of these people to full-blooded Mexicans is diluting the community further.[37] Chinese Mexicans in Mexicali consider themselves equally "cachanilla," a term used for locals, as any other resident of the city, even if they speak Cantonese in addition to Spanish. The sentiment against Chinese men was due to (and almost all Chinese immigrants in Mexico were men) stealing employment and Mexican women from Mexican men who had gone off to fight in the Revolution or in World War I.[38] In San Luis Potosí there is 3.45% of O-M175 which is common marker among Chinese, East Asian, Southeast Asian and Central Asian to an extent.[39]
Costa Rica[edit]
See also: Chinese people in Costa Rica
The Chinese originated from the Cantonese male migrants. Pure Chinese make up only 1% of the Costa Rican population, but according to Jacqueline M. Newman, as close to 10% of the people in Costa Rica are Chinese, if we count the people who are Chinese, married to a Chinese person, or of mixed Chinese descent.[40] Most Chinese immigrants since then have been Cantonese, but in the last decades of the 20th century, a number of immigrants have also come from Taiwan. Many men came alone to work and married Costa Rican women and speak Cantonese. However the majority of the descendants of the first Chinese immigrants no longer speak Cantonese and feel themselves to be Costa Ricans.[41] They married Tican women (a blend of Europeans, Caztizos, Mestizos, Indian, and Black).[42] A Tican is also a White person with a small portion of non-white blood like Caztizos. The census of 1989 shows about 98% of Costa Ricans were either white, Castizos or Mestizos, with 80% being white or Caztizos.
Venezuela[edit]
See also: Chinese Venezuelan
Marriages between European, Mestizo, Amerindians, and Africans was not uncommon in the past. Several thousand Chinese from Enping resided in the country. The Chinese were still largely viewed as a foreign population who married foreign brides but seldom integrated into Venezuelan society.[43]
Jamaica[edit]
See also: Chinese Jamaicans
Many thousands of Chinese men (mostly Hakka) and Indian men married local Jamaican women. The study "Y-chromosomal diversity in Haiti and Jamaica: Contrasting levels of sex-biased gene flow" shows the paternal Chinese haplogroup O-M175 at a frequency of 3.8% in local Jamaicans ( non-Chinese Jamaicans) including the Indian H-M69 (0.6%) and L-M20 (0.6%) in local Jamaicans.[44] Among the country's most notable Afro-Asians are reggae singers Sean Paul, Tami Chynn and Diana King.
Africa and Middle East[edit]
Nigeria[edit]
Historically speaking, interracial relationships in Nigerian culture are less common, particularly among the heavily traditional Igbo people where the general belief is that people should marry within the tribe. In modern times, it is slowly becoming more acceptable, but there are still many who adhere to the ways of old.
Middle East and North Africa[edit]
Interracial marriage between Arab men and their non-Arab harem slave girls was common in the Arab world during the Arab slave trade, which lasted throughout the Middle Ages and early modern period.[45] Most of these slaves came from places such as Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj) the North Caucasus,[46] Central Asia (mainly Tartars), and Central and Europe (mainly Slavs from Serbia – Saqaliba, Spain, France, Italy).[47][48][49] The Barbary pirates from North Africa captured and enslaved 1.25 million white slaves from Western Europe and North America between the 16th and 19th centuries.[50][51] Outside the Arab world, it was also common for Arab conquerors, traders and explorers to intermarry with local females in the lands they conquered or traded with, in various different parts of Africa, Asia (see Asia section) and Europe (see Europe section).
From AD 839, Viking Varangian mercenaries who were in the service of the Byzantine Empire, notably Harald Sigurdsson, campaigned in North Africa, Jerusalem and other places in the Middle East during the Byzantine-Arab Wars. They interbred with the local population as spoils of warfare or through eventual settling with many Scandinavian Viking men taking Arab or Anatolian women as wives. There is archaeological evidence the Vikings had established contact with the city of Baghdad, at the time the center of the Islamic Empire, and connected with the populace there.[52] Regularly plying the Volga with their trade goods (furs, tusks, seal fat, seal boats and notably female slaves; the one period in the history of the slave-trade when females were priced higher than males), the Vikings were active in the Arab slave trade at the time.[53] These slaves, most often Europeans that were captured from the coasts of Europe or during war periods,[54] and sold to Arabic traders in Al-Andalus and the Emirate of Sicily.
Intermarriage was accepted in Arab society, though only if the husband was Muslim. It was a fairly common theme in medieval Arabic literature and Persian literature. For example, the Persian poet Nizami, who married his Central Asian Kipchak slave girl, wrote The Seven Beauties (1196). Its frame story involves a Persian prince marrying seven foreign princesses, who are Byzantine, Chinese, Indian, Khwarezmian, Maghrebian, Slavic and Tartar. Hadith Bayad wa Riyad, a 12th-century Arabic tale from Al-Andalus, was a love story involving an Iberian girl and a Damascene man. The Arabian Nights tale of "The Ebony Horse" involves the Prince of Persia, Qamar al-Aqmar, rescuing his lover, the Princess of Sana'a, from the Byzantine Emperor who also wishes to marry her.[55]
At times, some marriages would have a major impact on the politics of the region. The most notable example was the marriage of As-Salih Ayyub, the Sultan of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty, to Shajar al-Durr, a slave of Turkic origin from Central Asia. Following her husband's death, she became the Sultana of Egypt and the first Mamluk ruler. Her reign marked the end of the Ayyubid dynasty and the beginning of the Mameluk era, when a series of former Mamluk slaves would rule over Egypt and occasionally other neighbouring regions.[56][57][58][59]
Sub-Saharan Africa[edit]



President Ian Khama of Botswana, son of a Motswana man Sir Seretse Khama and an Englishwoman Ruth Williams Khama
Africa has a long history of interracial mixing with Arabs and later Europeans having sexual relations with black Africans. Arabs played a big role in the African slave trade and unlike the trans-atlantic trade most of the black African slaves in the Arab slave trade were women. Most of them were used as sexual slaves by the Arab men and some were taken as wives.
In the former Lusophone Africa (now known as Angola, Mozambique and Cape Verde) racial mixing between white Portuguese and black Africans was fairly common, especially in Cape Verde where the majority of the population is of mixed descent.
There have been several cases of Chinese merchants and laborers marrying black African women as many Chinese workers were employed to build railways and other infrastructural projects in Africa. These labour groups were made up completely of men with very few Chinese women coming to Africa. In Réunion and Madagascar, intermarriage between Chinese men of Cantonese origin and African women is not uncommon.[60]
South Africa[edit]
There is a significant mixed race population, the result of mostly European and African unions, in South Africa, called Coloureds. The term Coloured is also used to describe persons of mixed race in Namibia, to refer to those of part Khoisan, part white descent. The Basters of Namibia constitute a separate ethnic group that are sometimes considered a sub-group of the Coloured population of that country.
Interracial marriage was banned under apartheid. Today there are a number of high profile interracial couples in South Africa, such as the union of Matthew Booth, a white football player, and his wife Sonia Bonneventia, a black former Miss South Africa first princess and international model,[61] and Bryan Habana, a coloured South African rugby union player, and his white wife Janine Viljoen.[62]
Indian Ocean islands[edit]
In the late 19th to early 20th century, Chinese men in Mauritius married Indian women.[63][64] The 1921 census in Mauritius counted that Indian women there had a total of 148 children with Chinese men.[65][66][67]
Australia[edit]
See also: Demographics of Australia
The Australian Government does not release information on the ethnicities of marriage partners, but provide information on their countries of birth.
In 2009 there were 120,118 marriages recorded in Australia. About 42% involved at least one partner who was not Australian-born.
15% of Australian-born women, and 17.4% of Australian-born men, married somebody who was not Australian-born.
American (68%), Greek (62%) and Irish-born (62%) women were the most likely to marry an Australian-born man than a man born elsewhere.
Indian (12%), Chinese (16%) and 'other South and East Asia'-born (16%) women were the least likely to marry an Australian-born man than a man born elsewhere.
American (63%), Lebanese (62%) and Irish-born (62%) men were the most likely to marry an Australian-born woman than a woman born elsewhere.
Chinese (2%), 'other North Asia' (7%) and Vietnamese-born (8%) men were the least likely to marry an Australian-born woman than a woman born elsewhere.
Chinese-born men were the most likely to marry a woman from the same country (91%).
Indigenous Australians have a high interracial marriage rate. According to the 2000 Census in 1996, 64% of all married or de facto married couples involving an Indigenous person were mixed (i.e., only one partner was indigenous). In 55% of such couples, the Indigenous partner was female.[68]
Most of the early Chinese-Australia population was formed by Cantonese migrants from Guangzhou and Taishan, including some from Fujian, who came during the goldrush period of the 1850s. Marriage records show that between the 1850s and around the start of the 20th century, there were about 2000 legal marriages between white women and migrant Chinese men in Australia's eastern colonies, probably with similar numbers involved in de facto relationships of various kinds (ex: cohabitation, sexual intimacy).[69] The number of intermarriages declined, as stories of viciousness and the seduction of white women grew, mixed with opposition to intermarriage. Rallies against Chinese men taking white women became widespread, as many Australian men saw the Chinese men intermarrying and cohabiting with white women as a threat to the white race. In late 1878 there were 181 marriages between European women and Chinese men, and 171 couples cohabiting without matrimony, resulting in 586 Eurasian children.[70] Such numbers of intermarriage would continue until the 1880s and the 1930s.
Asia[edit]
Number of individuals married outside their ethnic group

Ethnic group
Males
Females

1999
2007
2008
1999
2007
2008

Total
18,402 26,632 24,243 18,402 26,632 24,243
Kazakh 2,199 4,981 4,785 1,542 4,062 3,874
Russian 5,957 7,795 6,991 7,431 9,714 8,544
Uzbek 240 714 657 200 600 537
Ukrainian 2,717 3,070 2,555 2,541 2,858 2,466
Uighur 269 658 655 224 530 525
Tatar 948 1,682 1,425 938 1,651 1,413
German 2,844 2,365 2,048 3,137 2,566 2,270
Other 3,180 5,351 4,426 2,313 4,610 4,010
Unknown 48 16 701 76 41 604
Central Asia[edit]
Today Central Asians are a mixture of various peoples, such as Mongols, Turks, and Iranians. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia in the 13th century resulted in the massacre of the mostly Iranic population and other Indo-European people with intermarriage and assimilation. Modern genetic studies show that Central Asian Turkic people and Hazara are a mixture of Northeast Asians and Indo-European people. Caucasian ancestry is prevalent in almost all central Asian Turkic people. Kazakhs, Hazara, Karakalpaks, and Crimean Tatars have more European maternal Mtdna than European paternal Y-dna while Kyrgyz have more European Y-dna with substantial European Mtdna. Other Turkic people like Uyghurs, Uzbeks, have mostly European Y-dna but also high percentages of European Mtdna. Turkmen have predominately European Y-dna and Mtdna.[71]
Interracial marriage between Turkic, European, Central Asians in Kazakhstan are rare but increasing. The most common marriages are between Kazakh and Volga Tatars. Intermarriage usually involves Kazakh men, due to Muslim tradition favouring male over female. For example 1% were between Russians, Tatars, and Kazakhs (792 between Russians and Tatars, 561 between Kazakhs and Tatars, and 212 between Kazakhs and Russians). 701 Kazakh men married Russians or Tatars, against only 72 Kazakh women.[72] Among Kirgiz men living in Uzbekistan and married to non-Kirgiz women, 9.6% had married Russians, 25.6% Uzbeks, and 34.3% Tatars. Among Kazakh men in Uzbekistan, the structure of mixed marriages appeared as follows: 4.4% married Russians.[73]
Eastern Asia[edit]
China[edit]
There have been various periods in the history of China where a number of Arabs, Persians and Turks from the Western Regions (Central Asia and West Asia) migrated to China. Persians intermarried around the time of Manichaeism's spread to China before the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution. Moreover, Persians brought Buddhism to China and there is evidence of close relationship during its pre-Islamic times (see An Shigao).
Moreover, the arrival of Islam during the Tang Dynasty in the 7th century brought an influx of immigrants. Due to the majority of these immigrants being male, many intermarried with local Chinese females. Intermarriage was initially discouraged by the Tang Dynasty. In 836 Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton, and was disgusted to find the Chinese living with foreigners and intermarrying. Lu enforced separation, banned interracial marriages, and made it illegal for foreigners to own property. Lu Chun believed his principles were just and upright.[74] The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "dark peoples" or "people of colour", which was used to describe foreigners, such as "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", among others.[75] The Song Dynasty allowed third-generation immigrants with official titles to intermarry with Chinese imperial princesses.[76]
In 779, the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uighurs to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese. The magristrate who issued the orders may have wanted to protect "purity" in Chinese custom.[77] Han men also married Turkic Uyghur women in Xinjiang from 1880 to 1949. Sometimes poverty influenced Uyghur women to marry Han men. These marriages were not recognized by local mullahs since Muslim women were not allowed to marry non-Muslim men under Islamic law. This did not stop the women because they enjoyed advantages: they were not subject to Islamic law and not subjected to certain taxes. Uyghur women married to Han men also did not have to wear a veil, and they received their husband's property upon his death. These women were forbidden from having burial in Muslim graves. The children of Han men and Uyghur women were considered to be Uyghur. Some Han soldiers had Uyghur women as temporary wives, and after their service was up, the wife was left behind or sold. If it was possible, sons were taken, and daughters were sold.[78]
Iranian, Arab and Turkic women also occasionally migrated to China and mixed with Chinese. Iranian women dancers were in demand in China during this period. During the Sui dynasty, ten young dancers were sent from Persia to China. During the Tang dynasty, bars were often attended by Iranian or Sogdian waitresses who performed dances for clients.[79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89] During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (Wudai) (907–960), there are examples of Persian women marrying Chinese emperors. Some Chinese officials from the Song Dynasty era also married women from Dashi (Arabia).[90] From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou (Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing multiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions".[91][92] Some scholars did not differentiate between Persian and Arab, and some say that the Chinese called all women coming from the Persian Gulf "Persian women".[93] Genetic evidence shows Persian women intermarried with the Cantonese men of Guangzhou. Yao Yonggang et al. reported that Kivisild detected one W mtDNA out of 69 Guangzhou Cantonese population, a common Middle Eastern and Iranian marker.[94] Of the Han Chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, married a Persian or an Arab woman, and brought her back to Quanzhou. He then converted to Islam. Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.[95][96][97]
By the 14th century, the total population of Muslims in China had grown to 4 million.[98] After Mongol rule had been overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368, this led to a violent Chinese backlash against West and Central Asians. In order to contain the violence, the Ming administration instituted a policy where all West and Central Asian males were required to intermarry with native Chinese females, hence assimilating them into the local population. Their descendants are today known as the Hui people.[76][76] 6.7% Hui people's maternal genetics have an Caucasian origin, while slightly over 30% paternal genetics also have an Caucasian origin.[99] In the 19th century, the Hui rebelled against the Chinese government trying to create an independent state.
Han women who married Hui men became Hui, and Han men who married Hui women also became Hui.[100][101][102]
There is a small but growing population of mixed marriages between male African (mostly Nigerian) traders and local Chinese women in the city of Guangzhou; in 2013 there were an estimated 400 African-Chinese families.[103] The rise in mixed marriages has not been without controversy. The state, fearing fraud marriages, has strictly regulated matters. In order to obtain government-issued identification (which is required to attend school), children must be registered under the Chinese mother's family name. Many African fathers, fearing that in doing so, they would relinquish their parental rights, have instead chosen to not send their children to school. There are efforts to open an African-Chinese school but it would first require government authorization.[103]
In recent years, thousands of Indians have migrated to China. While the majority of these Indians are students, some are employees of multinational companies. Most of these marriages are between Indian men and Chinese women. Some of these couples prefer to live in first, and depending on the circumstances marriages take place.[104]
Taiwan[edit]
During the Siege of Fort Zeelandia in which Chinese Ming loyalist forces commanded by Koxinga besieged and defeated the Dutch East India Company and conquered Taiwan, the Chinese took Dutch women and children prisoner. Koxinga took Hambroek's teenage daughter as a concubine,[105][106][107] and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives.In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.[108]
Some Dutch physical features like auburn and red hair among people in regions of south Taiwan are a consequence of this episode of Dutch women becoming concubines to the Chinese commanders.[109]
Hong Kong[edit]
Main article: Tanka people
Many Tanka women bore children with foreign men. Ernest John Eitel mentioned in 1889 how an important change had taken place among Eurasian girls, the offspring of illicit connections: instead of becoming concubines, they were commonly brought up respectably and married to Hong Kong Chinese husbands. Some believed many Hong Kong-born Eurasians were assimilated into the Hong Kong society by intermarriage with the Cantonese population. The world's most influential martial artist icon, Bruce Lee, was also born to parents of Hong Kong heritage to a Cantonese father and a Eurasian mother.
Ernest John Eitel controversially claimed that most "half-caste" people in Hong Kong were descended exclusively from Europeans having relationships with Tanka women. The theory that most of the Eurasian mixed-race Hong Kong people are descended only from Tanka women and European men, and not ordinary Cantonese women, has been backed up by other researchers who pointed out that Tanka women freely consorted with foreigners because they were not bound by the same Confucian traditions as the Cantonese, and having relationships with European men was advantageous for Tanka women, but Lethbridge criticized it as "a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community". Carl Smith's study in the late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, to support Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans. The ordinary Cantonese women did not sleep with European men; the Eurasian population was formed mostly from Tanka and European admixture.[110][111][112][113]

They invaded Hongkong the moment the settlement was started, living at first on boats in the harbon with their numerons families, and gradually settling on shore. They have maintained ever since almost a monopoly of the supply of pilots and ships' crews, of the fish trade and the cattle trade, but unfortunately also of the trade in girls and women. Strange to say, when the settlement was first started, it was estimated that some 2,000 of these Tan-ka lieople had flocked to Hongkong, but at the present time they are abont the same number, a tendency having set in among them to settle on shore rather than on the water and to disavow their Tan-ka extraction in order to mix on equal terms with the mass of the Chinese community. The half-caste population in Hongkong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuons re-absorption in the mass of the Chinese residents of the Colony.[114]
Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew (1845–1917) and Katharine Caroline Bushnell (February 5, 1856 January 26, 1946), who wrote extensively on the position of women in the British Empire, wrote about the Tanka inhabitants of Hong Kong and their position in the prostitution industry, catering to foreign sailors. The Tanka did not marry with the Chinese; being descendants of the natives, they were restricted to the waterways. They supplied their women as prostitutes to British sailors and assisted the British in their military actions around Hong Kong.[115] The Tanka in Hong Kong were considered "outcasts", and categorized as low class.[116] Tanka women were ostracized from the Cantonese community, and were nicknamed "salt water girls" (ham shui mui) for their services as prostitutes to foreigners in Hong Kong.[117][118]
South Asians have been living in Hong Kong throughout the colonial period, before the partition of India into the nations of India and Pakistan. They migrated to Hong Kong and worked as police officers as well as army officers during colonial rule. 25,000 of the Muslims in Hong Kong trace their roots back to Faisalabad in what is now Pakistan; around half of them belong to 'local boy' families, who descended from early Indian-Pakistani immigrants who took local Chinese wives.[119][120]
Macau[edit]
Due to a few Chinese living in Macau, the early Macanese ethnic group was formed from Portuguese men with Malay, Japanese, Indian women.[121] The Portuguese encouraged Chinese migration to Macau, and most Macanese in Macau were formed from intermarriages between Portuguese and Chinese.
Rarely did Chinese women marry Portuguese; initially, mostly Goans, Ceylonese (from today's Sri Lanka), Indo China, Malay, and Japanese women were the wives of the Portuguese men in Macau.[122][123][124][125][126] Japanese girls would be purchased in Japan by Portuguese men.[127] Many Chinese became Macanese simply by converting to Catholicism, and had no ancestry from Portuguese, having assimilated into the Macanese people.[128] The majority of the early intermarriages of people from China with Portuguese were between Portuguese men and women of Tanka origin, who were considered the lowest class of people in China and had relations with Portuguese settlers and sailors, or low-class Chinese women.[129][130] Western men were refused by high-class Chinese women, who did not marry foreigners, while a minority were Cantonese men and Portuguese women. Macanese men and women also married with the Portuguese and Chinese, and as a result some Macanese became indistinguishable from the Chinese or Portuguese population. Because the majority of the population who migrated to Macau were Cantonese, Macau became a culturally Cantonese speaking society; other ethnic groups became fluent in Cantonese. Most Macanese had paternal Portuguese heritage until 1974.[130] It was in the 1980s that Macanese and Portuguese women began to marry men who defined themselves ethnically as Chinese.[129]
Literature in Macau was written about love affairs and marriage between the Tanka women and Portuguese men, like "A-Chan, A Tancareira", by Henrique de Senna Fernandes.[129][131][132]
After the handover of Macau to China in 1999 many Macanese migrated to other countries. Many of the Portuguese and Macanese women who stayed in Macau married local Cantonese men, and many Macanese also now have Cantonese paternal heritage. There are between 25,000 – 46,000 Macanese, only 5000 – 8000 of whom live in Macau, while most live in America, Latin America, and Portugal. Unlike the Macanese of Macau who are strictly of Chinese and Portuguese heritage, many Macanese living abroad are not entirely of Portuguese and Chinese ancestry. Many Macanese men and women intermarried with the local population of America and Latin America, etc., and have only partial Macanese heritage.
Japan[edit]
Main articles: Marriage in Japan and Slavery in Japan § Portuguese trade in Japanese slaves
Inter-ethnic marriage in Japan dates back to the 7th century, when Chinese and Korean immigrants began intermarrying with the local population. By the early 9th century, over one-third of all noble families in Japan had ancestors of foreign origin.[133] In the 1590s, over 50,000 Koreans were forcibly brought to Japan, where they intermarried with the local population. In the 16th and 17th centuries, around 58,000 Japanese travelled abroad, many of whom intermarried with the local women in Southeast Asia.[134]
Portuguese traders in Japan also intermarried with the local Christian women in the 16th and 17th centuries.[135]
During the anti-Christian persecutions in 1596, many Japanese Christians fled to Macau and other Portuguese colonies such as Goa, where there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders by the early 17th century.[133] The Japanese slaves were brought or captured by Portuguese traders from Japan.[136] Intermarriage with the local populations in these Portuguese colonies also took place.[133] Marriage and sexual relations between European merchants and Japanese women was usual during this period.[137]
A large-scale slave trade developed in which Portuguese purchased Japanese as slaves in Japan and sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal itself, throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[138][139] Many documents mention the large slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased many Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church in 1555. King Sebastian feared that it was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization since the slave trade in Japanese was growing to massive proportions, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571.[140][141]
Japanese slave women were even sold as concubines to Indian and black African crewmembers, along with their European counterparts serving on Portuguese ships trading in Japan, mentioned by Luis Cerqueira, a Portuguese Jesuit, in a 1598 document.[142] Japanese slaves were brought by the Portuguese to Macau, where some of them not only ended up being enslaved to the Portuguese, but as slaves to other slaves, with the Portuguese owning Malay and African slaves, who in turn owned Japanese slaves of their own.[143][144]
In 2003, there were 740,191 marriages in Japan, of which 28,831 involved a non-Japanese bride and 7,208 involved a non-Japanese groom. Non-Japanese women who married a Japanese man were predominantly of Chinese (10,242), Filipino (7,794), Korean (5,318), Thai (1,445) and Brazilian (296) nationality. Non-Japanese men who married a Japanese woman were predominantly of Korean (2,235), United States (1,529), Chinese (890), British (334) and Brazilian (265) nationality.[145]
In 2006 there were 735,132 marriages in Japan, of which 40,154 involved a non-Japanese bride and 8,708 involved a non-Japanese groom. Non-Japanese women who married a Japanese-born man were predominantly of Filipino (12,150), Chinese (12,131), Korean (6,041), Thai (1,676) and Brazilian (285). Non-Japanese men who married a Japanese woman were predominantly of Korean (2,335), United States (1,474), Chinese (1,084), British (386) and Filipino (195) nationality.[146]
Korea[edit]
Main article: Marriage in South Korea
There were 43,121 international marriages between Koreans and non-Koreans in 2005, up 21.6% from a year earlier, according to Korea National Statistics Office[147] data published in the Korea Times newspaper on March 30, 2006. 11% of couples who married in 2007 were international couples. The majority of them involve South Korean males married to foreign females,[148] from China, Japan, Vietnam, the Philippines, United States, Mongolia, Thailand, and Russia. However, majority of these brides are ethnic Koreans from China and Han Chinese.[149][150] The most common explanation for this phenomenon is that there is a lack of South Korean women who are willing to marry men living in rural areas.
In recent times, about one third of South Korean men in rural areas married women from abroad, according to Korea National Statistics Office data published in 2006.[151] Marriages between South Korean men and foreign women are often arranged by marriage brokers or international religious groups. There is mounting evidence to suggest that there is a statistically higher level of poverty, violence and divorce in the Korean men married to foreign women cohort.[152] Most Korean men who marry Southeast Asian women end up with divorces.[citation needed] Currently divorces between Koreans and foreign spouses make up 10% of the total Korean divorce rate.[citation needed]
Interracial marriage in Korea dates back to at least the Three Kingdoms period. Records about the period, in particular the section in the Samguk Yusa about the Gaya kingdom (it was absorbed by the kingdom of Silla later), indicate that in 48 AD, King Kim Suro of Gaya (the progenitor of the Gimhae Kim clan) took a princess (Heo Hwang-ok) from the "Ayuta nation" (which is the Korean name for the city of Ayodhya in North India) as his bride and queen.[153] Two major Korean clans today claim descent from this union.[154]
Somewhat later, during the arrival of Muslims in Korea in the Middle Ages, a number of Arab, Persian and Turkic navigators and traders settled in Korea. They took local Korean wives and established several Muslim villages.[155] Some assimilation into Buddhism and Shamanism eventually took place, owing to Korea's geographical isolation from the Muslim world.[156] At least two or three major Korean clans today claim descent from Muslim families.[157][158]
Southeast Asia[edit]
Interracial marriage in Southeast Asia dates back to the spread of Indian culture, including Hinduism and Buddhism, to the region. From the 1st century onwards, mostly male traders and merchants from the Indian subcontinent frequently intermarried with the local female populations in Cambodia, Burma, Champa, central Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines, and Indonesia. Many Indianized kingdoms rose in Southeast Asia during the Middle Ages.[159]
From the 9th century onwards, some male Arab traders from the Middle East settled in Maritime Southeast Asia and married local Malay, Indonesian and Filipina female populations, which contributed to the spread of Islam in Southeast Asia.[160] From the 14th to the 17th centuries, many Chinese, Indian and Arab traders settled within the kingdoms of Maritime Southeast Asia and married within local female populations. This tradition continued among Spain and Portuguese traders who also married within local populations.[161] In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese people travelled to Southeast Asia and married with local women there.[134]
Vietnam[edit]
Main articles: Bụi đời and Women in Vietnam § European rule
Much of the business conducted with foreign men in southeast Asia was done by the local women, who served engaged in both sexual and mercantile intercourse with foreign male traders. A Portuguese- and Malay-speaking Vietnamese woman who lived in Macao for an extensive period of time was the person who interpreted for the first diplomatic meeting between Cochin-China and a Dutch delegation. She served as an interpreter for three decades in the Cochin-China court with an old woman who had been married to three husbands, one Vietnamese and two Portuguese.[162][163][164] The cosmopolitan exchange was facilitated by the marriage of Vietnamese women to Portuguese merchants. Those Vietnamese woman were married to Portuguese men and lived in Macao which was how they became fluent in Malay and Portuguese.[165]
Foreigners noted that in southeast Asian countries, foreigners would be offered already married local women for sex. William Dampier wrote, "The offering of Women is a Custom used by several nations in the East-Indies, as at Pegu, Siam, Cochinchina, and Cambodia... It is accounted a piece of Policy to do it; for the chief Factors and Captains of Ships have the great men's Daughters offered them, the Mandarins or Noblemen at Tunquin..."[166][167][168] Dampier's full account said, "They are so free of their women, that they would bring them aboard and offer them to us; and many of our men hired them for a small matter. This is a custom used by several nations in the East Indies, as at Pegu, Siam, Cochin-China, and Cambodia, as I have been told. It is used at Tunquin also to my knowledge; for I did afterwards make a voyage thither, and most of our men had women on board all the time of our abode there. In Africa, also, on the coast of Guinea, our merchants, factors, and seamen that reside there, have their black misses. It is accounted a piece of policy to do it; for the chief factors and captains of ships have the great men's daughters offered them, the mandarins' or noblemen's at Tunquin, and even the King's wives in Guinea; and by this sort of alliance the country people are engaged to a greater friendship; and if there should arise any difference about trade, or any thing else, which might provoke the native to seek some treacherous revenge, to which all these heathen nations are very prone, then these Dalilahs would certainly declare it to their white friends, and so hinder their countrymen's design."[169][170][171][172][173][174]
Alexander Hamilton said, "The Tonquiners used to be very desirous of having a brood of Europeans in their country, for which reason the greatest nobles thought it no shame or disgrace to marry their daughters to English and Dutch seamen, for the time they were to stay in Tonquin, and often presented their sons-in-law pretty handsomely at their departure, especially if they left their wives with child; but adultery was dangerous to the husband, for they are well versed in the art of poisoning."[167][168][175][176][177][178]
Burma[edit]
Burmese Muslims are the descendants of Indian Muslims, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Pathans, Chinese Muslims and Malays who settled and intermarried with the local Burmese population and other Burmese ethnic groups such as the Shan, Karen, and Mon.[179][180]
During British Indian rule, millions of Indians, mostly Muslim, migrated there. The small population of mixed descendants of Indian men and local Burmese women are called "Zerbadees", often in a pejorative sense implying mixed race. The Rohingya claim to have descended from Bengalis who intermarried with the local women, but this remains a hotly contested issue. The political situation surrounding the actual history of the Rohingya, the lack of evidence, and the counter-claims, mean that proper ancestry cannot be established. The Panthays, a group of Chinese Muslims descended from West Asians and Central Asians, migrated from China and also intermarried with local Burmese females.[181]
Burma has an estimated 52,000 Anglo-Burmese people, descended from British and Burmese people. Anglo-Burmese people frequently intermarried with Anglo-Indian immigrants, who assimilated into the Anglo-Burmese community.
Malaysia and Singapore[edit]
In Malaysia and Singapore, the majority of inter-ethnic marriages are between Chinese and Indians. The offspring of such marriages are informally known as "Chindian". The Malaysian and Singaporean governments, however, only classify them by their father's ethnicity. As the majority of these marriages involve an Indian groom and Chinese bride, the majority of Chindians in Malaysia are usually classified as "Indian" by the Malaysian government. As for the Malays, who are predominantly Muslim, legal restrictions in Malaysia make it less common for them to intermarry with either the Indians, who are predominantly Hindu, or the Chinese, who are predominantly Buddhist and Taoist.[182]
It is common for Arabs in Singapore and Malaysia to take local Malay wives, due to a common Islamic faith.[160] The Chitty people, in Singapore and the Malacca state of Malaysia, are a Tamil people with considerable Malay descent, which was due to thousands of the first Tamil settlers taking local wives, since they did not bring along any of their own women with them. According to government statistics, the population of Singapore as of September 2007 was 4.68 million, of whom multiracial people, including Chindians and Eurasians, formed 2.4%. In 2007, 16.4% of all marriages in Singapore were inter-ethnic.[183] The Peranakans are descendants of Chinese merchants who settled down in Malaysia and Singapore during the colonial era and married Malay women. There is also a significant minority population of Eurasians who are descended from Europeans – Singapore and Malaysia being former British colonies – and local women.
Philippines[edit]



 A Filipina bride and Nigerian groom walk down the aisle.
Centuries of migration, diaspora, assimilation, and cultural diversity have made most Filipinos open-minded in embracing interracial marriage and multiculturalism. Following independence, the Philippines has seen both small and large-scale immigration into the country, mostly involving Chinese, Americans, British, Europeans, Japanese, and South Asians. More recent migrations into the country by Koreans, Persians, Brazilians and other Southeast Asians have contributed to the enrichment of the country's ethnic landscape.
Thousands of interracial marriages between Americans and Filipinos have taken place since the United States took possession of the Philippines after the Spanish–American War. Due to the strategic location of the Philippines, as many as 21 bases and 100,000 military personnel were stationed there since the U.S. first colonized the islands in 1898. These bases were decommissioned in 1992 after the end of the Cold War, but left behind thousands of Amerasian children. The Pearl S. Buck International foundation estimates there are 52,000 Amerasians scattered throughout the Philippines.
In the United States intermarriage among Filipinos with other races is common. They have the largest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California.[184] It is also noted that 21.8% of Filipino Americans are of mixed blood, second among Asian Americans, and is the fastest growing.[185]
Interracial marriages particularly among Southeast Asians are continually increasing. At present, there is an increasing number of Southeast Asian intermarriages, particularly between Filipinos and Malaysians (Dumanig, 2009). Such marriages have created an impact on language, religion and culture. Dumanig argues that Filipino-Malaysian couples no longer prefer their own ethnic languages as the medium of communication at home. The use of English with some switching in Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, and Filipino is commonly used.[186]
Philippine nationality law is currently based upon the principles of jus sanguinis and therefore descent from a parent who is a citizen/national of the Republic of the Philippines is the primary method of acquiring Philippine citizenship. Birth in the Philippines to foreign parents does not in itself confer Philippine citizenship, although RA9139, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000, does provide a path for administrative naturalization of certain aliens born on Philippine soil (Jus soli). Together, some of these recent immigrants have intermarried with the indigenous Filipinos, as well as with the previous immigrant groups, giving rise to Filipinos of mixed racial and/or ethnic origins also known as mestizos.
South Asia[edit]



 An oil painting of Khair-un-Nissa by George Chinnery. c. 1805. She was an Indian Hyderabadi noblewoman who married British Lieutenant Colonel James Achilles Kirkpatrick.


Rahul Gandhi, a member of the Indian Parliament, is the son of an Indian father (Rajiv Gandhi) and Italian mother (Sonia Gandhi).
The Indian subcontinent has a long history of inter-ethnic marriage dating back to ancient history. Various groups of people have been intermarrying for millennia in South Asia, including speakers of Dravidian, Indo-Aryan (Indic), Iranian, Austroasiatic, and Tibeto-Burman languages. This was particularly common in the northwestern and northeastern parts of the subcontinent. In the northwest (mainly modern-day Pakistan), invading Persians, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Hephthalites, Indo-Greeks and Mughals often took local wives in that region during Antiquity and the Middle Ages.
According to the Indo-Aryan migration theory, Indo-Iranian nomadic groups (Aryans) from Central Asia migrated to India more than 3,000 years ago. In turn, the Indo-Iranian languages are descended from the Indo-European languages speakers from who may have origins around the Black Sea. According to 19th century British historians, it was these Aryans who and established the caste system, an elitist form of social organization that separated the light-skinned Indo-Aryan conquerors from the conquered dark-skinned indigenous Dravidian tribes through enforcement of racial endogamy. Much of this was simply conjecture, fueled by British imperialism.[187] British policies of divide and rule as well as enumeration of the population into rigid categories during the tenure of British rule in India contributed towards the hardening of these segregated caste identities.[188] Since the independence of India from British rule, the British fantasy of an "Aryan Invasion and subjugation of the dark skinned Dravidians in India" has become a staple polemic in South Asian geopolitics, including the propaganda of Indophobia in Pakistan.[189] There is no decisive theory as to the origins of the caste system in India, and globally renowned historians and archaeologists like Jim Shaffer, J.P. Mallory, Edwin Bryant, and others, have disputed the claim of "Aryan Invasion."[190]
Some researchers claim that genetic similarities to Europeans were more common in members of the higher ranks. Their findings, published in Genome Research, supported the idea that members of higher castes are more closely related to Europeans than are the lower castes.[191] According to the research, invading Aryan populations were predominantly males who intermarried with local females and formed the upper castes, i.e. the local females had upward mobility in caste, which was denied to local males.
However, other researchers have criticized and contradicted this claim.[192] A study by Joanna L. Mountain et al. of Stanford University concluded that there was "no clear separation into three genetically distinct groups along caste lines", although "an inferred tree revealed some clustering according to caste affiliation".[193] A 2006 study concluded that the "lower caste groups might have originated with the hierarchical divisions that arose within the tribal groups with the spread of Neolithic agriculturalists, much earlier than the arrival of Aryan speakers", and "the Indo-Europeans established themselves as upper castes among this already developed caste-like class structure within the tribes."[194] A 2006 genetic study by the National Institute of Biologicals in India, testing a sample of men from 32 tribal and 45 caste groups, concluded that the Indians have acquired very few genes from Indo-European speakers.[195] More recent studies have also debunked the claims that so-called "Aryans" and "Dravidians" have a "racial divide". A study conducted by the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology in 2009 (in collaboration with Harvard Medical School, Harvard School of Public Health, Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT) analyzed half a million genetic markers across the genomes of 132 individuals from 25 ethnic groups from 13 states in India across multiple caste groups.[196]
Many Indian traders, merchants and missionaries travelled to Southeast Asia (where Indianized kingdoms were established) and often took local wives from the region. The Romani people ("Gypsies") who have origins in the Indian subcontinent travelled westwards and also took local wives in Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. Genetic studies show that the majority of Romani males carry large frequencies of particular Y chromosomes (inherited paternally) that otherwise exist only in populations from South Asia, in addition to nearly a third of Romani females carrying particular mitochondrial DNA (inherited maternally) that is rare outside South Asia.[197][198] Around 800, a ship carrying Persian Jews crashed in India. They settled in different parts of India and befriended and traded with the local Indian population. Intermarriage occurred, and to this day the Indian Jews physically resemble their surrounding Indian populations due to intermarriage.
There are also cases of Indian princesses marrying kings abroad. For example, the Korean text Samguk Yusa about the Gaya kingdom (it was absorbed by the kingdom of Silla later), indicate that in 48 AD, King Kim Suro of Gaya (the progenitor of the Gimhae Kim clan) took Princess Heo from "Ayuta" (the Korean name for the city of Ayodhya in North India) as his bride and queen. According to the Samguk Yusa, the princess' parents had a dream sent by a god who told them about a king from a faraway land. That was King Kim Suro of the Gaya kingdom, in what is now the southeastern tip of South Korea.
In Goa during the late 16th and 17th centuries, there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders, who were either Japanese Christians fleeing anti-Christian sentiments in Japan,[133] or Japanese slaves brought or captured by Portuguese traders and their South Asian lascar crewmembers from Japan.[136] In both cases, they often intermarried with the local population in Goa.[133] One offspring of such an intermarriage was Maria Guyomar de Pinha, born in Thailand to a Portuguese-speaking Japanese-Bengali father from Goa and a Japanese mother.[199] In turn, she married the Greek adventurer Constantine Phaulkon.[200]
Inter-ethnic marriages between European men and Indian women were very common during colonial times. According to the historian William Dalrymple, about one in three European men (mostly British, as well as Portuguese, French, Dutch, and to a lesser extent Swedes and Danes) had Indian wives in colonial India. One of the most famous intermarriages was between the Anglo-Indian resident James Achilles Kirkpatrick and the Hyderabadi noblewoman and descendant of prophet Mohammed, Khair-un-Nissa. During the British East India Company's rule in India in the late 18th century and early 19th century, it was initially fairly common for British officers and soldiers to take local Indian wives. The 600,000 strong Anglo-Indian community has descended from such unions. There is also a story of an attractive Gujjar princess falling in love with a handsome English nobleman and the nobleman converted to Islam so as to marry her. The 65,000 strong Burgher community of Sri Lanka was formed by the intermarriages of Dutch and Portuguese men with local Sinhalese and Tamil women. Intermarriage also took place in Britain during the 17th to 19th centuries, when the British East India Company brought over many thousands of Indian scholars, lascars and workers (mostly Bengali) who settled down in Britain and took local British wives, some of whom went to India with their husbands.[201] In the mid-19th century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers but less than 2,000 British officials present in India.[202]
In Assam, local Assamese women married several waves of Chinese migrants during British colonial times, to the point where it became hard to physically differentiate Chinese in Assam from locals during the time of their internment during the 1962 war, and the majority of these Chinese in Assam were married to Assamese women.[203]
In the 19th century, when the British Straits Settlement shipped Chinese convicts to be jailed in India, the Chinese men then settled in the Nilgiri mountains near Naduvattam after their release and married Tamil Paraiyan women, having mixed Chinese-Tamil children with them. They were documented by Edgar Thurston.[204][205][206][207][208][209][210][211][212][213] Paraiyan is also anglicized as "pariah".
Edgar Thurston described the colony of the Chinese men with their Tamil pariah wives and children: "Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of ' marriage ' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating coffee on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs."[214][215] Thurston further describe a specific family: "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones."[216][217][218][219][220][221][222][223][224] Thurston's description of the Chinese-Tamil families were cited by others, one mentioned "an instance mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female"[225][226][227][228][229] A 1959 book described attempts made to find out what happened to the colony of mixed Chinese and Tamils.[230]
Europe[edit]
Balkans[edit]
Vikings explored and eventually settled in territories in Slavic-dominated areas of Europe. By 950 AD, these settlements were largely Slavicized through intermarriage with the local population. Europe, especially the Balkans, was an important source of captives for the Arab slave trade then, and Saqaliba (Slavic) slaves taken to the Arab World often intermarried or had unions with their Arab owners.
Caucasus[edit]
The Nogais who live in Southern Russia / North Caucasus are a mixture of Mongoloid and Caucasoid and also have high frequencies mongoloid paternal y-dna. Some North Caucasus ethnic groups also contain low to moderate frequencies of Mongolian paternal DNA such as Haplogroup_C-M217_.[231][232]
France[edit]
The French Normans were descended from Danish Vikings who were given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France—the Duchy of Normandy—in the 8th century. In that respect, descendants of the Vikings in France and Britain continued to have an influence in northern Europe as well. Likewise, King Harold Godwinson, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England who was killed during the Norman invasion in 1066, had Danish ancestors. Many of the medieval kings of Norway and Denmark married into English and Scottish royalty and occasionally got involved in dynastic disputes.
During World War I, there were 135,000 soldiers from British India,[233] a large number of soldiers from French North Africa,[234] and 20,000 labourers from South Africa,[235] who served in France. Much of the French male population had gone to war, leaving behind a surplus of French females,[234] many of whom formed interracial relationships with non-white soldiers, mainly Indian[236][237] and North African.[233] British and French authorities allowed foreign Muslim soldiers to intermarry with local French females on the basis of Islamic law, which allows marriage between Muslim men and Christian women. On the other hand, Hindu soldiers in France were restricted from intermarriage on the basis of the Indian caste system.[237]
According to France's 1999 Census, 38% and 34% of male and female married immigrants, respectively, are intermarried. The highest intermarriage rate was for European immigrants, mainly Spanish and Italian, nearly 50% of whom have had intermarriages. 30% of North African immigrants and 20% of Portuguese immigrants have also had intermarriages. The lowest intermarriage rate was for Turkish immigrants, with 14% for married males and 4% for married females.[238]
Germany[edit]
According to the 2006 figures from Germany's Federal Statistics Office, Turkish men accounted for 14% of foreigners married to German women, followed by Italians and Americans.[239] Conversely, German men marrying non-German women primarily choose Polish women, with Russian, Turkish and Japanese women following in roughly equal numbers.[239]
Comparative sociologist Amparo Gonzalez-Ferrer argues that one of the main reasons why Turkish men marry Germans more than Turkish women do is due to Islam permitting men but not women to marry non-Muslims.[239] Dirk Halm, political scientist for the Center for Turkish Studies in Essen, remarked that considering Turkish citizens make up 25% of all foreign residents in Germany—not counting an additional one-third ethnic Turks who are German citizens—intermarriage rates in Germany are "in reality very low".[239]
Iberian Peninsula[edit]



Hadith Bayad wa Riyad (12th century) was an Arabic love story about an Andalusian female and a foreign Damascene male.
In ancient history, the Iberian Peninsula was frequently invaded by foreigners who intermarried with the native population. One of the earliest foreign groups to arrive to the region were the Indo-European Celts who intermarried with the pre-Indo-European Iberians in prehistoric Iberia. They were later followed by the Phoenician Carthaginians and Indo-European Romans who intermarried with the pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula during Classical Antiquity. They were in turn followed by the Germanic Visigoths, Suebi and Vandals and the Sarmatian Alans who also intermarried with the local population in Hispania during late Antiquity. In the 6th century, the region was reconquered by the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) before it was lost again to the Visigothic Kingdom less than a century later.
After the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the early 8th century, the Islamic state of Al-Andalus was established in Iberia. Due to Islamic marital law allowing a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females, it became common for Arab and Berber males from North Africa to intermarry with the local Germanic, Roman and Iberian females of Hispania.[240][241] The offspring of such marriages were known as Muladi or Muwallad, an Arabic term still used in the modern Arab world to refer to people with Arab fathers and non-Arab mothers.[242] This term was also the origin for the Spanish word Mulatto.[243][244] In addition, many Muladi were also descended from Saqaliba (Slavic) slaves taken from Europe via the Arab slave trade. By the 11th or 12th century, the Muslim population of Al-Andalus had merged into a homogeneous group of people known as the "Moors". After the Reconquista, which was completed in 1492, most of the Moors were forced to either flee to Morocco or convert to Christianity. The ones who converted to Christianity were known as Moriscoes, and they were often persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition on the basis of the Limpieza de sangre ("Cleanliness of blood") or "blue blood" doctrine.[245]
Portuguese colonies[edit]
See also: Orfas del Rei
According to Gilberto Freyre, a Brazilian sociologist, miscegenation was commonplace in the Portuguese colonies, and was even supported by the court as a way to boost low populations and guarantee a successful and cohesive settlement. Thus, settlers often released African slaves to become their wives. The children were guaranteed full Portuguese citizenship, provided the parents were married. Some former Portuguese colonies have large mixed-race populations, for instance, Brazil, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Timor Leste, Macau and São Tomé and Príncipe. In the case of Brazil, the influential "Indianist" novels of José de Alencar (O Guarany, Iracema, and Ubirajara) perhaps went farther than in the other colonies, advocating miscegenation in order to create a truly Brazilian race.[246] Mixed marriages between Portuguese and locals in former colonies were very common in all Portuguese colonies. Miscegenation was still common in Africa until the independence of the former Portuguese colonies in the mid-1970s.
Iceland[edit]
Most Icelanders are descendants of Norwegian settlers and Celts from Ireland and Scotland, brought over as slaves during the age of settlement. Recent DNA analysis suggests that around 66% of the male settler-era population was of Norse ancestry, whereas the female population was 60% Celtic. [247][248] [249] [250]
Italian Peninsula[edit]



 "Othello and Desdemona", a painting by Alexandre-Marie Colin in 1829
As was the case in other areas occupied by Muslims, it was acceptable in Islamic marital law for a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females in southern Italy when under Islamic rule - namely, the Emirate of Sicily, and, of least importance, the short-lived Emirate of Bari between the 8th and 11th centuries. In this case, most intermarriages were between Arab and Berber males from North Africa and the local Greek, Roman and Italian females. Such intermarriages were particularly common in the Emirate of Sicily, where one writer visiting the place in the 970s expressed shock at how common it was in rural areas.[251] After the Norman conquest of southern Italy, all Muslim citizens (whether foreign, native or mixed) of the Kingdom of Sicily were known as "Moors". After a brief period when the Arab-Norman culture had flourished under the reign of Roger II of Sicily, later the mainlander italians migrated to Sicily persecuted the Muslims of Sicily and they killed many of them[252] later the remnants were expelled in 1239 with the persecution of Frederick II who deported the Muslim survivors in Lucera.
In Malta, Arabs and Italians from neighbouring Sicily and Calabria intermarried with the local inhabitants,[253] who were descended from Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans and Vandals. The Maltese people are descended from such unions, and the Maltese language is descended from Siculo-Arabic.
At times, the Italian city-states also played an active role in the Arab slave trade, where Moorish and Italian traders occasionally exchanged slaves. For example two researchers suggest that Leonardo da Vinci's mother Caterina may have been a slave from the Middle East.[254]
Ottoman Empire[edit]
See also: Valide Sultan and Sultanate of women
In the 11th century, the Byzantine territory of Anatolia was conquered by the Seljuq Turks, who came from Turkestan in Central Asia. Their Ottoman Turkish descendants went on to annex the Balkans and southern parts of Central Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Due to Islamic marital law allowing a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females, it was common in the Ottoman Empire for Turkish males to intermarry with European females. For example, various sultans of the Ottoman Dynasty often had Greek (Rûm), Slavic (Saqaliba), Venetian, Northcaucasian and French wives. Some of these European wives exerted great influence upon the empire as Valide Sultan ("Sultan's Parent"); some famous examples included Roxelana, a Slavic harem slave who later became Suleiman the Magnificent's favourite wife, and Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, wife of Abdul Hamid I and cousin of French Empress Josephine. Due to the common occurrence of such intermarriages in the Ottoman Empire, they had a significant impact on the ethnic makeup of the modern Turkish population in Turkey, which now differs from that of the Turkic population in Central Asia.[255]
The concubines of the Ottoman Sultan consisted chiefly of purchased slaves. Because Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims, the Sultan's concubines were generally of Christian origin. The mother of a Sultan, though technically a slave, received the extremely powerful title of Valide Sultan, and at times became effective ruler of the Empire (see Sultanate of women). One notable example was Kösem Sultan, daughter of a Greek Christian priest, who dominated the Ottoman Empire during the early decades of the 17th century.[256]
United Kingdom[edit]
See also: United Kingdom Census 2011



 An inclusive wedding party preparing for formal photographs at Thornbury Castle
Intermarriage with non-European populations began as early as the Agricultural Revolution. Researchers have found that a majority of British males have DNA that can be traced back to Middle Eastern male farmers (from around present-day Iraq and Syria) who around 8000 BC began migrating to Britain, introducing agriculture to the island, and settling down with local British females.[257]
Britain has a long history of inter-ethnic marriage among the various European populations that inhabited the island, including the Celtic, Roman, Viking, Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman peoples. In the late 15th century, the Romani people arrived. The arriving Romani nomads took local British wives, forming a distinct community known as the Romnichal. Due to intermarriage, Romnichal today are often indistinguishable from the general white British population.
Inter-ethnic marriage began occurring more often in Britain since the 17th century, when the British East India Company began bringing over many Indian scholars, lascars and workers. Though mixed marriages were not always accepted in British society, there were no legal restrictions against intermarriage at the time.[258][259] By the mid-19th century, there were more than 40,000 Indian seamen, diplomats, scholars, soldiers, officials, tourists, businessmen and students arriving to Britain.[202] By the late 19th century and early 20th century, there were around 70,000 South Asians in Britain,[260] 51,616 of whom were lascar seamen (when World War I began).[261] Families with South Asian lascar fathers and white mothers established interracial communities in Britain's dock areas.[262] This led to a growing number of "mixed race" children being born in the country, which challenged the efforts of some to "define them using simple dichotomies of British versus Indian, ruler versus ruled."[202] The number of women of colour in Britain were often outnumbered by "half-caste Indian" daughters born from white mothers and Indian fathers.[263] In addition, a number of British officers who had Indian wives and Anglo-Indian children in British India often brought them over to Britain in the 19th century.[264]
Following World War I, there were significantly more females than males in Britain,[265] and there were increasing numbers of seamen from the Indian subcontinent, Arab World, Far East and Caribbean. Many of them intermarried and cohabited with local white females, which raised increasing concerns from a minority over miscegenation and led to a handful of race riots in at the time.[266] By World War II, any form of intimate relationship between a white woman and non-white man was considered offensive by a few.[265] A few concerns were voiced regarding white adolescent girls forming relationships with men of color, including South Asian seamen in the 1920s,[267] Muslim immigrants in the 1920s to 1940s,[265] African American GIs during World War II, Maltese and Cypriot cafe owners in the 1940s to 1950s, Caribbean immigrants in the 1950s to 1960s, and South Asian immigrants in the 1960s although the continuing record of mixed marriages and the later acceptance of successful mixed-race offspring in public and cultural life suggests tolerance at the time was the norm. But a recent ethnographic study[268] demonstrates that there are multiple negative impacts despite the veneer of tolerance.
The first Chinese settlers were mainly Cantonese from south China, with some also from Shanghai. The figures of Chinese for 1921 are 2,157 men and 262 women. Many Chinese men married British women while others remained single, possibly supporting a wife and family back home in China. During the second world war (1939–1945) another wave of Chinese seamen from Shanghai and of Cantonese origin married British women. Records show that about some 300 of these men had married British women and supported families.[269]
According to the UK 2001 census, black British males were around 50% more likely than black females to marry outside their race. British Chinese women (30%) were twice as likely as their male counterparts (15%) to marry someone from a different ethnic group. In 2001, 2% of all marriages in the United Kingdom were inter-ethnic.[270] In 2011 the Census showed that almost one in 10 people in Britain were either married or living with someone from a different ethnic group, with proportions ranging from 85% of mixed-race people to 4% of white people.[271]
In 1948, an international incident was created when the British government took exception to the "difficult problem"[272] of the marriage of Seretse Khama, kgosi (king) of the Bamangwato people of what was then the British Bechuanaland Protectorate, to an English woman, Ruth Williams, whom he had met while studying law in London. The interracial marriage sparked a furore among both the tribal elders of the Bamangwato and the apartheid government of South Africa. The latter objected to the idea of an interracial couple ruling just across their northern border, and exerted pressure to have Khama removed from his chieftainship. Britain's Labour government, then heavily in debt from World War II, could not afford to lose cheap South African gold and uranium supplies. They also feared South Africa might take direct action against Bechuanaland, through economic sanctions or a military incursion.[273][274] The British government began a parliamentary enquiry into Khama's fitness for the chieftainship. Though the investigation reported that he was eminently fit for the rule of Bechuanaland, "but for his unfortunate marriage",[275] the government ordered the report suppressed. (It would remain so for thirty years.) It exiled Khama and his wife from Bechuanaland in 1951. It was many years before the couple was allowed to live in Africa, and several more years before Khama became president of what is now Botswana. Their son Ian Khama is the president of that country.
Intercultural marriage complications[edit]
Oftentimes, couples in intercultural marriages face barriers that most married couples of the same culture are not exposed to. Intercultural marriages are often influenced by external factors that can create dissonance and disagreement in relationships.[276] Different cultures endure vastly diverse moral, ethical and value foundations that influence their perceptions of individual, family and societal lifestyle. When these foundations are operating alongside the foundation of different cultural roots, as in intercultural marriages, problems and disagreement oftentimes occur.[276] However, interracial marriages are not always intercultural marriages, as in some countries, such as the United States, people of different races can share the same cultural background.
Family and society[edit]
The most common external factors influencing intercultural relationships and marriages are the acceptance of the family and the society in which the couple lives.[276] Sometimes, the families of the partners display rejection, resistance, hostility and lack of acceptance for their kin's partner.[276] Specific issues regarding the family; including generational gaps in ideology, and how the wedding will be held; which ties into how tradition will or will not be practiced. Many intercultural couples report conflict arising over issues of how to carry out child raising and religious worship as well. Dealing with racism from outside sources is also a common area of potential conflict.
Communication style[edit]
Intercultural couples may possess differing communication styles. Individuals from a high context culture are not verbally explicit in their communication behaviors.[277] These cultures typically consist of eastern world countries where collectivism and relational harmony underlie communication behavior. By contrast, individuals from a low context culture use direct obvious communication styles to convey information.[277] In situations where marriage occurs between two people from differing communication contextual backgrounds, conflict may arise from relational challenges posed by the underlying assumptions of high/low context cultures. Challenges posed by differing communication styles are common among intercultural marriage couples.[278] The longer the two individuals have existed in the current culture the less likely this is to pose an issue. If one or more partners within the marriage is relatively new to the dominant culture the likelihood for conflict to unfold on these bases increases.[278]
Management[edit]
Intercultural couples tend to face hardships most within-culture relationships do not.[279] Various resources which focus on conflict resolution of intercultural differences in marriage relationships have become available in the media. Specialized counseling and support groups have also become available to these couples. Conflict resolution and mediation of the infrastructural issues faced by intercultural couples leads to a broader understanding of culture and communication.[280] And the concept of racial literacy was developed by sociologist France Winddance Twine to describe the ways in which these families teach their children about race and its impact.
Interracial marriage benefits[edit]
It has been claimed by a limited number of scholars that diversity within a family system "enhances open communication for individuals to cultivate so they can have greater depth, and views of people within our world".[281]
See also[edit]
Exogamy
Miscegenation
Racial literacy
Multiracial
Mixed Race Day
Loving Day
Race of the Future
The Adventure of the Yellow Face
Transnational marriage
Interfaith marriage
Interracial marriage in film
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56.Jump up ^ Some historians regard Shajar al-Durr as the first of the Mamluk Sultans. – (Shayyal, p.115/vol.2)
57.Jump up ^ Al-Maqrizi described Shajar al-Durr as the first of the Mamluk Sultans of Turkic origin. " This woman, Shajar al-Durr, was the first of the Turkish Mamluk Kings who ruled Egypt " – (Al-Maqrizi, p. 459/ vol.1)
58.Jump up ^ Ibn Iyas regarded Shajar al-Durr as an Ayyubid. – (Ibn Iyas, p.89)
59.Jump up ^ According to J. D. Fage " it is difficult to decide whether this queen (Shajar al-Durr) was the last of the Ayyubids or the first of the Mamluks as she was connected with both the vanishing and the oncoming dynasty". Fage, p.37
60.Jump up ^ Pan 1994, p. 157
61.Jump up ^ Simon Austin: South Africa's white knight. BBC (2009-08-06). Retrieved 2013-06-22.
62.Jump up ^ Bok who just wants to give back – IOL Sport. IOL.co.za (2010-07-24). Retrieved 2013-06-22.
63.Jump up ^ Marina Carter, James Ng Foong Kwong (2009). Abacus and Mah Jong: Sino-Mauritian Settlement and Economic Consolidation. Volume 1 of European expansion and indigenous response, v. 1. BRILL. p. 199. ISBN 9004175725. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
64.Jump up ^ Paul Younger Professor Emeritus of Religious Studies McMaster University (2009). New Homelands : Hindu Communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa: Hindu Communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 33. ISBN 0199741921. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
65.Jump up ^ Huguette Ly-Tio-Fane Pineo, Edouard Lim Fat (2008). From alien to citizen: the integration of the Chinese in Mauritius. Éditions de l'océan Indien. p. 174. ISBN 9990305692. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
66.Jump up ^ Huguette Ly Tio Fane-Pineo (1985). Chinese Diaspora in Western Indian Ocean. Ed. de l'océan indien. p. 287. ISBN 9990305692. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
67.Jump up ^ "What Inter-Ethnic Marriage In Mauritius Tells Us About The Nature of Ethnicity". p. 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-10-22. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
68.Jump up ^ "4102.0 – Australian Social Trends, 2000 – Family Formation: Cultural diversity in marriages". Retrieved 2009-11-02.
69.Jump up ^ Australian wives in China. Epress.anu.edu.au (1904-03-01). Retrieved 2012-05-09.
70.Jump up ^ G. W. Trompf; Carole M. Cusack; Christopher Hartney (2010). Religion and Retributive Logic: Essays in Honour of Professor Garry W. Trompf. BRILL. pp. 351–. ISBN 978-90-04-17880-9.
71.Jump up ^ Zerjal, T.; Wells, R. S.; Yuldasheva, N.; Ruzibakiev, R.; Tyler-Smith, C. (2002). "A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia". The American Journal of Human Genetics 71 (3): 466–82. doi:10.1086/342096. PMC 419996. PMID 12145751. edit
72.Jump up ^ ABSEES – Soviet and East European Abstracts Series, Volume 5
73.Jump up ^ Soviet Sociology, Volume 11
74.Jump up ^ Edward H. Schafer (1985). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'Ang Exotics. University of California Press. pp. 22–. ISBN 978-0-520-05462-2.
75.Jump up ^ Jacques Gernet (1996). A history of Chinese civilization. Cambridge University Press. p. 294. ISBN 0-521-49781-7.
76.^ Jump up to: a b c "Chinese of Arab and Persian descent". ColorQ World. Retrieved 2008-12-23.
77.Jump up ^ Edward H. Schafer (1963). The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics. University of California Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
78.Jump up ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: towards a historical anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. p. 476. ISBN 90-04-16675-0. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
79.Jump up ^ Ryōtarō Shiba (2003). Kukai the universal: scenes from his life. ICG Muse. p. 350. ISBN 4-925080-47-4.
80.Jump up ^ Victor H. Mair (1996). The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature. Columbia University Press. p. 1335. ISBN 0-231-07429-8.
81.Jump up ^ Amnon Shiloah (2003). Music in the World of Islam. Wayne State University Press. p. 213. ISBN 0-8143-2970-5.
82.Jump up ^ Edward H. Schafer (1963). The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 399. ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
83.Jump up ^ Naotaro Kudo (1969). The life and thoughts of Li Ho: the Tʾang poet. Waseda University. p. 108.
84.Jump up ^ Eliot Weinberger (2009). Oranges & Peanuts for Sale. New Directions Publishing. p. 254. ISBN 0-8112-1834-1.
85.Jump up ^ Patricia Buckley Ebrey, Anne Walthall, James Palais (2008). Pre-modern East Asia: to 1800: a cultural, social, and political history. Cengage Learning. p. 294. ISBN 0-547-00539-3.
86.Jump up ^ Mohammad Adnan Bakhit (2000). History of humanity. UNESCO. p. 682. ISBN 92-3-102813-8.
87.Jump up ^ Mahler, Jane Gaston (1959). The Westerners among the figurines of the T'ang dynasty of China. Instituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente. p. 204.
88.Jump up ^ Universiṭat Tel-Aviv. Faḳulṭah le-omanuyot (1993). ASSAPH.: Studies in the theatre, Issues 9–12. Faculty of Visual and Performing Arts, Tel Aviv University. p. 89.
89.Jump up ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan) (1961). Memoirs of the Research Department, Issue 20.
90.Jump up ^ Jaschok, Maria and Shui, Jingjun (2000). The history of women's mosques in Chinese Islam: a mosque of their own. Routledge. p. 361. ISBN 0-7007-1302-6.
91.Jump up ^ Walter Joseph Fischel "Semitic and Oriental studies: a volume presented to William Popper, professor of Semitic languages, emeritus, on the occasion of his seventy-fifth birthday, October 29, 1949" University of California Press (1951) p. 407 Multiple women originating from the Persian Gulf lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter, they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦 Po-ssu-fu or Bosifu).
92.Jump up ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. the University of Michigan: The Toyo Bunko. p. 34. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
93.Jump up ^ History of Science Society, Académie internationale d'histoire des sciences (1939). Isis, Volume 30. Publication and Editorial Office, Dept. of History and Sociology of Science, University of Pennsylvania. p. 120.
94.Jump up ^ Yao, YG; Kong, QP; Bandelt, HJ; Kivisild, T; Zhang, YP (2002). "Phylogeographic Differentiation of Mitochondrial DNA in Han Chinese". American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (3): 635–51. doi:10.1086/338999. PMC 384943. PMID 11836649.
95.Jump up ^ Association for Asian studies (Ann Arbor;Michigan) (1976). A-L, Volumes 1–2. Columbia University Press. p. 1022. ISBN 0-231-03801-1.
96.Jump up ^ Chen, Da-Sheng. "CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T'ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
97.Jump up ^ Needham, Joseph (1971). Science and civilisation in China, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 2120. ISBN 0-521-07060-0.
98.Jump up ^ Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. Lexington Books. p. 285. ISBN 0-7391-0375-X.
99.Jump up ^ Gene Expression: Western barbarian + Han women = Hui. Gnxp.com. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
100.Jump up ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 208. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-08-17.
101.Jump up ^ Dru C. Gladney (1996). Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 481. ISBN 0-674-59497-5.
102.Jump up ^ China archaeology and art digest, Volume 3, Issue 4. Art Text (HK) Ltd. 2000. p. 30. Retrieved 2010-08-17.
103.^ Jump up to: a b Christian Science Monitor: "In China, mixed marriages can be a labor of love - In one major Chinese city, marriages between Chinese and Africans are on the rise. In a country known for monoculture, it isn't easy" By Yepoka Yeebo September 21, 2013
104.Jump up ^ "Indian men marrying Chinese women". Times of India.
105.Jump up ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (1998). A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Bishop Henry McNeal Turner Studies in North American Black Religion Series. Volume 2 of A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Volume 2 (Issue 36 of American Society of Missiology series) (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 1-57075-450-0. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
106.Jump up ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (2005). A history of Christianity in Asia, Volume 2 (Issue 36 of American Society of Missiology series) (2 ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 1-57075-450-0. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
107.Jump up ^ Free China Review, Volume 11. W.Y. Tsao. 1961. p. 54. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
108.Jump up ^ Covell, Ralph R. (1998). Pentecost of the Hills in Taiwan: The Christian Faith Among the Original Inhabitants (illustrated ed.). Hope Publishing House. p. 96. ISBN 0-932727-90-5. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
109.Jump up ^ Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan (illustrated ed.). Macmillan. p. 77. ISBN 0-230-61424-8. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
110.Jump up ^ Meiqi Lee (2004). Being Eurasian: memories across racial divides. Hong Kong University Press. p. 262. ISBN 962-209-671-9.
111.Jump up ^ Maria Jaschok, Suzanne Miers, ed. (1994). Women and Chinese patriarchy: submission, servitude, and escape. Zed Books. p. 223. ISBN 1-85649-126-9.
112.Jump up ^ Helen F. Siu (2011). Helen F. Siu, ed. Merchants' Daughters: Women, Commerce, and Regional Culture in South. Hong Kong University Press. p. 305. ISBN 988-8083-48-1. ""The half-caste population of Hongkong were ... almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka women." EJ Eitel, Europe in , the History of Hongkong from the Beginning to the Year 1882 (Taipei: Chen-Wen Publishing Co., originally published in Hong Kong by Kelly and Walsh. 1895, 1968), 169."
113.Jump up ^ Lethbridge, Henry J. (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. "The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day [1895], almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people"
114.Jump up ^ Eitel, Ernest John (1895). Europe in China: the history of Hongkong from the beginning to the year 1882. London: Luzac & Co. p. 169.
115.Jump up ^ Andrew, Elizabeth Wheeler and Bushnell, Katharine Caroline (2006). Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers. Echo Library. p. 11. ISBN 1-4068-0431-2.
116.Jump up ^ John Mark Carroll (2007). A concise history of Hong Kong. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 36. ISBN 0-7425-3422-7. "Most of the Chinese who came to Hong Kong in the early years were from the lower classes, such as laborers, artisans, Tanka outcasts, prostitutes, wanderers, and smugglers. That these people violated orders from authorities in Canton"
117.Jump up ^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. "This exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat"
118.Jump up ^ Peter Hodge (1980). Peter Hodge, ed. Community problems and social work in Southeast Asia: the Hong Kong and Singapore experience. Hong Kong University Press. p. 33. ISBN 962-209-022-2. "exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat"
119.Jump up ^ Weiss, Anita M. (July 1991). "South Asian Muslims in Hong Kong: Creation of a 'Local Boy' Identity". Modern Asian Studies 25 (3): 417–53. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00013895.
120.Jump up ^ Ina Baghdiantz McCabe, Gelina Harlaftis, Iōanna Pepelasē Minoglou (2005). Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History. Berg Publishers. p. 256. ISBN 1-85973-880-X.
121.Jump up ^ Jonathan Porter (1996). Macau, the imaginary city: culture and society, 1557 to the present. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-2836-2.
122.Jump up ^ Annabel Jackson (2003). Taste of Macau: Portuguese Cuisine on the China Coast (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. x. ISBN 962-209-638-7. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
123.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 39: To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. ... but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay – they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman.
124.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Volume 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology (illustrated ed.). Berg. p. 39. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5. Retrieved 2012-03-01. "To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. ... but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay - they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman."
125.Jump up ^ C. A. Montalto de Jesus (1902). Historic Macao (2 ed.). Kelly & Walsh, Limited. p. 41. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
126.Jump up ^ Austin Coates (2009). A Macao Narrative. Volume 1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. Hong Kong University Press. p. 44. ISBN 962-209-077-X. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
127.Jump up ^ Camões Center (Columbia University. Research Institute on International Change) (1989). Camões Center Quarterly, Volume 1. Volume 1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. The Center. p. 29. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
128.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Volume 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology. Berg. p. 39. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5. "When we established ourselves here, the Chinese ostracized us. The Portuguese had their wives, then, that came from abroad, but they could have no contact with the Chinese women, except the fishing folk, the tanka women and the female slaves. Only the lowest class of Chinese contacted with the Portuguese in the first centuries. But later the strength of Christianization, of the priests, started to convince the Chinese to become Catholic. ... But, when they started to be Catholics, they adopted Portuguese baptismal names and were ostracized by the Chinese Buddhists. So they joined the Portuguese community and their sons started having Portuguese education without a single drop of Portuguese blood."
129.^ Jump up to: a b c João De Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: Person, Culture and Emotion in Macao. Volume 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology. Berg. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-0-8264-5749-3.
130.^ Jump up to: a b 9781157453604: Society of Macau: Macanese People, Public Holidays in Macau, Tanka People (Used, New, Out-of-Print). Alibris. Retrieved 2012-01-29.
131.Jump up ^ Christina Miu Bing Cheng (1999). Macau: a cultural Janus. Hong Kong University Press. p. 173. ISBN 962-209-486-4.
132.Jump up ^ Christina Miu Bing Cheng (1999). Macau: a cultural Janus. Hong Kong University Press. p. 170. ISBN 962-209-486-4. "We can trace this fleeting and shallow relationship in Henrique de Senna Fernandes' short story, A-Chan, A Tancareira, (Ah Chan, the Tanka Girl) (1978). Senna Fernandes (1923–), a Macanese, had written a series of novels set against the context of Macau and some of which were made into films."
133.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 52. ISBN 0-8264-6074-7.
134.^ Jump up to: a b Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 52–3. ISBN 0-8264-6074-7.
135.Jump up ^ Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 53. ISBN 0-8264-6074-7.
136.^ Jump up to: a b Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 49. ISBN 0-8264-6074-7.
137.Jump up ^ Michael S. Laver (2011). The Sakoku Edicts and the Politics of Tokugawa Hegemony. Cambria Press. p. 152. ISBN 1-60497-738-8. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
138.Jump up ^ HOFFMAN, MICHAEL (May 26, 2013). "The rarely, if ever, told story of Japanese sold as slaves by Portuguese traders". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2014-03-02.
139.Jump up ^ "Europeans had Japanese slaves, in case you didn't know ...". Japan Probe. May 10, 2007. Retrieved 2014-03-02.
140.Jump up ^ Nelson, Thomas (Winter 2004). "Monumenta Nipponica (Slavery in Medieval Japan)" 59 (No. 4). Sophia University. p. 463. JSTOR 25066328.
141.Jump up ^ Monumenta Nipponica: Studies on Japanese Culture, Past and Present, Volume 59, Issues 3-4. Jōchi Daigaku. Sophia University. 2004. p. 463. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
142.Jump up ^ Michael Weiner, ed. (2004). Race, Ethnicity and Migration in Modern Japan: Imagined and imaginary minorites (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 408. ISBN 0-415-20857-2. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
143.Jump up ^ Kwame Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., ed. (2005). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 479. ISBN 0-19-517055-5. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
144.Jump up ^ Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, ed. (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 187. ISBN 0-19-533770-0. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
145.Jump up ^ "Now, One Out of 20 Marriages are Mixed!". Japan: Behind the Scenes (Hiragana Times). Archived from the original on 2008-06-02. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
146.Jump up ^ Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Mhlw.go.jp. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
147.Jump up ^ 통계청 홈페이지 주소변경 안내. Nso.go.kr (2009-01-09). Retrieved 2012-05-09.
148.Jump up ^ Shin, Hae-In (2006-08-03). "Korea Greets New Era of Multiculturalism". The Korea Herald. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
149.Jump up ^ '한족여성 최다' (in Korean). News.
150.Jump up ^ Korean Men Use Brokers to Find Brides in Vietnam. NY Times (2007-02-22)
151.Jump up ^ More Koreans Marry Foreigners or Tie the Knot Again. Chosun Ilbo (March 30, 2006)
152.Jump up ^ Asian men seek brides from poorer nations. Usatoday (2008-02-27)
153.Jump up ^ "The Relations Between Korea and India: Korean-Indian Relations in Ancient History." page 3 of 9.
154.Jump up ^ Amit Bhattacharya (May 12, 2002). "The Korean 'sister' of Ayodhya". The Pioneer. Retrieved 2009-09-30.
155.Jump up ^ Lee, Hee-Soo (1991). "Early Korea-Arabic maritime relations based on Muslim sources". Korea Journal 31 (2): 21–32.
156.Jump up ^ "Muslim society in Korea is developing and growing". Pravda. 6 November 2002. Retrieved 2008-12-23.
157.Jump up ^ Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea: A Religious History. Routledge. p. 195. ISBN 0-7007-1605-X.
158.Jump up ^ Baker, Don (Winter 2006). "Islam Struggles for a Toehold in Korea". Harvard Asia Quarterly.
159.Jump up ^ Albert Hyma, Mary Stanton. Streams of civilization 1. Christian Liberty Press. p. 215. ISBN 0-89051-028-8.
160.^ Jump up to: a b "Arab and native intermarriage in Austronesian Asia". ColorQ World. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
161.Jump up ^ Tarling, Nicholas (1999). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 149. ISBN 0-521-66370-9.
162.Jump up ^ Reid, Anthony (1990). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: The lands below the winds. Volume 1 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Yale University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0300047509. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
163.Jump up ^ MacLeod, Murdo J.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida, eds. (1998). European Intruders and Changes in Behaviour and Customs in Africa, America, and Asia Before 1800. Volume 30 of An Expanding World, the European Impact on World History, 1450-1800 , Vol 30 (Issue 30 of An expanding world) (illustrated, reprint ed.). Ashgate. p. 636. ISBN 086078522X. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
164.Jump up ^ Hughes, Sarah S.; Hughes, Brady, eds. (1995). Women in World History: Readings from prehistory to 1500. Volume 1 of Sources and studies in world history (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 219. ISBN 1563243113. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
165.Jump up ^ Tingley, Nancy (2009). Asia Society. Museum, ed. Arts of Ancient Viet Nam: From River Plain to Open Sea. Andreas Reinecke, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (illustrated ed.). Asia Society. p. 249. ISBN 0300146965. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
166.Jump up ^ Andaya, Barbara Watson (2006). The Flaming Womb: Repositioning Women in Early Modern Southeast Asia (illustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 155. ISBN 0824829557. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
167.^ Jump up to: a b Andaya, Barbara Watson. "From temporary wife to prostitute: sexuality and economic change in early modern Southeast Asia." Journal of Women's History 9, no. 4 (February 1998): 11-34. [3][4][5]
168.^ Jump up to: a b Andaya, Barbara Watson. (1/1/1998) "From temporary wife to prostitute: sexuality and economic change in early modern Southeast Asia". Journal of Women's History ) (Hawaii University at Manoa, USA) Indiana University Press
169.Jump up ^ Pinkerton, John (1819). A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in Various Parts of America, Volume 1. Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme and Brown. p. 41. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
170.Jump up ^ Peletz, Michael G. (2009). Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 1135954895. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
171.Jump up ^ Dampier, William (1906). Masefield, John, ed. Dampier's voyages: consisting of a New voyage round the world, a Supplement to the Voyage round the world, Two voyages to Campeachy, a Discourse of winds, a Voyage to New Holland, and a Vindication, in answer to the Chimerical relation of William Funnell, Volume 1. E. Grant Richards. p. 393. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
172.Jump up ^ Dampier, William (1729). A Collection Of Voyages: In Four Volumes : Containing I. Captain William Dampier's Voyages Round the World ... II. The Voyages of Lionel Wafer ... III. A Voyage Round the World ... IV. Capt. Cowley's Voyage Round the Globe ... V. Capt. Sharp's Journey Over the Isthmus of Darien ... VI. Capt. Wood's Voyage Through the Streights of Magellan ... VII. Mr. Roberts's Adventures and Sufferings Amongst the Corfairs of the Levant ... ; Illustrated with Maps and Draughts: Also Several Birds, Fishes, and Plants, Not Found in this Part of the World ; Curiously Engraven on Copper-Plates. ¬A New Voyage Round The World : Describing particularly The Isthmus of America, several Coasts and Islands in the West Indies, the Isles of Cape Verde, ... ; Their Soil, Rivers, Harbours, Plants, Fruits, Animals, and Inhabitants ; Their Customs, Religion, Government, Trade, etc, Volume 1. Knapton. p. 395. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
173.Jump up ^ Purves, David Laing, ed. (1874). The English Circumnavigators: The Most Remarkable Voyages Round the World by English Sailors. William P. Nimmo. p. 256. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
174.Jump up ^ Dampier, William (1699). A New Voyage Round the World, Volume 1 (4 ed.). J. Knapton. p. 395. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
175.Jump up ^ Pinkerton, John (1819). A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in Various Parts of Asia: Many of which are Now First Translated Into English : Digested on a New Plan ; Illustr. with Plates, Volume 2. Longman. p. 484. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
176.Jump up ^ Pinkerton, John, ed. (1811). A general collection of ... voyages and travels, digested by J. Pinkerton. p. 484. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
177.Jump up ^ Cope (Captain.) (1754). A New History of the East-Indies: With Brief Observations on the Religion, Customs, Manners and Trade of the Inhabitants. ... With a Map of the Country, and Several Other Copper-plates, ... By Captain Cope. M. Cooper; W. Reeve, and C. Sympson. p. 379. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
178.Jump up ^ Hamilton, Alexander (1997). Smithies, Michael, ed. Alexander Hamilton: A Scottish Sea Captain in Southeast Asia, 1689-1723 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Silkworm Books. p. 205. ISBN 9747100452. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
179.Jump up ^ Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 6. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301.
180.Jump up ^ Lay, Pathi U Ko (1973). "Twentieth Anniversary Special Edition of Islam Damma Beikman". Myanmar Pyi and Islamic religion: 109–11.
181.Jump up ^ Muslim Communities in Myanmar. ColorQ World. ISBN 0-7391-0356-3.
182.Jump up ^ Daniels, Timothy P. (2005). Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia. Routledge. p. 189. ISBN 0-415-94971-8.
183.Jump up ^ Sheela Narayanan (October 17, 2008). "Go ahead, call me Chindian". AsiaOne. Retrieved 2009-10-08.
184.Jump up ^ "Interracial Dating & Marriage". asian-nation.org. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
185.Jump up ^ "Multiracial / Hapa Asian Americans". asian-nation.org. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
186.Jump up ^ Dumanig, Francisco P. (2009) Language Choice and Accommodation Strategies: The Case of Filipino-Malaysian Couples. 8th ISGC.
187.Jump up ^ From Discovery of India by Jawaharlal Nehru, reproduced from "History : Modern India" (p108) by S.N. Sen, New Age Publishers, ISBN 81-224-1774-4
188.Jump up ^ Corbridge, Staurt and Harriss, John (2000). Reinventing India: Liberalization, Hindu Nationalism and Popular Democracy. Polity press. p. 8. ISBN 0-7456-2076-0.
189.Jump up ^ Ayesha Jalal (1995). "Conjuring Pakistan: History as Official Imagining". International Journal of Middle East Studies 27 (1): 73–89. doi:10.1017/S0020743800061596. JSTOR 176188.
190.Jump up ^ *Jim Shaffer – "Current archaeological data do not support the existence of an Indo-Aryan or European invasion into South Asia any time in the pre- or protohistoric periods. Instead, it is possible to document archaeologically a series of cultural changes reflecting indigenous cultural developments from prehistoric to historic periods" Jim Shaffer. The Indo-Aryan Invasions : Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality. *J.P. Mallory – "... the extraordinary difficulty of making a case for expansions from Andronovo to northern India, and that attempts to link the Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent and Vakhsh cultures only gets the Indo-Iranian to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the Medes, Persians or Indo-Aryans". As quoted in Bryant (see below) *Edwin Bryant – "India is not the only Indo-European-speaking area that has not revealed any archaeological traces of immigration."there is at least a series of archaeological cultures that can be traced approaching the Indian subcontinent, even if discontinuous, which does not seem to be the case for any hypothetical east-to-west emigration" Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513777-9.. Bryant, Edwin F.; Patton, Laurie L., eds. (2005). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and inference in Indian history. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1463-4.
191.Jump up ^ Scientists Connect Indian Castes and European Heritage. Scientific American. May 15, 2001.
192.Jump up ^ Basu, Analabha et al. (2003). "Ethnic India: A Genomic View, With Special Reference to Peopling and Structure". Genome Research 13 (10): 2277–90. doi:10.1101/gr.1413403. PMC 403703. PMID 14525929.
193.Jump up ^ Mountain, Joanna L. et al. (April 1995). "Demographic history of India and mtDNA-sequence diversity". American Journal of Human Genetics 56 (4): 979–92. PMC 1801212. PMID 7717409.
194.Jump up ^ Thanseem, Ismail; Thangaraj, Kumarasamy; Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Singh, Vijay; Bhaskar, Lakkakula VKS; Reddy, B Mohan; Reddy, Alla G; Singh, Lalji et al. (2006). "Genetic affinities among the lower castes and tribal groups of India: inference from Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA". BMC Genetics 7: 42. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-7-42. PMC 1569435. PMID 16893451.
195.Jump up ^ Brian Handwerk (2006-01-10). "India Acquired Language, Not Genes, From West, Study Says". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2006-12-08.
196.Jump up ^ Indians are one people descended from two tribes. Dnaindia.com (2009-09-25). Retrieved 2012-05-09.
197.Jump up ^ Kalaydjieva, L.; Morar, B.; Chaix, R. and Tang, H. (2005). "A Newly Discovered Founder Population: The Roma/Gypsies". BioEssays 27 (10): 1084–94. doi:10.1002/bies.20287. PMID 16163730.
198.Jump up ^ Gresham, D; Morar, B; Underhill, PA; Passarino, G; Lin, AA; Wise, C; Angelicheva, D; Calafell, F et al. (1 December 2001). "Origins and Divergence of the Roma (Gypsies)". American Journal of Human Genetics 69 (6): 1314–31. doi:10.1086/324681. PMC 1235543. PMID 11704928.
199.Jump up ^ Sitsayamkan (1967) The Greek Favourite of the King of Siam, Donald Moore Press, p. 17
200.Jump up ^ Keat Gin Ooi (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1070–. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
201.Jump up ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857. Orient Blackswan. pp. 111–9, 129–30, 140, 154–6, 160–8. ISBN 81-7824-154-4.
202.^ Jump up to: a b c Fisher, Michael H. (2007). "Excluding and Including "Natives of India": Early-Nineteenth-Century British-Indian Race Relations in Britain". Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27 (2): 303–314 [304–5]. doi:10.1215/1089201x-2007-007.
203.Jump up ^ CHOWDHURY, RITA (November 18, 2012). "The Assamese Chinese story". The Hindu. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
204.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) DURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, inquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan"
205.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1909). Castes and tribes of southern India, Volume 2 (PDF). Government press. p. 99. Archived from the original on June 21, 2013. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "99 CHINESE-TAMIL CROSS in the Nilgiri jail. It is recorded * that, in 1868, twelve of the Chinamen " broke out during a very stormy night, and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight"
206.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston (2011). The Madras Presidency with Mysore, Coorg and the Associated States (reissue ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 218. ISBN 1107600685. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
207.Jump up ^ RADHAKRISHNAN, D. (April 19, 2014). "Unravelling Chinese link can boost Nilgiris tourism". The Hindu. Archived from the original on April 19, 2014. Retrieved 2014-05-17.http://www.bulletin247.com/english-news/show/unravelling-chinese-link-can-boost-nilgiris-tourism
208.Jump up ^ Raman, A (May 31, 2010). "Chinese in Madras". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
209.Jump up ^ Raman, A (July 12, 2010). "Quinine factory and Malay-Chinese workers". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
210.Jump up ^ "Chinese connection to the Nilgiris to help promote tourism potential". travel News Digest. 2013. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
211.Jump up ^ W. Francis (1908). The Nilgiris. Volume 1 of Madras District Gazetteers (reprint ed.). Logos Press. p. 184. Archived from the original on unknown. Retrieved 2014-05-17. Check date values in: |archivedate= (help)
212.Jump up ^ Madras (India : State) (1908). Madras District Gazetteers, Volume 1. Superintendent, Government Press. p. 184. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
213.Jump up ^ W. Francis (1908). The Nilgiris. Concept Publishing Company. p. 184. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
214.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin ..., Volumes 2-3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "ON A CHINESE-TAMIL CKOSS. Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of 'marriage' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating cofl'ce on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs. The measurements of a single family, excepting a widowed daughter whom I was not permitted to see, and an infant in arms, who was pacified with cake while I investigated its mother, are recorded in the following table:"
215.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba - Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 31. ISBN 81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
216.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin ..., Volumes 2-3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 32. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones. To have recorded the entire series of measurements of the children would have been useless for the purpose of comparison with those of the parents, and I selected from my repertoire the length and breadth of the head and nose, which plainly indicate the paternal influence on the external anatomy of the offspring. The figures given in the table bring out very clearly the great breadth, as compared with the length of the heads of all the children, and the resultant high cephalic index. In other words, in one case a mesaticephalic (79), and, in the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80"1; 801 ; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78-5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Pariah (76"8). How great is the breadth of the head in the children may be emphasised by noting that the average head-breadth of the adult Tamil Pariah man is only 13"7 cm., whereas that of the three boys, aged ten, nine, and five only, was 14 3, 14, and 13"7 cm. respectively. Quite as strongly marked is the effect of paternal influence on the character of the nose; the nasal index, in the case of each child (68"1 ; 717; 727; 68'3), bearing a much closer relation to that of the long nosed father (71'7) than to the typical Pariah nasal index of the broadnosed mother (78-7). It will be interesting to note, hereafter, what is the future of the younger members of this quaint little colony, and to observe the physical characters, temperament, improvement or deterioration, fecundity, and other points relating to the cross-breed resulting from the union of Chinese and Tamil."
217.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba - Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 32. ISBN 81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
218.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 99. ISBN 81-206-0288-9. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to "cut his tail off." The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil paraiyan,"
219.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 98. ISBN 81-206-0288-9. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
220.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 99. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
221.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India), Edgar Thurston (1897). Note on tours along the Malabar coast. Volumes 2-3 of Bulletin, Government Museum (Madras, India). Superintendent, Government Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
222.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1894). Bulletin, Volumes 1-2. Superintendent, Government Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
223.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1894). Bulletin. v. 2 1897-99. Madras : Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
224.Jump up ^ Madras Government Museum Bulletin. Vol II (No. 1). Madras. 1897. p. 31. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
225.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 273. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "Thurston found the Chinese element to be predominant among the offspring as will be evident from his description. 'The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil Paraiyan. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish"
226.Jump up ^ Mahadeb Prasad Basu (1990). An anthropological study of bodily height of Indian population. Punthi Pustak. p. 84. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "Sarkar (1959) published a pedigree showing Tamil-Chinese-English crosses in a place located in the Nilgiris. Thurston (1909) mentioned an instance of a mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female. Man (Deka 1954) described"
227.Jump up ^ Man in India, Volumes 34-35. A. K. Bose. 1954. p. 272. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male ) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883)."
228.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 272. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male ) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883)."
229.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 100. ISBN 81-206-0288-9. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80-1 ; 80-1 ; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78•5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Paraiyan (76-8)."
230.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. Retrieved 2012-03-02. "d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* ( Received on 21 September 1959 ) iURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, enquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan"
231.Jump up ^ The Caucasus as an asymmetric semipermeable barrier to ancient human migrations Yunusbayev, B.; Metspalu, M.; Jarve, M.; Kutuev, I.; Rootsi, S.; Metspalu, E.; Behar, D. M.; Varendi, K. et al. (2011). "The Caucasus as an Asymmetric Semipermeable Barrier to Ancient Human Migrations". Molecular Biology and Evolution 29 (1): 359–65. doi:10.1093/molbev/msr221. PMID 21917723.
232.Jump up ^ Dienekes' Anthropology Blog: The Caucasus revisited (Yunusbayev et al. 2011). Dienekes.blogspot.co.uk (2011-09-14). Retrieved 2013-06-22.
233.^ Jump up to: a b Enloe, Cynthia H. (2000). Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women's Lives. University of California Press. p. 61. ISBN 0-520-22071-4.
234.^ Jump up to: a b Greenhut, Jeffrey (April 1981). "Race, Sex, and War: The Impact of Race and Sex on Morale and Health Services for the Indian Corps on the Western Front, 1914". Military Affairs (Society for Military History) 45 (2): 71–74. doi:10.2307/1986964. JSTOR 1986964.
235.Jump up ^ Levine, Philippa (1998). "Battle Colors: Race, Sex, and Colonial Soldiery in World War I". Journal of Women's History 9.
236.Jump up ^ Dowling, Timothy C. (2006). Personal Perspectives: World War I. ABC-CLIO. pp. 35–6. ISBN 1-85109-565-9.
237.^ Jump up to: a b Omissi, David (2007). "Europe Through Indian Eyes: Indian Soldiers Encounter England and France, 1914–1918". English Historical Review (Oxford University Press). CXXII (496): 371–96. doi:10.1093/ehr/cem004.
238.Jump up ^ Xin Meng, Dominique Meurs (January 2007). "Intermarriage, Language, and Economic Assimilation Process: A Case Study of France". Institute for the Study of Labor. p. 5. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
239.^ Jump up to: a b c d "Low Rate of German-Turkish Marriages Impedes Integration". Deutsche Welle. 2008-02-24. Retrieved 2009-01-12.
240.Jump up ^ Thomas F. Glick, Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages
241.Jump up ^ Ivan van Sertima (1992), Golden Age of the Moor, Transaction Publishers, ISBN 1-56000-581-5
242.Jump up ^ Kees Versteegh, et al. Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, BRILL, 2006.
243.Jump up ^ Izquierdo Labrado, Julio. "La esclavitud en Huelva y Palos (1570–1587)" (in Spanish). Retrieved 2008-07-14.
244.Jump up ^ Salloum, Habeeb. "The impact of the Arabic language and culture on English and other European languages". The Honorary Consulate of Syria. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
245.Jump up ^ Robert Lacey (1983), Aristocrats, p. 67, Little, Brown and Company
246.Jump up ^ Sá, Lúcia. Rain Forest Literatures: Amazonian Texts and Latin American Culture. Minneapolis, Minnesota: U of Minnesota Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-8166-4325-7
247.Jump up ^ Helgason, A; Hickey, E; Goodacre, S; Bosnes, V; Stefánsson, K; Ward, R; Sykes, B (2001). "mtDNA and the Islands of the North Atlantic: Estimating the Proportions of Norse and Gaelic Ancestry". American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (3): 723–37. doi:10.1086/318785. PMC 1274484. PMID 11179019.
248.Jump up ^ Helgason, A; Sigureth Ardóttir, S; Gulcher, JR; Ward, R; Stefánsson, K (2000). "mtDNA and the Origin of the Icelanders: Deciphering Signals of Recent Population History". American Journal of Human Genetics 66 (3): 999–1016. doi:10.1086/302816. PMC 1288180. PMID 10712214.
249.Jump up ^ Ellrodt, AG; Conner, L; Riedinger, MS; Weingarten, S; Hill, Emmeline W.; Bradley, Daniel G.; Bosnes, Vidar; Gulcher, Jeffery R. et al. (2000). "Estimating Scandinavian and Gaelic Ancestry in the Male Settlers of Iceland". American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (12): 697–717. doi:10.1086/303046. PMC 1287529. PMID 10931763.
250.Jump up ^ ''Icelanders, a diverse bunch?''. Genomenewsnetwork.org (2000-08-11). Retrieved 2012-05-09.
251.Jump up ^ Emma Blake, Emma (2008). "The Familiar Honeycomb: Byzantine Era Reuse of Sicily's Prehistoric Rock-Cut Tombs". In Ruth M. Van Dyke, Susan E. Alcock. Archaeologies of Memory. Blackwell Publishers. p. 201. doi:10.1002/9780470774304.ch10. ISBN 978-0-470-77430-4.
252.Jump up ^ https://books.google.it/books?id=sQZ9hpwtiHkC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=cepit+seditionem+in+Sicilia+excitare,+terram+de+demanio+regis+invadere+et+Sarracenos+ubicumque+invenire+poterat+trucidare&source=bl&ots=l0O4VrbB-w&sig=36vleB1t_SKWDGsaFe2lfOftJok&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAWoVChMI14ja_uOCxgIVIsByCh2mggB4#v=onepage&q=cepit%20seditionem%20in%20Sicilia%20excitare%2C%20terram%20de%20demanio%20regis%20invadere%20et%20Sarracenos%20ubicumque%20invenire%20poterat%20trucidare&f=false
253.Jump up ^ Alex E. Felice, "Genetic origin of contemporary Maltese," The Sunday Times (of Malta), 5 August 2007, last visited 5 August 2007
254.Jump up ^ According to Alessandro Vezzosi, Head of the Leonardo Museum in Vinci, there is evidence that Piero owned a Middle Eastern slave called Caterina who gave birth to a boy called Leonardo. That Leonardo had Middle Eastern blood is supported by the reconstruction of a fingerprint: Falconi, Marta (2006-12-01). "Experts Reconstruct Leonardo Fingerprint". The Associated Press.
255.Jump up ^ Donald Quataert (2000). The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-521-63328-1.
256.Jump up ^ Jay Winik (2007), The Great Upheaval, Harper Perennial, ISBN 0-06-008314-X.
257.Jump up ^ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1244654/Study-finds-Britons-descended-farmers-left-Iraq-Syria-10-000-years-ago.html
258.Jump up ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857. Orient Blackswan. pp. 106, 111–6, 119–20, 129–35, 140–2, 154–6, 160–8, 172, 181. ISBN 81-7824-154-4.
259.Jump up ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). "Working across the Seas: Indian Maritime Labourers in India, Britain, and in Between, 1600–1857". International Review of Social History 51: 21–45. doi:10.1017/S0020859006002604.
260.Jump up ^ Radhakrishnan Nayar (January 5, 2003). "The lascars' lot". The Hindu. Retrieved 2009-01-16.
261.Jump up ^ Ansari, Humayun (2004). The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 37. ISBN 1-85065-685-1.
262.Jump up ^ "Growing Up". Moving Here. Retrieved 2009-02-12.
263.Jump up ^ Laura Levine Frader, Sonya O. Rose (1996). Gender and Class in Modern Europe. Cornell University Press. p. 184. ISBN 0-8014-8146-5.
264.Jump up ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857. Orient Blackswan. pp. 180–2. ISBN 81-7824-154-4.
265.^ Jump up to: a b c Ansari, Humayun (2004). The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 93–4. ISBN 1-85065-685-1.
266.Jump up ^ Bland, Lucy (April 2005). "White Women and Men of Colour: Miscegenation Fears in Britain after the Great War". Gender & History 17 (1): 29–61. doi:10.1111/j.0953-5233.2005.00371.x.
267.Jump up ^ Jackson, Louise Ainsley (2006). Women Police: Gender, Welfare and Surveillance in the Twentieth Century. Manchester University Press. p. 154. ISBN 0-7190-7390-1.
268.Jump up ^ A White Side of Black Britain (2011) by France Winddance Twine Routledge
269.Jump up ^ UK Chinese. Sacu.org (2006-01-23). Retrieved 2013-06-22.
270.Jump up ^ "Inter-Ethnic Marriage: 2% of all Marriages are Inter-Ethnic". National Statistics. 2005-03-21. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
271.Jump up ^ Love across the divide: interracial relationships growing in Britain, The Telegraph 3 Jul 2014
272.Jump up ^ Memorandum to British Cabinet by Patrick Gordon Walker, Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations, July 19, 1949.
273.Jump up ^ Redfern, John (1955). "An appeal". Ruth and Seretse: "A Very Disreputable Transaction". London: Victor Gollancz. p. 221. "The British government knew well enough, throughout the dispute, that the Union [of South Africa]'s Nationalist Government was playing up the theme of the protectorates, and that it was within the Union's power to apply economic sanctions at any time. (The latest available figures show that more than half the cattle exported from Bechuanaland go to the Union ...)"
274.Jump up ^ Rider, Clare (2003). "The "Unfortunate Marriage" of Seretse Khama". The Inner Temple Yearbook 2002/2003. Inner Temple. Archived from the original on 2006-07-19. Retrieved 2006-08-06. "Under the provisions of the South Africa Act of 1909, the Union laid claim to the neighbouring tribal territories and, as the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations pointed out to the Cabinet in 1949, the 'demand for this transfer might become more insistent if we disregard the Union government's views'. He went on, 'indeed, we cannot exclude the possibility of an armed incursion into the Bechuanaland Protectorate from the Union if Serestse were to be recognised forthwith, while feeling on the subject is inflamed'."
275.Jump up ^ Rider, Clare (2003). "The "Unfortunate Marriage" of Seretse Khama". The Inner Temple Yearbook 2002/2003. Inner Temple. Archived from the original on 2006-07-19. Retrieved 2006-08-06. "Since, in their opinion, friendly and co-operative relations with South Africa and Rhodesia were essential to the well-being of the Bamangwato Tribe and the whole of the Protectorate, Serestse, who enjoyed neither, could not be deemed fit to rule. They concluded: 'We have no hesitation in finding that, but for his unfortunate marriage, his prospects as Chief are as bright as those of any native in Africa with whom we have come into contact'."
276.^ Jump up to: a b c d McFadden, J., Moore, J.L. (2001). International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling 23 (4): 261–268. doi:10.1023/A:1014420107362. Missing or empty |title= (help)
277.^ Jump up to: a b Communicating Across Cultures. Culture-at-work.com (2003-07-23). Retrieved 2012-05-09.
278.^ Jump up to: a b "Interracial Couples". Archived from the original on 2007-10-15. Retrieved 2010-01-13.
279.Jump up ^ A White Side of Black Britain: Interracial Intimacy and Racial Literacy, in Ethnic and Racial Studies, (a special issue on racial hierarchy) vol. 27, no. 6 (November, 2004): 1-30.
280.Jump up ^ Donovan, S. (2004) Stress and coping techniques in successful intercultural marriages. Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1–87.
281.Jump up ^ Thompson J, Collier M (2006). "Toward Contingent Understandings of Intersecting Identifications among Selected U.S. Interracial Couples: Integrating Interpretive and Critical Views". Communication Quarterly 54 (4): 487–506. doi:10.1080/01463370601036671.
External links[edit]
A Black Nurse, a German Soldier and an Unlikely WWII Romance, The New York Times


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Homophobia

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Homophobia encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who are identified or perceived as being lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT).[1][2][3] It can be expressed as antipathy, contempt, prejudice, aversion, or hatred, may be based on irrational fear, and is sometimes related to religious beliefs.[4]
Homophobia is observable in critical and hostile behavior such as discrimination and violence on the basis of sexual orientations that are non-heterosexual.[1][2] Recognized types of homophobia include institutionalized homophobia, e.g. religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia, and internalized homophobia, experienced by people who have same-sex attractions, regardless of how they identify. Forms of homophobia toward identifiable LGBT social groups have similar yet specific names: lesbophobia – the intersection of homophobia and sexism directed against lesbians, biphobia – towards bisexuality and bisexual people, and transphobia, which targets transsexualism, transsexual and transgender people, and gender variance or gender role nonconformity.[1][3][5]
In the USA, according to the 2010 Hate Crimes Statistics released by the FBI National Press Office, 19.3 percent of hate crimes across the United States "were motivated by a sexual orientation bias."[6] Moreover, in a Southern Poverty Law Center 2010 Intelligence Report extrapolating data from fourteen years (1995–2008), which had complete data available at the time, of the FBI's national hate crime statistics found that LGBT people were "far more likely than any other minority group in the United States to be victimized by violent hate crime."[7]


Contents  [hide]
1 Origins
2 Classification 2.1 Institutionalized homophobia 2.1.1 Religious attitudes 2.1.1.1 Christianity and the Bible
2.1.1.2 Islam and sharia
2.1.2 State-sponsored homophobia 2.1.2.1 Past regimes
2.1.2.2 Current governments

2.2 Internalized homophobia
2.3 Social homophobia
3 Distribution of attitudes
4 Efforts to combat homophobia
5 Criticism of meaning and purpose 5.1 Distinctions and proposed alternatives
5.2 Opposition to the term "homophobia" 5.2.1 Non-neutral phrasing
5.2.2 Heterophobia

6 See also
7 References
8 External links

Origins
Although sexual attitudes tracing back to Ancient Greece (8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca. 600 AD)) have been termed homophobia by scholars, the term itself is relatively new,[8] and an intolerance towards homosexuality and homosexuals grew during the Middle Ages, especially by adherents of Islam and Christianity.[9]
Coined by George Weinberg, a psychologist, in the 1960s,[10] the term homophobia is a blend of (1) the word homosexual, itself a mix of neo-classical morphemes, and (2) phobia from the Greek φόβος, Phóbos, meaning "fear" or "morbid fear".[11][12][13] Weinberg is credited as the first person to have used the term in speech.[8] The word homophobia first appeared in print in an article written for the May 23, 1969, edition of the American pornographic magazine Screw, in which the word was used to refer to heterosexual men's fear that others might think they are gay.[8]
Conceptualizing anti-LGBT prejudice as a social problem worthy of scholarly attention was not new. A 1969 article in Time described examples of negative attitudes toward homosexuality as "homophobia", including "a mixture of revulsion and apprehension" which some called homosexual panic.[14] In 1971, Kenneth Smith used homophobia as a personality profile to describe the psychological aversion to homosexuality.[15] Weinberg also used it this way in his 1972 book Society and the Healthy Homosexual,[16] published one year before the American Psychiatric Association voted to remove homosexuality from its list of mental disorders.[17][18] Weinberg's term became an important tool for gay and lesbian activists, advocates, and their allies.[8] He describes the concept as a medical phobia:[16]

[A] phobia about homosexuals.... It was a fear of homosexuals which seemed to be associated with a fear of contagion, a fear of reducing the things one fought for — home and family. It was a religious fear and it had led to great brutality as fear always does.[8]
In 1981, homophobia was used for the first time in The Times (of London) to report that the General Synod of the Church of England voted to refuse to condemn homosexuality.[19]
Classification



 Brochure used by Save Our Children, a political coalition formed in 1977 in Miami, Florida, U.S., to overturn a recently legislated county ordinance that banned discrimination in areas of housing, employment, and public accommodation based on sexual orientation
Homophobia manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others.[20] There were also ideas to classify homophobia, racism, and sexism as an intolerant personality disorder.[21]
In 1992, the American Psychiatric Association, recognizing the power of the stigma against homosexuality, issued the following statement, reaffirmed by the Board of Trustees, July 2011: "Whereas homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social or vocational capabilities, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) calls on all international health organizations, psychiatric organizations, and individual psychiatrists in other countries to urge the repeal in their own countries of legislation that penalizes homosexual acts by consenting adults in private. Further, APA calls on these organizations and individuals to do all that is possible to decrease the stigma related to homosexuality wherever and whenever it may occur."[22]
Institutionalized homophobia
Religious attitudes
Main article: Religion and homosexuality



 Religious protestors at a pride parade in Jerusalem, Israel, with a sign that reads, "Homo sex is immoral (Lev. 18/22)". The association of homosexual sex with immorality or sinfulness is seen by many as a homophobic act.
Many world religions contain anti-homosexual teachings, while other religions have varying degrees of ambivalence, neutrality, or incorporate teachings regarding homosexuals as third gender. Even within some religions which generally discourage homosexuality, there are also people who view homosexuality positively, and some religious denominations bless or conduct same-sex marriages. There also exist so-called Queer religions, dedicated to serving the spiritual needs of LGBTQI persons. Queer theology seeks to provide a counterpoint to religious homophobia.[23]
Christianity and the Bible
Main articles: Christianity and homosexuality and The Bible and homosexuality
The Bible, especially the Old Testament, contains some passages commonly interpreted as condemning homosexuality or same-gender sexual relations. Leviticus 18:22, says "Thou shalt not lie with mankind, as with womankind: it is abomination." The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah is also commonly seen as a condemnation of homosexuality. Christians and Jews who oppose homosexuality often cite such passages; historical context and interpretation is more complicated. Scholarly debate over the interpretation of these passages has focused on placing them in proper historical context, for instance pointing out that Sodom's sins are historically interpreted as being other than homosexuality, and on the translation of rare or unusual words in the passages in question. In Religion Dispatches magazine, Candace Chellew-Hodge argues that the six or so verses that are often cited to condemn LGBT people are referring instead to "abusive sex." She states that the Bible has no condemnation for "loving, committed, gay and lesbian relationships" and that Jesus was silent on the subject.[24]
The official teaching of the Catholic Church regarding homosexuality is that same-sex behavior should not be expressed.[25] The Catechism of the Catholic Church States that, "'homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered.'...They are contrary to the natural law.... Under no circumstances can they be approved."[26] The Catholic Church also campaigns politically against LGBT rights.[citation needed]
Islam and sharia
Main article: Homosexuality and Islam
In some cases, the distinction between religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia is not clear, a key example being territories under Islamic authority. All major Islamic sects forbid homosexuality, which is a crime under Sharia Law and treated as such in most Muslim countries. In Afghanistan, for instance, homosexuality carried the death penalty under the Taliban. After their fall, homosexuality went from a capital crime to one punished with fines and prison sentences. The legal situation in the United Arab Emirates, however, is unclear.
In 2009, the International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA) published a report entitled State Sponsored Homophobia 2009,[27] which is based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College, Stockholm, Sweden. This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal:[28][29]
Five carry the death penalty for homosexual activity: Iran, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen.[30] Since the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran, the Iranian government has executed more than 4,000 people charged with homosexual acts.[31][32] In Saudi Arabia, the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public execution, but the government will use other punishments – e.g., fines, jail time, whipping – and even forced sex change as alternatives, unless it feels that people engaging in homosexual activity are challenging state authority by engaging in LGBT social movements.[33]
Two do in some regions: Nigeria, Somalia[30]
In 2001, Al-Muhajiroun, an international organization seeking the establishment of a global Islamic caliphate, issued a fatwa declaring that all members of The Al-Fatiha Foundation (which advances the cause of gay, lesbian, and transgender Muslims) were murtadd, or apostates, and condemning them to death. Because of the threat and because they come from conservative societies, many members of the foundation's site still prefer to be anonymous so as to protect their identity while continuing a tradition of secrecy.[34]
See also: Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni, Arsham Parsi, Irshad Manji
State-sponsored homophobia
State-sponsored homophobia includes the criminalization and penalization of homosexuality, hate speech from government figures, and other forms of discrimination, violence, persecution of LGBT people.[35]
Past regimes
Main articles: LGBT rights in China, History of Christianity and homosexuality and LGBT rights in Russia
See also: History of homosexual people in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust
In medieval Europe, homosexuality was considered sodomy and was punishable by death. Persecutions reached their height during the Medieval Inquisitions, when the sects of Cathars and Waldensians were accused of fornication and sodomy, alongside accusations of satanism. In 1307, accusations of sodomy and homosexuality were major charges leveled during the Trial of the Knights Templar.[36] The theologian Thomas Aquinas was influential in linking condemnations of homosexuality with the idea of natural law, arguing that "special sins are against nature, as, for instance, those that run counter to the intercourse of male and female natural to animals, and so are peculiarly qualified as unnatural vices."[37]
Although bisexuality was accepted as normal human behavior in Ancient China,[38] homophobia became ingrained in the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China from interactions with the Christian West,[39] and homosexual behaviour was outlawed in 1740.[40] When Mao Zedong came to power, the government thought of homosexuality as "social disgrace or a form of mental illness", and "[d]uring the cultural revolution (1966–76), people who were homosexual faced their worst period of persecution in Chinese history." Despite there being no law in the communist People's Republic against homosexuality, "police regularly rounded up gays and lesbians." Other laws were used to prosecute homosexual people and they were "charged with hooliganism or disturbing public order."[41]
The Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin decriminalized homosexuality in 1922, long before many other European countries. The Soviet Communist Party effectively legalized no-fault divorce, abortion and homosexuality, when they abolished all the old Tsarist laws and the initial Soviet criminal code kept these liberal sexual policies in place.[42] Lenin's emancipation was reversed a decade later by Joseph Stalin and homosexuality remained illegal under Article 121 until the Yeltsin era.
Homosexuals were one of the many groups alongside Jews that were murdered during the Holocaust.
Current governments
Main articles: LGBT rights in Iran, LGBT rights in Jamaica, LGBT rights in North Korea, LGBT rights in Uganda and LGBT rights in Zimbabwe
See also: Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill



 Protests in New York City against Uganda's Anti-Homosexuality Bill.
The North Korean government condemns Western gay culture as a vice caused by the decadence of capitalist society, and denounces it as promoting consumerism, classism, and promiscuity.[43] In North Korea, "violating the rules of collective socialist life" can be punished with up to two years' imprisonment.[44] However, according to the North Korean government, "As a country that has embraced science and rationalism, the DPRK recognizes that many individuals are born with homosexuality as a genetic trait and treats them with due respect. Homosexuals in the DPRK have never been subject to repression, as in many capitalist regimes around the world."
Robert Mugabe, the president of Zimbabwe, has waged a violent campaign against LGBT people, arguing that before colonisation, Zimbabweans did not engage in homosexual acts.[45] His first major public condemnation of homosexuality was in August 1995, during the Zimbabwe International Book Fair.[46] He told an audience: "If you see people parading themselves as lesbians and gays, arrest them and hand them over to the police!"[47] In September 1995, Zimbabwe's parliament introduced legislation banning homosexual acts.[46] In 1997, a court found Canaan Banana, Mugabe's predecessor and the first President of Zimbabwe, guilty of 11 counts of sodomy and indecent assault.[48][49]
Internalized homophobia
Internalized homophobia refers to negative stereotypes, beliefs, stigma, and prejudice about homosexuality and LGBT people that a person with same-sex attraction turns inward on themselves, whether or not they identify as LGBT.[50][51][52] The degree to which someone is affected by these ideas depends on how much and which ideas they have consciously and subconsciously internalized.[53] These negative beliefs can be mitigated with education, life experience and therapy,[52][54] especially with gay-friendly psychotherapy/analysis.[55] Internalized homophobia also applies to conscious or unconscious behaviors which a person feels the need to promote or conform to cultural expectations of heteronormativity or heterosexism.[50] This can include extreme repression and denial coupled with forced outward displays of heteronormative behavior for the purpose of appearing or attempting to feel "normal" or "accepted."[50] Expressions of internalized homophobia can also be subtle. Some less overt behaviors may include making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles.[50] Some researchers also apply this label to LGBT people who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find civil unions acceptable in place of same-sex marriage.[56]
Some studies have shown that people who are homophobic are more likely to have repressed homosexual desires.[57] In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual men (half said they were homophobic by experience, with self-reported orientation) at the University of Georgia found that men who were found to be homophobic (as measured by the Index of Homophobia)[58] were considerably more likely to experience more erectile responses when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men.[59] Another study in 2012 arrived at similar results when researchers found that students who came from "the most rigid anti-gay homes" were most likely to reveal repressed homosexual attraction.[60] The researchers noted that this explained why some religious leaders who denounce homosexuality are later revealed to have secret homosexual relations.[60] The researchers noted that "these people are at war with themselves and are turning this internal conflict outward."[60]
Researcher Iain R. Williamson, in his 1998 work "Internalized Homophobia and Health Issues Affecting Lesbians and Gay Men" finds the term homophobia to be "highly problematic" but for reasons of continuity and consistency with the majority of other publications on the issue retains its use rather than using more accurate but obscure terminology.[52] The phrase internalized sexual stigma is sometimes used in place to represent internalized homophobia.[59] An internalized stigma arises when a person believes negative stereotypes about themselves, regardless of where the stereotype come from. It can also refer to many stereotypes beyond sexuality and gender roles. Internalized homophobia can cause discomfort with and disapproval of one's own sexual orientation. Ego-dystonic sexual orientation or egodystonic homophobia, for instance, is a condition characterized by having a sexual orientation or an attraction that is at odds with one's idealized self-image, causing anxiety and a desire to change one's orientation or become more comfortable with one's sexual orientation. Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires.[58] In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong sexual and emotional desires. This discordance can cause clinical depression, and a higher rate of suicide among LGBT youth (up to 30 percent of non-heterosexual youth attempt suicide) has been attributed to this phenomenon.[53] Psychotherapy, such as gay affirmative psychotherapy, and participation in a sexual-minority affirming group can help resolve the internal conflicts, such as between religious beliefs and sexual identity.[59] Even informal therapies that address understanding and accepting of non-heterosexual orientations can prove effective.[53] Many diagnostic "Internalized Homophobia Scales" can be used to measure a person's discomfort with their sexuality and some can be used by people regardless of gender or sexual orientation. Critics of the scales note that they presume a discomfort with non-heterosexuality which in itself enforces heternormativity.[58]
Social homophobia



Ryan Halligan committed suicide due to bullying which included receiving homophobic messages
The fear of being identified as gay can be considered as a form of social homophobia. Theorists including Calvin Thomas and Judith Butler have suggested that homophobia can be rooted in an individual's fear of being identified as gay. Homophobia in men is correlated with insecurity about masculinity.[61][62] For this reason, homophobia is allegedly rampant in sports, and in the subculture of its supporters that is considered stereotypically male, such as association football and rugby.[63]
These theorists have argued that a person who expresses homophobic thoughts and feelings does so not only to communicate their beliefs about the class of gay people, but also to distance themselves from this class and its social status. Thus, by distancing themselves from gay people, they are reaffirming their role as a heterosexual in a heteronormative culture, thereby attempting to prevent themselves from being labeled and treated as a gay person. This interpretation alludes to the idea that a person may posit violent opposition to "the Other" as a means of establishing their own identity as part of the majority and thus gaining social validation.
Nancy J. Chodorow states that homophobia can be viewed as a method of protection of male masculinity.[64]
Various psychoanalytic theories explain homophobia as a threat to an individual's own same-sex impulses, whether those impulses are imminent or merely hypothetical. This threat causes repression, denial or reaction formation.[65]
Distribution of attitudes
Further information: Societal attitudes toward homosexuality



Westboro Baptist Church protesters, in Oklahoma, 2005


 American Democrats and Republicans have differing attitudes towards gay and lesbian people


 Between January 2010 and November 2014, 47 individuals have been killed due to their real or perceived sexual orientation or gender identity in Turkey aacording to online news sources.
Disapproval of homosexuality and of gay people is not evenly distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced according to age, ethnicity, geographic location, race, sex, social class, education, partisan identification and religious status.[66] According to UK HIV/AIDS charity AVERT, religious views, lack of homosexual feelings or experiences, and lack of interaction with gay people are strongly associated with such views.[67]
The anxiety of heterosexual individuals (particularly adolescents whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is based in part on not being seen as gay) that others may identify them as gay[68][69] has also been identified by Michael Kimmel as an example of homophobia.[70] The taunting of boys seen as eccentric (and who are not usually gay) is said to be endemic in rural and suburban American schools, and has been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence (such as a spate of school shootings) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their masculinity.[71] Homophobic bullying is also very common in schools in the United Kingdom.[72]
In some cases, the works of authors who merely have the word "Gay" in their name (Gay Talese, Peter Gay) or works about things also contain the name (Enola Gay) have been destroyed because of a perceived pro-homosexual bias.[73]
In the United States, attitudes about people who are homosexual may vary on the basis of partisan identification. Republicans are far more likely than Democrats to have negative attitudes about people who are gay and lesbian, according to surveys conducted by the National Election Studies from 2000 through 2004. This disparity is shown in the graph on the right, which is from a book published in 2008 by Joseph Fried. The tendency of Republicans to view gay and lesbian people negatively could be based on homophobia, religious beliefs, or conservatism with respect to the traditional family.[74]
Homophobia also varies by region; statistics show that the Southern United States has more reports of anti-gay prejudice than any other region in the US.[75]
In a 1998 address, author, activist, and civil rights leader Coretta Scott King stated that "Homophobia is like racism and anti-Semitism and other forms of bigotry in that it seeks to dehumanize a large group of people, to deny their humanity, their dignity and personhood."[76] One study of white adolescent males conducted at the University of Cincinnati by Janet Baker has been used to argue that negative feelings towards gay people are also associated with other discriminatory behaviors.[77] According to the study, hatred of gay people, anti-Semitism, and racism are "likely companions."[77] Baker hypothesized "maybe it's a matter of power and looking down on all you think are at the bottom."[77] A study performed in 2007 in the UK for the charity Stonewall reports that up to 90 percent of the population support anti-discrimination laws protecting gay and lesbian people.[78]
Social constructs and culture can perpetuate homophobic attitudes. Such cultural sources in the black community include:
Music and music videos[79][80][81]
Churches[82][83][84]
Sources of homophobia in the white community include:
The Arts
Films and literature that project negative gay stereotypes.[85]Churches[86]
Professional sports in many countries involves homophobic expressions by star athletes and by fans. Incidents in the United States have included:
Hockey
The homophobic chants and attitudes of certain fans, for example the labeling of one fan who frequently dances at games as "Homo Larry", have been protested by attendees of New York Rangers games and by New York City Council Speaker Christine Quinn.[87]Basketball
All-Star National Basketball Association player Tim Hardaway drew criticism after he said on the "790 the Ticket" radio show, "Well, you know, I hate gay people. I let it be known I don’t like gay people. I don’t like to be around gay people. I’m homophobic. I don’t like it, it shouldn’t be in the world, in the United States, I don’t like it.”[88]
However, the major professional sports leagues do not advocate homophobia, and regard the LGBT community as an important marketing base.[89][90][91]
Efforts to combat homophobia



 An anti-homophobia protester at a demonstration in Paris, in 2005
Most international human rights organizations, such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, condemn laws that make homosexual relations between consenting adults a crime. Since 1994, the United Nations Human Rights Committee has also ruled that such laws violated the right to privacy guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In 2008, the Roman Catholic Church issued a statement which "urges States to do away with criminal penalties against [homosexual persons]." The statement, however, was addressed to reject a resolution by the UN Assembly that would have precisely called for an end of penalties against homosexuals in the world.[92] In March 2010, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted a recommendation on measures to combat discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity, described by CoE Secretary General as the first legal instrument in the world dealing specifically with one of the most long-lasting and difficult forms of discrimination to combat.[93]
To combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as gay pride parades and political activism (See gay pride). This is criticized by some[who?] as counter-productive though, as gay pride parades showcase what could be seen as more "extreme" sexuality: fetish-based and gender-variant aspects of LGBT culture. One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the International Day Against Homophobia (or IDAHO),[94] first celebrated May 17, 2005 in related activities in more than 40 countries.[95] The four largest countries of Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Colombia) developed mass media campaigns against homophobia since 2002.[96]
In addition to public expression, legislation has been designed, controversially, to oppose homophobia, as in hate speech, hate crime, and laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Successful preventative strategies against homophobic prejudice and bullying in schools have included teaching pupils about historical figures who were gay, or who suffered discrimination because of their sexuality.[97]
Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral and goes above and beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme right-wing conservatives and fundamentalist religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly.[98] Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular stated:

"Anti-gay bias causes young people to engage in sexual behavior earlier in order to prove that they are straight. Anti-gay bias contributed significantly to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. Anti-gay bias prevents the ability of schools to create effective honest sexual education programs that would save children's lives and prevent STDs (sexually transmitted diseases)."[98]
Criticism of meaning and purpose
Distinctions and proposed alternatives
Researchers have proposed alternative terms to describe prejudice and discrimination against LGBT people. Some of these alternatives show more semantic transparency while others do not include -phobia:
Homoerotophobia, being a possible precursor term to homophobia, was coined by Wainwright Churchill and documented in Homosexual Behavior Among Males in 1967.
The etymology of homophobia citing the union of homos and phobos is the basis for LGBT historian Boswell's criticism of the term and for his suggestion in 1980 of the alternative homosexophobia.[99]
Homonegativity is based on the term homonegativism used by Hudson and Ricketts in a 1980 paper; they coined the term for their research in order to avoid homophobia, which they regarded as being unscientific in its presumption of motivation.[100]
Heterosexism refers to a system of negative attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favour of opposite-sex sexual orientation and relationships.[101] p. 13 It can include the presumption that everyone is heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the only norm[102] and therefore superior.
Sexual prejudice – Researcher at the University of California, Davis Gregory M. Herek preferred sexual prejudice as being descriptive, free of presumptions about motivations, and lacking value judgments as to the irrationality or immorality of those so labeled.[103][104] He compared homophobia, heterosexism, and sexual prejudice, and, in preferring the third term, noted that homophobia was "probably more widely used and more often criticized." He also observed that "Its critics note that homophobia implicitly suggests that antigay attitudes are best understood as an irrational fear and that they represent a form of individual psychopathology rather than a socially reinforced prejudice."
Opposition to the term "homophobia"
People and groups have objected to the use of the term "homophobia".[105][106][107]
Non-neutral phrasing
Use of homophobia, homophobic, and homophobe has been criticized as pejorative against LGBT rights opponents. Behavioral scientists William O'Donohue and Christine Caselles state that "as [homophobia] is usually used, makes an illegitimately pejorative evaluation of certain open and debatable value positions, much like the former disease construct of homosexuality" itself, arguing that the term may be used as an ad hominem argument against those who advocate values or positions of which the user does not approve.[108]
In 2012 the Associated Press Style Book was revised to advise against using non-clinical words with the suffix -phobia, including homophobia, in "political and social contexts." AP Deputy Standards Editor Dave Minthorn said the word homophobia suggests a severe mental disorder, and that it could be substituted with "anti-gay" or similar phrasing.[109][110] The AP's decision was criticized in some media outlets, especially those in the LGBT area,[111] who argued that homophobia did not necessarily have to be interpreted in a strict clinical sense.[112][113]
Heterophobia
The term heterophobia is sometimes used to describe reverse discrimination or negative attitudes towards heterosexual people and opposite-sex relationships.[114] The scientific use of "heterophobia" in sexology is restricted to few researchers, notably those who question Alfred Kinsey's sex research.[115][116] To date, the existence or extent of heterophobia is mostly unrecognized by sexologists.[114] Beyond sexology there is no consensus as to the meaning of the term because it is also used to mean "fear of the opposite" such as in Pierre-André Taguieff's The Force of Prejudice: On Racism and Its Doubles (2001).
Referring to the debate on both meaning and use, SUNY lecturer Raymond J. Noonan, in his 1999 presentation to The Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality (SSSS) and the American Association of Sex Educators, Counselors, and Therapists (AASECT) Conference[114] states:

The term heterophobia is confusing for some people for several reasons. On the one hand, some look at it as just another of the many me-too social constructions that have arisen in the pseudoscience of victimology in recent decades. (Many of us recall John Money’s 1995 criticism of the ascendancy of victimology and its negative impact on sexual science.) Others look at the parallelism between heterophobia and homophobia, and suggest that the former trivializes the latter... For others, it is merely a curiosity or parallel-construction word game. But for others still, it is part of both the recognition and politicization of heterosexuals' cultural interests in contrast to those of gays—particularly where those interests are perceived to clash.
Stephen M. White and Louis R. Franzini introduced the related term of "heteronegativism" to refer to the considerable range of negative feelings that some gay individuals may hold and express toward heterosexuals. This term is preferred to "heterophobia" because it does not imply extreme or irrational fear.[117]
See also


Allophilia
Corrective rape
Faggot (slang)
Gay panic defense
Genderism

Homosexual agenda
Homophobia in the African American community
Homophobia in the Asian American community
Homophobia in the Black community
Homophobia in the Black British community
Homosexual panic
Homosexuality and Citizenship in Florida (pamphlet)
Lavender scare

Queer migration
Non-binary discrimination
Riddle homophobia scale
Stop Murder Music
Yogyakarta Principles


Portal icon LGBT portal

References
1.^ Jump up to: a b c Maurianne Adams, Lee Anne Bell, Pat Griffin (2007). Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice. Routledge. pp. 198–199. ISBN 1135928509. Retrieved December 27, 2014. "Because of the complicated interplay among gender identity, gender roles, and sexual identity, transgender people are often assumed to be lesbian or gay (See Overview: Sexism, Heterosexism, and Transgender Oppression). ... Because transgender identity challenges a binary conception of sexuality and gender, educators must clarify their own understanding of these concepts. ... Facilitators must be able to help participants understand the connections among sexism, heterosexism, and transgender oppression and the ways in which gender roles are maintained, in part, through homophobia."
2.^ Jump up to: a b Claire M. Renzetti, Jeffrey L. Edleson (2008). Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Violence. SAGE Publications. p. 338. ISBN 1452265917. Retrieved December 27, 2014. "In a culture of homophobia (an irrational fear of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender [GLBT] people), GLBT people often face a heightened risk of violence specific to their sexual identities."
3.^ Jump up to: a b Kerri Durnell Schuiling, Frances E. Likis (2011). Women's Gynecologic Health. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 187–188. ISBN 0763756377. Retrieved December 27, 2014. "Homophobia is an individual's irrational fear or hate of homosexual people. This may include bisexual or transgender persons, but sometimes the more distinct terms of biphobia or transphobia, respectively, are used."
4.Jump up ^ "webster.com". 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
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"European Parliament resolution on homophobia in Europe", Texts adopted Wednesday, 18 January 2006 – Strasbourg Final edition- "Homophobia in Europe" at "A" point
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52.^ Jump up to: a b c Oxford Journal of Medicine, Health Education Research, Volume 15, Issue 1, Pp. 97-107, Iain R. Williamson, in their 1998 work "Internalized Homophobia and Health Issues Affecting Lesbians and Gay Men."
53.^ Jump up to: a b c Journal of Adolescent Health Care, Volume 9, Issue 2, March 1988, pp. 114–122, Mental health issues of gay and lesbian adolescents, John C. Gonsiorek, Ph.D.
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55.Jump up ^ HTS Theological Studies/Teologiese Studies > Vol 63, No 1 (2007), Hegemony and the Internalisation of Homophobia Caused by Heteronormativity, Y Dreyer.
56.Jump up ^ Marriage amendments and psychological distress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adults. Rostosky, Sharon Scales; Riggle, Ellen D. B.; Horne, Sharon G.; Miller, Angela D. Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol 56(1), Jan 2009, 56-66. doi:10.1037/a0013609.
57.Jump up ^ Summarized in an American Psychological Association press release, August 1996: "New Study Links Homophobia with Homosexual Arousal" at the Wayback Machine (archived February 2, 2004).
58.^ Jump up to: a b c Adams HE, Wright LW, Lohr BA (August 1996). "Is homophobia associated with homosexual arousal?". J Abnorm Psychol 105 (3): 440–5. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.105.3.440. PMID 8772014.Summarized in an American Psychological Association press release, August 1996: "New Study Links Homophobia with Homosexual Arousal" at the Wayback Machine (archived February 2, 2004).
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60.^ Jump up to: a b c Why Homophobes Hate, The Week, April 27, 2012
61.Jump up ^ "Masculinity Challenged, Men Prefer War and SUVs".
62.Jump up ^ "Homophobia and Hip-Hop". PBS. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
63.Jump up ^ "Fans' culture hard to change".
64.Jump up ^ Nancy J. Chodorow. Statement in a public forum on homophobia by The American Psychoanalytic Foundation, 1999
65.Jump up ^ West, D.J. Homosexuality re-examined. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977. ISBN 0-8166-0812-1
66.Jump up ^ Herek, Gregory M. (2004). "Beyond "Homophobia": Thinking about sexual prejudice and stigma in the twenty-first century" (PDF). Sexuality Research and Social Policy. Number 2 1: 6–24. doi:10.1525/srsp.2004.1.2.6. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
67.Jump up ^ "Prejudice & Attitudes to Gay Men & Lesbians".
68.Jump up ^ Epstein, D. (1995). "Keeping them in their place: Hetero/sexist harassment, gender and the enforcement of heterosexuality." In J. Holland&L. Adkins (Eds.), Sex, sensibility and the gendered body. London: Macmillan.
69.Jump up ^ Herek, Gregory M; Society for the Psychological Study of Lesbian and Gay Issues (1998). Stigma and sexual orientation : understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay issues, v. 4. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0-8039-5385-7.
70.Jump up ^ Kimmel, M. (1994). Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame and silence in the construction of gender identity. In H. Brod & M. Kaufman (Eds.), Theorizing masculinities (pp. 119–141). Newbury Park, CA: Sage
71.Jump up ^ Kimmel, Michael S; Mahler, Matthew (2003). Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence: Random School Shootings, 1982–2001. Am Behav Sci 46 (10). pp. 1439–58. doi:10.1177/0002764203046010010. ISSN 0002-7642. OCLC 437621566.
72.Jump up ^ "How fair is Britain? the first Triennial Review". Equality and Human Rights Commission. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
73.Jump up ^ Petras, Kathryn; Petras, Ross (2003). Unusually Stupid Americans (A compendium of all American Stupidity). New York: Villard Books. p. 103. ISBN 0-9658068-7-1.
74.Jump up ^ Fried, Joseph (2008). Democrats and Republicans—rhetoric and reality : comparing the voters in statistics and anecdotes. Algora Pub. p. 185. ISBN 0-87586-605-0.
75.Jump up ^ Lyons, P. M., Jr.; Anthony, C. M.; Davis, K. M.; Fernandez, K.; Torres, A. N.; Marcus, D. K. (2005). "Police Judgements of Culpability and Homophobia". Appl Psychol Crim Justice 1 (1): 1–14.
76.Jump up ^ Chicago Defender, April 1, 1998, front page
77.^ Jump up to: a b c "Homophobia, racism likely companions, study shows". Jet. January 10, 1994. p. 12.
78.Jump up ^ Muir, Hugh (May 23, 2007). "Majority support gay equality rights, poll finds". London: Guardian. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
79.Jump up ^ Urban, Robert (June 1, 2006). "Taking the Homophobia Out of Hip-Hop: A Progress Report". After Elton.
80.Jump up ^ "Beyond Beats and Rhymes". pbs.org. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
81.Jump up ^ "Issue Brief: Gender Violence and Homophobia" (PDF).[dead link]
82.Jump up ^ Banerjee, Neela (January 21, 2006). "Black Churches' Attitudes Toward Gay Parishioners Is Discussed at Conference". The New York Times. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
83.Jump up ^ Michel, Amanda (January 25, 2008). "Obama takes on the black community's homophobia". Huffington Post.
84.Jump up ^ "black gay christian church and homosexuality OPERATION: REBIRTH".
85.Jump up ^ Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman (1995). "The Celluloid Closet". Film.
86.Jump up ^ "Catholic Answers on Homosexuality". www.catholic.com. Retrieved 11/09/2011. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
87.Jump up ^ Thomas, Katie (March 21, 2008). "When Tradition and Taunts Collide: Gay Hockey Fans Criticize Garden". The New York Times. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
88.Jump up ^ "Love and Basketball: Homophobia in Sports".
89.Jump up ^ Homophobia in professional sports – Features]
90.Jump up ^ "Gay and lesbian sports site, for sports enthusiasts and athletes worldwide". Gay Sports. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
91.Jump up ^ "Archive 2008, gaybaseballdays.com". Archived from the original on 2008-07-15.
92.Jump up ^ "Statement of the Holy See Delegation at the 63rd Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations on the Declaration on Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity". vatican.va. 18 December 2008.
93.Jump up ^ "Council of Europe to advance human rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons". coe.int. 2010-04-01.
94.Jump up ^ "Towards an international Day against Homophobia", April 10, 2004
95.Jump up ^ "1st Annual International Day Against Homophobia to be Celebrated in over 40 Countries on May 17[dead link]", May 12, 2005
96.Jump up ^ ""Campaigns against Homophobia in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico". Pan American Health Organization. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
97.Jump up ^ Shepherd, Jessica (26 October 2010). "Lessons on gay history cut homophobic bullying in north London school". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
98.^ Jump up to: a b Blumenfeld, Warren J (1992). Homophobia : how we all pay the price. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-7919-5.
99.Jump up ^ Boswell, John (1980). Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality: Gay people in Western Europe from the beginning of the Christian era to the fourteenth century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
100.Jump up ^ Hudson, WW; Ricketts, WA (1980). A strategy for the measurement of homophobia. Journal of Homosexuality 5 (4). pp. 357–72. doi:10.1300/J082v05n04_02. ISSN 0091-8369. OCLC 115532547. PMID 7204951.
101.Jump up ^ Jung, Patricia Beattie; Smith, Ralph F. (1993). Heterosexism: An Ethical Challenge. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-1696-8.
102.Jump up ^ "Avis au public". Granddictionnaire.com. Retrieved 2010-09-03.
103.Jump up ^ Herek GM (1990). "The context of anti-gay violence: Notes on cultural and psychological heterosexism". J Interpers Violence 5 (3): 316–33. doi:10.1177/088626090005003006.
104.Jump up ^ Herek, Gregory M. (2000). "The psychology of sexual prejudice" (PDF). Curr Dir Psychol Sci 9.
105.Jump up ^ Banks, James A. (2012-05-24). Encyclopedia of Diversity in Education. SAGE. pp. 1093–. ISBN 978-1-4129-8152-1. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
106.Jump up ^ Patterson, Eric (2008-03-31). On Brokeback Mountain: Meditations About Masculinity, Fear, and Love in the Story and the Film. Lexington Books. pp. 42–. ISBN 978-0-7391-2165-8. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
107.Jump up ^ Warhol-Down, Robyn; Herndl, Diane Price (2009-11-30). Feminisms Redux: An Anthology of Literary Theory and Criticism. Rutgers University Press. pp. 196–. ISBN 978-0-8135-4620-9. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
108.Jump up ^ O'Donohue, William; Caselles, Christine (September 1993). "Homophobia: Conceptual, definitional, and value issues". J Psychopathol Behav Assess 15 (3).
109.Jump up ^ Byers, Dylan. "AP nixes 'homophobia', 'ethnic cleansing'". Retrieved 16 December 2012.
110.Jump up ^ Page, Clarence (5 December 2012). "Words with negative power". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
111.Jump up ^ Michelson, Noah (5 December 2012). "Huffington Post discussion". Huffington Post. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
112.Jump up ^ Rainey, James (28 November 2012). "No more 'homophobia'? AP raises the question". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 16 December 2012. Baltimore Sun language authority John McIntyre described it as "reasoned, principled, and wrong-headed," while National Lesbian and Gay Journalists Association President Michael Triplett advocates terms such as "LGBT rights opponents"
113.Jump up ^ Frank, Nathaniel (27 November 2012). "The Associated Press Bans Homophobia". Slate. Retrieved 16 December 2012. Nathaniel Frank of Slate suggested that "In pursuit of accuracy, the standard-setters (got) it wrong" and that Minthorn's words were "oddly amorphous phrases for a standards editor".
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116.Jump up ^ The Complete Dictionary of Sexuality by Robert T. Francoeur
117.Jump up ^ White, Stephen M. and Franzini, Louis R. (1999). "Heteronegativism? The attitudes of gay men and lesbians toward heterosexuals. Journal of Homosexuality". Journal of Homosexuality 37 (1): 65–79. doi:10.1300/j082v37n01_05.
External links
 Look up heterophobia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Homophobia.
 Wikiquote has quotations related to: Homophobia
 Look up Homophobia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Homophobia at DMOZ
Sexual Prejudice: Understanding Homophobia and Heterosexism
The Homophobic Imagination – an essay by Rictor Norton and Louie Crew
The Rockway Institute for LGBT research in the public interest at Alliant International University
PBS – "Frontline's" homophobia quiz
Homophobia Is Itself an Abomination by Rabbi Shmuley Boteach
European Parliament – resolution on homophobia in Europe
An analysis of Campaigns against Homophobia in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico
Homophobia Is the Problem, Not Gays-- photos from anti-homophobia event By Irina Echarry, Havana Times May 19, 2009
United Nations Human Rights Council, Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity, an annual report


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Homophobia

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Homophobia encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who are identified or perceived as being lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT).[1][2][3] It can be expressed as antipathy, contempt, prejudice, aversion, or hatred, may be based on irrational fear, and is sometimes related to religious beliefs.[4]
Homophobia is observable in critical and hostile behavior such as discrimination and violence on the basis of sexual orientations that are non-heterosexual.[1][2] Recognized types of homophobia include institutionalized homophobia, e.g. religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia, and internalized homophobia, experienced by people who have same-sex attractions, regardless of how they identify. Forms of homophobia toward identifiable LGBT social groups have similar yet specific names: lesbophobia – the intersection of homophobia and sexism directed against lesbians, biphobia – towards bisexuality and bisexual people, and transphobia, which targets transsexualism, transsexual and transgender people, and gender variance or gender role nonconformity.[1][3][5]
In the USA, according to the 2010 Hate Crimes Statistics released by the FBI National Press Office, 19.3 percent of hate crimes across the United States "were motivated by a sexual orientation bias."[6] Moreover, in a Southern Poverty Law Center 2010 Intelligence Report extrapolating data from fourteen years (1995–2008), which had complete data available at the time, of the FBI's national hate crime statistics found that LGBT people were "far more likely than any other minority group in the United States to be victimized by violent hate crime."[7]


Contents  [hide]
1 Origins
2 Classification 2.1 Institutionalized homophobia 2.1.1 Religious attitudes 2.1.1.1 Christianity and the Bible
2.1.1.2 Islam and sharia
2.1.2 State-sponsored homophobia 2.1.2.1 Past regimes
2.1.2.2 Current governments

2.2 Internalized homophobia
2.3 Social homophobia
3 Distribution of attitudes
4 Efforts to combat homophobia
5 Criticism of meaning and purpose 5.1 Distinctions and proposed alternatives
5.2 Opposition to the term "homophobia" 5.2.1 Non-neutral phrasing
5.2.2 Heterophobia

6 See also
7 References
8 External links

Origins
Although sexual attitudes tracing back to Ancient Greece (8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca. 600 AD)) have been termed homophobia by scholars, the term itself is relatively new,[8] and an intolerance towards homosexuality and homosexuals grew during the Middle Ages, especially by adherents of Islam and Christianity.[9]
Coined by George Weinberg, a psychologist, in the 1960s,[10] the term homophobia is a blend of (1) the word homosexual, itself a mix of neo-classical morphemes, and (2) phobia from the Greek φόβος, Phóbos, meaning "fear" or "morbid fear".[11][12][13] Weinberg is credited as the first person to have used the term in speech.[8] The word homophobia first appeared in print in an article written for the May 23, 1969, edition of the American pornographic magazine Screw, in which the word was used to refer to heterosexual men's fear that others might think they are gay.[8]
Conceptualizing anti-LGBT prejudice as a social problem worthy of scholarly attention was not new. A 1969 article in Time described examples of negative attitudes toward homosexuality as "homophobia", including "a mixture of revulsion and apprehension" which some called homosexual panic.[14] In 1971, Kenneth Smith used homophobia as a personality profile to describe the psychological aversion to homosexuality.[15] Weinberg also used it this way in his 1972 book Society and the Healthy Homosexual,[16] published one year before the American Psychiatric Association voted to remove homosexuality from its list of mental disorders.[17][18] Weinberg's term became an important tool for gay and lesbian activists, advocates, and their allies.[8] He describes the concept as a medical phobia:[16]

[A] phobia about homosexuals.... It was a fear of homosexuals which seemed to be associated with a fear of contagion, a fear of reducing the things one fought for — home and family. It was a religious fear and it had led to great brutality as fear always does.[8]
In 1981, homophobia was used for the first time in The Times (of London) to report that the General Synod of the Church of England voted to refuse to condemn homosexuality.[19]
Classification



 Brochure used by Save Our Children, a political coalition formed in 1977 in Miami, Florida, U.S., to overturn a recently legislated county ordinance that banned discrimination in areas of housing, employment, and public accommodation based on sexual orientation
Homophobia manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others.[20] There were also ideas to classify homophobia, racism, and sexism as an intolerant personality disorder.[21]
In 1992, the American Psychiatric Association, recognizing the power of the stigma against homosexuality, issued the following statement, reaffirmed by the Board of Trustees, July 2011: "Whereas homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social or vocational capabilities, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) calls on all international health organizations, psychiatric organizations, and individual psychiatrists in other countries to urge the repeal in their own countries of legislation that penalizes homosexual acts by consenting adults in private. Further, APA calls on these organizations and individuals to do all that is possible to decrease the stigma related to homosexuality wherever and whenever it may occur."[22]
Institutionalized homophobia
Religious attitudes
Main article: Religion and homosexuality



 Religious protestors at a pride parade in Jerusalem, Israel, with a sign that reads, "Homo sex is immoral (Lev. 18/22)". The association of homosexual sex with immorality or sinfulness is seen by many as a homophobic act.
Many world religions contain anti-homosexual teachings, while other religions have varying degrees of ambivalence, neutrality, or incorporate teachings regarding homosexuals as third gender. Even within some religions which generally discourage homosexuality, there are also people who view homosexuality positively, and some religious denominations bless or conduct same-sex marriages. There also exist so-called Queer religions, dedicated to serving the spiritual needs of LGBTQI persons. Queer theology seeks to provide a counterpoint to religious homophobia.[23]
Christianity and the Bible
Main articles: Christianity and homosexuality and The Bible and homosexuality
The Bible, especially the Old Testament, contains some passages commonly interpreted as condemning homosexuality or same-gender sexual relations. Leviticus 18:22, says "Thou shalt not lie with mankind, as with womankind: it is abomination." The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah is also commonly seen as a condemnation of homosexuality. Christians and Jews who oppose homosexuality often cite such passages; historical context and interpretation is more complicated. Scholarly debate over the interpretation of these passages has focused on placing them in proper historical context, for instance pointing out that Sodom's sins are historically interpreted as being other than homosexuality, and on the translation of rare or unusual words in the passages in question. In Religion Dispatches magazine, Candace Chellew-Hodge argues that the six or so verses that are often cited to condemn LGBT people are referring instead to "abusive sex." She states that the Bible has no condemnation for "loving, committed, gay and lesbian relationships" and that Jesus was silent on the subject.[24]
The official teaching of the Catholic Church regarding homosexuality is that same-sex behavior should not be expressed.[25] The Catechism of the Catholic Church States that, "'homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered.'...They are contrary to the natural law.... Under no circumstances can they be approved."[26] The Catholic Church also campaigns politically against LGBT rights.[citation needed]
Islam and sharia
Main article: Homosexuality and Islam
In some cases, the distinction between religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia is not clear, a key example being territories under Islamic authority. All major Islamic sects forbid homosexuality, which is a crime under Sharia Law and treated as such in most Muslim countries. In Afghanistan, for instance, homosexuality carried the death penalty under the Taliban. After their fall, homosexuality went from a capital crime to one punished with fines and prison sentences. The legal situation in the United Arab Emirates, however, is unclear.
In 2009, the International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA) published a report entitled State Sponsored Homophobia 2009,[27] which is based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College, Stockholm, Sweden. This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal:[28][29]
Five carry the death penalty for homosexual activity: Iran, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen.[30] Since the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran, the Iranian government has executed more than 4,000 people charged with homosexual acts.[31][32] In Saudi Arabia, the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public execution, but the government will use other punishments – e.g., fines, jail time, whipping – and even forced sex change as alternatives, unless it feels that people engaging in homosexual activity are challenging state authority by engaging in LGBT social movements.[33]
Two do in some regions: Nigeria, Somalia[30]
In 2001, Al-Muhajiroun, an international organization seeking the establishment of a global Islamic caliphate, issued a fatwa declaring that all members of The Al-Fatiha Foundation (which advances the cause of gay, lesbian, and transgender Muslims) were murtadd, or apostates, and condemning them to death. Because of the threat and because they come from conservative societies, many members of the foundation's site still prefer to be anonymous so as to protect their identity while continuing a tradition of secrecy.[34]
See also: Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni, Arsham Parsi, Irshad Manji
State-sponsored homophobia
State-sponsored homophobia includes the criminalization and penalization of homosexuality, hate speech from government figures, and other forms of discrimination, violence, persecution of LGBT people.[35]
Past regimes
Main articles: LGBT rights in China, History of Christianity and homosexuality and LGBT rights in Russia
See also: History of homosexual people in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust
In medieval Europe, homosexuality was considered sodomy and was punishable by death. Persecutions reached their height during the Medieval Inquisitions, when the sects of Cathars and Waldensians were accused of fornication and sodomy, alongside accusations of satanism. In 1307, accusations of sodomy and homosexuality were major charges leveled during the Trial of the Knights Templar.[36] The theologian Thomas Aquinas was influential in linking condemnations of homosexuality with the idea of natural law, arguing that "special sins are against nature, as, for instance, those that run counter to the intercourse of male and female natural to animals, and so are peculiarly qualified as unnatural vices."[37]
Although bisexuality was accepted as normal human behavior in Ancient China,[38] homophobia became ingrained in the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China from interactions with the Christian West,[39] and homosexual behaviour was outlawed in 1740.[40] When Mao Zedong came to power, the government thought of homosexuality as "social disgrace or a form of mental illness", and "[d]uring the cultural revolution (1966–76), people who were homosexual faced their worst period of persecution in Chinese history." Despite there being no law in the communist People's Republic against homosexuality, "police regularly rounded up gays and lesbians." Other laws were used to prosecute homosexual people and they were "charged with hooliganism or disturbing public order."[41]
The Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin decriminalized homosexuality in 1922, long before many other European countries. The Soviet Communist Party effectively legalized no-fault divorce, abortion and homosexuality, when they abolished all the old Tsarist laws and the initial Soviet criminal code kept these liberal sexual policies in place.[42] Lenin's emancipation was reversed a decade later by Joseph Stalin and homosexuality remained illegal under Article 121 until the Yeltsin era.
Homosexuals were one of the many groups alongside Jews that were murdered during the Holocaust.
Current governments
Main articles: LGBT rights in Iran, LGBT rights in Jamaica, LGBT rights in North Korea, LGBT rights in Uganda and LGBT rights in Zimbabwe
See also: Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill



 Protests in New York City against Uganda's Anti-Homosexuality Bill.
The North Korean government condemns Western gay culture as a vice caused by the decadence of capitalist society, and denounces it as promoting consumerism, classism, and promiscuity.[43] In North Korea, "violating the rules of collective socialist life" can be punished with up to two years' imprisonment.[44] However, according to the North Korean government, "As a country that has embraced science and rationalism, the DPRK recognizes that many individuals are born with homosexuality as a genetic trait and treats them with due respect. Homosexuals in the DPRK have never been subject to repression, as in many capitalist regimes around the world."
Robert Mugabe, the president of Zimbabwe, has waged a violent campaign against LGBT people, arguing that before colonisation, Zimbabweans did not engage in homosexual acts.[45] His first major public condemnation of homosexuality was in August 1995, during the Zimbabwe International Book Fair.[46] He told an audience: "If you see people parading themselves as lesbians and gays, arrest them and hand them over to the police!"[47] In September 1995, Zimbabwe's parliament introduced legislation banning homosexual acts.[46] In 1997, a court found Canaan Banana, Mugabe's predecessor and the first President of Zimbabwe, guilty of 11 counts of sodomy and indecent assault.[48][49]
Internalized homophobia
Internalized homophobia refers to negative stereotypes, beliefs, stigma, and prejudice about homosexuality and LGBT people that a person with same-sex attraction turns inward on themselves, whether or not they identify as LGBT.[50][51][52] The degree to which someone is affected by these ideas depends on how much and which ideas they have consciously and subconsciously internalized.[53] These negative beliefs can be mitigated with education, life experience and therapy,[52][54] especially with gay-friendly psychotherapy/analysis.[55] Internalized homophobia also applies to conscious or unconscious behaviors which a person feels the need to promote or conform to cultural expectations of heteronormativity or heterosexism.[50] This can include extreme repression and denial coupled with forced outward displays of heteronormative behavior for the purpose of appearing or attempting to feel "normal" or "accepted."[50] Expressions of internalized homophobia can also be subtle. Some less overt behaviors may include making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles.[50] Some researchers also apply this label to LGBT people who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find civil unions acceptable in place of same-sex marriage.[56]
Some studies have shown that people who are homophobic are more likely to have repressed homosexual desires.[57] In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual men (half said they were homophobic by experience, with self-reported orientation) at the University of Georgia found that men who were found to be homophobic (as measured by the Index of Homophobia)[58] were considerably more likely to experience more erectile responses when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men.[59] Another study in 2012 arrived at similar results when researchers found that students who came from "the most rigid anti-gay homes" were most likely to reveal repressed homosexual attraction.[60] The researchers noted that this explained why some religious leaders who denounce homosexuality are later revealed to have secret homosexual relations.[60] The researchers noted that "these people are at war with themselves and are turning this internal conflict outward."[60]
Researcher Iain R. Williamson, in his 1998 work "Internalized Homophobia and Health Issues Affecting Lesbians and Gay Men" finds the term homophobia to be "highly problematic" but for reasons of continuity and consistency with the majority of other publications on the issue retains its use rather than using more accurate but obscure terminology.[52] The phrase internalized sexual stigma is sometimes used in place to represent internalized homophobia.[59] An internalized stigma arises when a person believes negative stereotypes about themselves, regardless of where the stereotype come from. It can also refer to many stereotypes beyond sexuality and gender roles. Internalized homophobia can cause discomfort with and disapproval of one's own sexual orientation. Ego-dystonic sexual orientation or egodystonic homophobia, for instance, is a condition characterized by having a sexual orientation or an attraction that is at odds with one's idealized self-image, causing anxiety and a desire to change one's orientation or become more comfortable with one's sexual orientation. Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires.[58] In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong sexual and emotional desires. This discordance can cause clinical depression, and a higher rate of suicide among LGBT youth (up to 30 percent of non-heterosexual youth attempt suicide) has been attributed to this phenomenon.[53] Psychotherapy, such as gay affirmative psychotherapy, and participation in a sexual-minority affirming group can help resolve the internal conflicts, such as between religious beliefs and sexual identity.[59] Even informal therapies that address understanding and accepting of non-heterosexual orientations can prove effective.[53] Many diagnostic "Internalized Homophobia Scales" can be used to measure a person's discomfort with their sexuality and some can be used by people regardless of gender or sexual orientation. Critics of the scales note that they presume a discomfort with non-heterosexuality which in itself enforces heternormativity.[58]
Social homophobia



Ryan Halligan committed suicide due to bullying which included receiving homophobic messages
The fear of being identified as gay can be considered as a form of social homophobia. Theorists including Calvin Thomas and Judith Butler have suggested that homophobia can be rooted in an individual's fear of being identified as gay. Homophobia in men is correlated with insecurity about masculinity.[61][62] For this reason, homophobia is allegedly rampant in sports, and in the subculture of its supporters that is considered stereotypically male, such as association football and rugby.[63]
These theorists have argued that a person who expresses homophobic thoughts and feelings does so not only to communicate their beliefs about the class of gay people, but also to distance themselves from this class and its social status. Thus, by distancing themselves from gay people, they are reaffirming their role as a heterosexual in a heteronormative culture, thereby attempting to prevent themselves from being labeled and treated as a gay person. This interpretation alludes to the idea that a person may posit violent opposition to "the Other" as a means of establishing their own identity as part of the majority and thus gaining social validation.
Nancy J. Chodorow states that homophobia can be viewed as a method of protection of male masculinity.[64]
Various psychoanalytic theories explain homophobia as a threat to an individual's own same-sex impulses, whether those impulses are imminent or merely hypothetical. This threat causes repression, denial or reaction formation.[65]
Distribution of attitudes
Further information: Societal attitudes toward homosexuality



Westboro Baptist Church protesters, in Oklahoma, 2005


 American Democrats and Republicans have differing attitudes towards gay and lesbian people


 Between January 2010 and November 2014, 47 individuals have been killed due to their real or perceived sexual orientation or gender identity in Turkey aacording to online news sources.
Disapproval of homosexuality and of gay people is not evenly distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced according to age, ethnicity, geographic location, race, sex, social class, education, partisan identification and religious status.[66] According to UK HIV/AIDS charity AVERT, religious views, lack of homosexual feelings or experiences, and lack of interaction with gay people are strongly associated with such views.[67]
The anxiety of heterosexual individuals (particularly adolescents whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is based in part on not being seen as gay) that others may identify them as gay[68][69] has also been identified by Michael Kimmel as an example of homophobia.[70] The taunting of boys seen as eccentric (and who are not usually gay) is said to be endemic in rural and suburban American schools, and has been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence (such as a spate of school shootings) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their masculinity.[71] Homophobic bullying is also very common in schools in the United Kingdom.[72]
In some cases, the works of authors who merely have the word "Gay" in their name (Gay Talese, Peter Gay) or works about things also contain the name (Enola Gay) have been destroyed because of a perceived pro-homosexual bias.[73]
In the United States, attitudes about people who are homosexual may vary on the basis of partisan identification. Republicans are far more likely than Democrats to have negative attitudes about people who are gay and lesbian, according to surveys conducted by the National Election Studies from 2000 through 2004. This disparity is shown in the graph on the right, which is from a book published in 2008 by Joseph Fried. The tendency of Republicans to view gay and lesbian people negatively could be based on homophobia, religious beliefs, or conservatism with respect to the traditional family.[74]
Homophobia also varies by region; statistics show that the Southern United States has more reports of anti-gay prejudice than any other region in the US.[75]
In a 1998 address, author, activist, and civil rights leader Coretta Scott King stated that "Homophobia is like racism and anti-Semitism and other forms of bigotry in that it seeks to dehumanize a large group of people, to deny their humanity, their dignity and personhood."[76] One study of white adolescent males conducted at the University of Cincinnati by Janet Baker has been used to argue that negative feelings towards gay people are also associated with other discriminatory behaviors.[77] According to the study, hatred of gay people, anti-Semitism, and racism are "likely companions."[77] Baker hypothesized "maybe it's a matter of power and looking down on all you think are at the bottom."[77] A study performed in 2007 in the UK for the charity Stonewall reports that up to 90 percent of the population support anti-discrimination laws protecting gay and lesbian people.[78]
Social constructs and culture can perpetuate homophobic attitudes. Such cultural sources in the black community include:
Music and music videos[79][80][81]
Churches[82][83][84]
Sources of homophobia in the white community include:
The Arts
Films and literature that project negative gay stereotypes.[85]Churches[86]
Professional sports in many countries involves homophobic expressions by star athletes and by fans. Incidents in the United States have included:
Hockey
The homophobic chants and attitudes of certain fans, for example the labeling of one fan who frequently dances at games as "Homo Larry", have been protested by attendees of New York Rangers games and by New York City Council Speaker Christine Quinn.[87]Basketball
All-Star National Basketball Association player Tim Hardaway drew criticism after he said on the "790 the Ticket" radio show, "Well, you know, I hate gay people. I let it be known I don’t like gay people. I don’t like to be around gay people. I’m homophobic. I don’t like it, it shouldn’t be in the world, in the United States, I don’t like it.”[88]
However, the major professional sports leagues do not advocate homophobia, and regard the LGBT community as an important marketing base.[89][90][91]
Efforts to combat homophobia



 An anti-homophobia protester at a demonstration in Paris, in 2005
Most international human rights organizations, such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, condemn laws that make homosexual relations between consenting adults a crime. Since 1994, the United Nations Human Rights Committee has also ruled that such laws violated the right to privacy guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In 2008, the Roman Catholic Church issued a statement which "urges States to do away with criminal penalties against [homosexual persons]." The statement, however, was addressed to reject a resolution by the UN Assembly that would have precisely called for an end of penalties against homosexuals in the world.[92] In March 2010, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted a recommendation on measures to combat discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity, described by CoE Secretary General as the first legal instrument in the world dealing specifically with one of the most long-lasting and difficult forms of discrimination to combat.[93]
To combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as gay pride parades and political activism (See gay pride). This is criticized by some[who?] as counter-productive though, as gay pride parades showcase what could be seen as more "extreme" sexuality: fetish-based and gender-variant aspects of LGBT culture. One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the International Day Against Homophobia (or IDAHO),[94] first celebrated May 17, 2005 in related activities in more than 40 countries.[95] The four largest countries of Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Colombia) developed mass media campaigns against homophobia since 2002.[96]
In addition to public expression, legislation has been designed, controversially, to oppose homophobia, as in hate speech, hate crime, and laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Successful preventative strategies against homophobic prejudice and bullying in schools have included teaching pupils about historical figures who were gay, or who suffered discrimination because of their sexuality.[97]
Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral and goes above and beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme right-wing conservatives and fundamentalist religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly.[98] Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular stated:

"Anti-gay bias causes young people to engage in sexual behavior earlier in order to prove that they are straight. Anti-gay bias contributed significantly to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. Anti-gay bias prevents the ability of schools to create effective honest sexual education programs that would save children's lives and prevent STDs (sexually transmitted diseases)."[98]
Criticism of meaning and purpose
Distinctions and proposed alternatives
Researchers have proposed alternative terms to describe prejudice and discrimination against LGBT people. Some of these alternatives show more semantic transparency while others do not include -phobia:
Homoerotophobia, being a possible precursor term to homophobia, was coined by Wainwright Churchill and documented in Homosexual Behavior Among Males in 1967.
The etymology of homophobia citing the union of homos and phobos is the basis for LGBT historian Boswell's criticism of the term and for his suggestion in 1980 of the alternative homosexophobia.[99]
Homonegativity is based on the term homonegativism used by Hudson and Ricketts in a 1980 paper; they coined the term for their research in order to avoid homophobia, which they regarded as being unscientific in its presumption of motivation.[100]
Heterosexism refers to a system of negative attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favour of opposite-sex sexual orientation and relationships.[101] p. 13 It can include the presumption that everyone is heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the only norm[102] and therefore superior.
Sexual prejudice – Researcher at the University of California, Davis Gregory M. Herek preferred sexual prejudice as being descriptive, free of presumptions about motivations, and lacking value judgments as to the irrationality or immorality of those so labeled.[103][104] He compared homophobia, heterosexism, and sexual prejudice, and, in preferring the third term, noted that homophobia was "probably more widely used and more often criticized." He also observed that "Its critics note that homophobia implicitly suggests that antigay attitudes are best understood as an irrational fear and that they represent a form of individual psychopathology rather than a socially reinforced prejudice."
Opposition to the term "homophobia"
People and groups have objected to the use of the term "homophobia".[105][106][107]
Non-neutral phrasing
Use of homophobia, homophobic, and homophobe has been criticized as pejorative against LGBT rights opponents. Behavioral scientists William O'Donohue and Christine Caselles state that "as [homophobia] is usually used, makes an illegitimately pejorative evaluation of certain open and debatable value positions, much like the former disease construct of homosexuality" itself, arguing that the term may be used as an ad hominem argument against those who advocate values or positions of which the user does not approve.[108]
In 2012 the Associated Press Style Book was revised to advise against using non-clinical words with the suffix -phobia, including homophobia, in "political and social contexts." AP Deputy Standards Editor Dave Minthorn said the word homophobia suggests a severe mental disorder, and that it could be substituted with "anti-gay" or similar phrasing.[109][110] The AP's decision was criticized in some media outlets, especially those in the LGBT area,[111] who argued that homophobia did not necessarily have to be interpreted in a strict clinical sense.[112][113]
Heterophobia
The term heterophobia is sometimes used to describe reverse discrimination or negative attitudes towards heterosexual people and opposite-sex relationships.[114] The scientific use of "heterophobia" in sexology is restricted to few researchers, notably those who question Alfred Kinsey's sex research.[115][116] To date, the existence or extent of heterophobia is mostly unrecognized by sexologists.[114] Beyond sexology there is no consensus as to the meaning of the term because it is also used to mean "fear of the opposite" such as in Pierre-André Taguieff's The Force of Prejudice: On Racism and Its Doubles (2001).
Referring to the debate on both meaning and use, SUNY lecturer Raymond J. Noonan, in his 1999 presentation to The Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality (SSSS) and the American Association of Sex Educators, Counselors, and Therapists (AASECT) Conference[114] states:

The term heterophobia is confusing for some people for several reasons. On the one hand, some look at it as just another of the many me-too social constructions that have arisen in the pseudoscience of victimology in recent decades. (Many of us recall John Money’s 1995 criticism of the ascendancy of victimology and its negative impact on sexual science.) Others look at the parallelism between heterophobia and homophobia, and suggest that the former trivializes the latter... For others, it is merely a curiosity or parallel-construction word game. But for others still, it is part of both the recognition and politicization of heterosexuals' cultural interests in contrast to those of gays—particularly where those interests are perceived to clash.
Stephen M. White and Louis R. Franzini introduced the related term of "heteronegativism" to refer to the considerable range of negative feelings that some gay individuals may hold and express toward heterosexuals. This term is preferred to "heterophobia" because it does not imply extreme or irrational fear.[117]
See also


Allophilia
Corrective rape
Faggot (slang)
Gay panic defense
Genderism

Homosexual agenda
Homophobia in the African American community
Homophobia in the Asian American community
Homophobia in the Black community
Homophobia in the Black British community
Homosexual panic
Homosexuality and Citizenship in Florida (pamphlet)
Lavender scare

Queer migration
Non-binary discrimination
Riddle homophobia scale
Stop Murder Music
Yogyakarta Principles


Portal icon LGBT portal

References
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33.Jump up ^ Whitaker, Brian (18 March 2005). "Arrests at Saudi ’gay wedding’". The Observer (London). "Saudi executions are not systematically reported, and officials deny that the death penalty is applied for same-sex activity alone."
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35.Jump up ^ Bruce-Jones, Eddie; Itaborahy, Lucas Paoli (May 2011). "State-sponsored Homophobia" (PDF). ilga.org. Retrieved October 15, 2011.
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40.Jump up ^ Francoeur, Robert T.; Noonan, Raymond J. (2004). The Continuum complete international encyclopedia of sexuality. The Continuum International Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 0-8264-1488-5.
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42.Jump up ^ Hazard, John N; Columbia University. Russian Institute (1965). Unity and diversity in socialist law. [New York] Russian Institute, School of International Affairs, Columbia University. OCLC 80991633.
43.Jump up ^ Global Gayz. "Gay North Korea News & Reports 2005". Archived from the original on 2005-10-18.. Retrieved on May 5, 2006
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45.Jump up ^ Ember, Carol R; Ember, Melvin (2004). Encyclopedia of sex and gender : men and women in the world's cultures. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-306-47770-6.
46.^ Jump up to: a b Epprecht, Marc (2004). Hungochani : the history of a dissident sexuality in southern Africa. Montreal. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-7735-2751-5.
47.Jump up ^ Under African Skies, Part I: 'Totally unacceptable to cultural norms' Kaiwright.com
48.Jump up ^ Veit-Wild, Flora; Naguschewski, Dirk (2005). Body, sexuality, and gender. Rodopi. p. 93. ISBN 978-90-420-1626-2.
49.Jump up ^ Canaan Banana, president jailed in sex scandal, dies The Guardian
50.^ Jump up to: a b c d Sexuality Research and Social Policy, Volume 1, Number 2 (2004), 6-24, doi:10.1525/srsp.2004.1.2.6, Beyond "Homophobia": Thinking about sexual prejudice and stigma in the twenty-first century, Gregory M. Herek.
51.Jump up ^ Herek, G M; Cogan, J C; Gillis, J R; Glunt, E K (1998). Correlates of Internalized Homophobia in a Community Sample of Lesbians and Gay Men (PDF). J Gay Lesbian Med Assoc 2 (1). pp. 17–26. ISSN 1090-7173. OCLC 206392016.
52.^ Jump up to: a b c Oxford Journal of Medicine, Health Education Research, Volume 15, Issue 1, Pp. 97-107, Iain R. Williamson, in their 1998 work "Internalized Homophobia and Health Issues Affecting Lesbians and Gay Men."
53.^ Jump up to: a b c Journal of Adolescent Health Care, Volume 9, Issue 2, March 1988, pp. 114–122, Mental health issues of gay and lesbian adolescents, John C. Gonsiorek, Ph.D.
54.Jump up ^ Martino, William. 2000. "Policing Masculinities: Investigating the Role of Homophobia and Heteronormativity in the Lives of Adolescent School Boys." Journal of Men's Studies 8 (2):213–236.
55.Jump up ^ HTS Theological Studies/Teologiese Studies > Vol 63, No 1 (2007), Hegemony and the Internalisation of Homophobia Caused by Heteronormativity, Y Dreyer.
56.Jump up ^ Marriage amendments and psychological distress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adults. Rostosky, Sharon Scales; Riggle, Ellen D. B.; Horne, Sharon G.; Miller, Angela D. Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol 56(1), Jan 2009, 56-66. doi:10.1037/a0013609.
57.Jump up ^ Summarized in an American Psychological Association press release, August 1996: "New Study Links Homophobia with Homosexual Arousal" at the Wayback Machine (archived February 2, 2004).
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60.^ Jump up to: a b c Why Homophobes Hate, The Week, April 27, 2012
61.Jump up ^ "Masculinity Challenged, Men Prefer War and SUVs".
62.Jump up ^ "Homophobia and Hip-Hop". PBS. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
63.Jump up ^ "Fans' culture hard to change".
64.Jump up ^ Nancy J. Chodorow. Statement in a public forum on homophobia by The American Psychoanalytic Foundation, 1999
65.Jump up ^ West, D.J. Homosexuality re-examined. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977. ISBN 0-8166-0812-1
66.Jump up ^ Herek, Gregory M. (2004). "Beyond "Homophobia": Thinking about sexual prejudice and stigma in the twenty-first century" (PDF). Sexuality Research and Social Policy. Number 2 1: 6–24. doi:10.1525/srsp.2004.1.2.6. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
67.Jump up ^ "Prejudice & Attitudes to Gay Men & Lesbians".
68.Jump up ^ Epstein, D. (1995). "Keeping them in their place: Hetero/sexist harassment, gender and the enforcement of heterosexuality." In J. Holland&L. Adkins (Eds.), Sex, sensibility and the gendered body. London: Macmillan.
69.Jump up ^ Herek, Gregory M; Society for the Psychological Study of Lesbian and Gay Issues (1998). Stigma and sexual orientation : understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay issues, v. 4. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0-8039-5385-7.
70.Jump up ^ Kimmel, M. (1994). Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame and silence in the construction of gender identity. In H. Brod & M. Kaufman (Eds.), Theorizing masculinities (pp. 119–141). Newbury Park, CA: Sage
71.Jump up ^ Kimmel, Michael S; Mahler, Matthew (2003). Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence: Random School Shootings, 1982–2001. Am Behav Sci 46 (10). pp. 1439–58. doi:10.1177/0002764203046010010. ISSN 0002-7642. OCLC 437621566.
72.Jump up ^ "How fair is Britain? the first Triennial Review". Equality and Human Rights Commission. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
73.Jump up ^ Petras, Kathryn; Petras, Ross (2003). Unusually Stupid Americans (A compendium of all American Stupidity). New York: Villard Books. p. 103. ISBN 0-9658068-7-1.
74.Jump up ^ Fried, Joseph (2008). Democrats and Republicans—rhetoric and reality : comparing the voters in statistics and anecdotes. Algora Pub. p. 185. ISBN 0-87586-605-0.
75.Jump up ^ Lyons, P. M., Jr.; Anthony, C. M.; Davis, K. M.; Fernandez, K.; Torres, A. N.; Marcus, D. K. (2005). "Police Judgements of Culpability and Homophobia". Appl Psychol Crim Justice 1 (1): 1–14.
76.Jump up ^ Chicago Defender, April 1, 1998, front page
77.^ Jump up to: a b c "Homophobia, racism likely companions, study shows". Jet. January 10, 1994. p. 12.
78.Jump up ^ Muir, Hugh (May 23, 2007). "Majority support gay equality rights, poll finds". London: Guardian. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
79.Jump up ^ Urban, Robert (June 1, 2006). "Taking the Homophobia Out of Hip-Hop: A Progress Report". After Elton.
80.Jump up ^ "Beyond Beats and Rhymes". pbs.org. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
81.Jump up ^ "Issue Brief: Gender Violence and Homophobia" (PDF).[dead link]
82.Jump up ^ Banerjee, Neela (January 21, 2006). "Black Churches' Attitudes Toward Gay Parishioners Is Discussed at Conference". The New York Times. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
83.Jump up ^ Michel, Amanda (January 25, 2008). "Obama takes on the black community's homophobia". Huffington Post.
84.Jump up ^ "black gay christian church and homosexuality OPERATION: REBIRTH".
85.Jump up ^ Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman (1995). "The Celluloid Closet". Film.
86.Jump up ^ "Catholic Answers on Homosexuality". www.catholic.com. Retrieved 11/09/2011. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
87.Jump up ^ Thomas, Katie (March 21, 2008). "When Tradition and Taunts Collide: Gay Hockey Fans Criticize Garden". The New York Times. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
88.Jump up ^ "Love and Basketball: Homophobia in Sports".
89.Jump up ^ Homophobia in professional sports – Features]
90.Jump up ^ "Gay and lesbian sports site, for sports enthusiasts and athletes worldwide". Gay Sports. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
91.Jump up ^ "Archive 2008, gaybaseballdays.com". Archived from the original on 2008-07-15.
92.Jump up ^ "Statement of the Holy See Delegation at the 63rd Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations on the Declaration on Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity". vatican.va. 18 December 2008.
93.Jump up ^ "Council of Europe to advance human rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons". coe.int. 2010-04-01.
94.Jump up ^ "Towards an international Day against Homophobia", April 10, 2004
95.Jump up ^ "1st Annual International Day Against Homophobia to be Celebrated in over 40 Countries on May 17[dead link]", May 12, 2005
96.Jump up ^ ""Campaigns against Homophobia in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico". Pan American Health Organization. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
97.Jump up ^ Shepherd, Jessica (26 October 2010). "Lessons on gay history cut homophobic bullying in north London school". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
98.^ Jump up to: a b Blumenfeld, Warren J (1992). Homophobia : how we all pay the price. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-7919-5.
99.Jump up ^ Boswell, John (1980). Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality: Gay people in Western Europe from the beginning of the Christian era to the fourteenth century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
100.Jump up ^ Hudson, WW; Ricketts, WA (1980). A strategy for the measurement of homophobia. Journal of Homosexuality 5 (4). pp. 357–72. doi:10.1300/J082v05n04_02. ISSN 0091-8369. OCLC 115532547. PMID 7204951.
101.Jump up ^ Jung, Patricia Beattie; Smith, Ralph F. (1993). Heterosexism: An Ethical Challenge. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-1696-8.
102.Jump up ^ "Avis au public". Granddictionnaire.com. Retrieved 2010-09-03.
103.Jump up ^ Herek GM (1990). "The context of anti-gay violence: Notes on cultural and psychological heterosexism". J Interpers Violence 5 (3): 316–33. doi:10.1177/088626090005003006.
104.Jump up ^ Herek, Gregory M. (2000). "The psychology of sexual prejudice" (PDF). Curr Dir Psychol Sci 9.
105.Jump up ^ Banks, James A. (2012-05-24). Encyclopedia of Diversity in Education. SAGE. pp. 1093–. ISBN 978-1-4129-8152-1. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
106.Jump up ^ Patterson, Eric (2008-03-31). On Brokeback Mountain: Meditations About Masculinity, Fear, and Love in the Story and the Film. Lexington Books. pp. 42–. ISBN 978-0-7391-2165-8. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
107.Jump up ^ Warhol-Down, Robyn; Herndl, Diane Price (2009-11-30). Feminisms Redux: An Anthology of Literary Theory and Criticism. Rutgers University Press. pp. 196–. ISBN 978-0-8135-4620-9. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
108.Jump up ^ O'Donohue, William; Caselles, Christine (September 1993). "Homophobia: Conceptual, definitional, and value issues". J Psychopathol Behav Assess 15 (3).
109.Jump up ^ Byers, Dylan. "AP nixes 'homophobia', 'ethnic cleansing'". Retrieved 16 December 2012.
110.Jump up ^ Page, Clarence (5 December 2012). "Words with negative power". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
111.Jump up ^ Michelson, Noah (5 December 2012). "Huffington Post discussion". Huffington Post. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
112.Jump up ^ Rainey, James (28 November 2012). "No more 'homophobia'? AP raises the question". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 16 December 2012. Baltimore Sun language authority John McIntyre described it as "reasoned, principled, and wrong-headed," while National Lesbian and Gay Journalists Association President Michael Triplett advocates terms such as "LGBT rights opponents"
113.Jump up ^ Frank, Nathaniel (27 November 2012). "The Associated Press Bans Homophobia". Slate. Retrieved 16 December 2012. Nathaniel Frank of Slate suggested that "In pursuit of accuracy, the standard-setters (got) it wrong" and that Minthorn's words were "oddly amorphous phrases for a standards editor".
114.^ Jump up to: a b c Raymond J. Noonan (November 6, 1999). "Heterophobia: The Evolution of an Idea". Dr. Ray Noonan’s 1999 Conference Presentations. Retrieved November 25, 2012.
115.Jump up ^ Kinsey, Sex and Fraud: The Indoctrination of a People. An Investigation Into the Human Sexuality Research of Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, and Paul H. Gebhard by Judith A. Reisman and Edward W. Eichel
116.Jump up ^ The Complete Dictionary of Sexuality by Robert T. Francoeur
117.Jump up ^ White, Stephen M. and Franzini, Louis R. (1999). "Heteronegativism? The attitudes of gay men and lesbians toward heterosexuals. Journal of Homosexuality". Journal of Homosexuality 37 (1): 65–79. doi:10.1300/j082v37n01_05.
External links
 Look up heterophobia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Homophobia.
 Wikiquote has quotations related to: Homophobia
 Look up Homophobia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Homophobia at DMOZ
Sexual Prejudice: Understanding Homophobia and Heterosexism
The Homophobic Imagination – an essay by Rictor Norton and Louie Crew
The Rockway Institute for LGBT research in the public interest at Alliant International University
PBS – "Frontline's" homophobia quiz
Homophobia Is Itself an Abomination by Rabbi Shmuley Boteach
European Parliament – resolution on homophobia in Europe
An analysis of Campaigns against Homophobia in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico
Homophobia Is the Problem, Not Gays-- photos from anti-homophobia event By Irina Echarry, Havana Times May 19, 2009
United Nations Human Rights Council, Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity, an annual report


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Lesbophobia

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Lesbophobia (sometimes lesbiphobia) comprises various forms of negativity toward lesbians as individuals, as couples, or as a social group. Based on the categories of sex or biological gender, sexual orientation, lesbian identity, and gender expression, this negativity encompasses prejudice, discrimination, and abuse, in addition to attitudes and feelings ranging from disdain to hostility. As such, lesbophobia is sexism against women that intersects with homophobia and vice versa. Cynthia Petersen, a professor of law at University of Ottawa, has defined lesbophobia as also including "the fear that women have of loving other women, as well as the fear that men (including gay men) have of women not loving them."[1]


Contents  [hide]
1 Related terminology
2 Extent of lesbophobia 2.1 Lesbophobic violence
3 Everyday Lesbophobia
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading

Related terminology[edit]
While some people use only the more general term homophobia to describe this sort of prejudice or behavior, others believe that the terms homosexual and homophobia do not adequately reflect the specific concerns of lesbians, because they experience the double discrimination of both homophobia and sexism.[2] Similarly, bisexual women may prefer to use the term biphobia to refer to prejudice or abuse that they encounter which is based on their bisexual identity or behaviour, and people who identify as transgender often prefer to use the word transphobia.[citation needed]
Extent of lesbophobia[edit]
The idea that lesbians are dangerous—while heterosexual interactions are natural, normal, and spontaneous—is a common example of beliefs which are lesbophobic. Like homophobia, this belief is classed as heteronormative, as it assumes that heterosexuality is dominant, presumed, and normal, and that other sexual or relationship arrangements are abnormal and unnatural.[3] A stereotype that has been identified as lesbophobic is that female athletes are always or predominantly lesbians.[4][5] Lesbians encounter lesbophobic attitudes not only in straight men and women, but from gay men, as well as bisexual people.[6] Lesbophobia in gay men is regarded as manifest in the perceived subordination of lesbian issues in the campaign for gay rights.[7]
Lesbophobic violence[edit]



 Soweto Pride 2012 participants remember two lesbians who were raped and murdered in 2007.
Lesbophobia is sometimes demonstrated through crimes of violence, including corrective rape and even murder. In South Africa, Sizakele Sigasa (a lesbian activist living in Soweto) and her partner Salome Masooa were raped, tortured, and murdered in July 2007 in an attack that South African lesbian-gay rights organizations, including the umbrella-group Joint Working Group, said were driven by lesbophobia.[8] Two other rape/murders of lesbians occurred in South Africa earlier in summer 2007: Simangele Nhlapo, member of an HIV-positive support group, was raped and murdered in June, along with her two-year-old daughter; and Madoe Mafubedu, aged 16, was raped and stabbed to death.[9]
In 2006, Zoliswa Nkonyana, aged 19, was killed for being openly lesbian by 4 men in the Cape Town township of Khayelitsha, who stabbed and stoned her to death.[10] Banyana Banyana soccer player Eudy Simelane and LGBT activist Noxolo Nogwaza were raped and murdered in the Gauteng township of KwaThema.[11][12] Zanele Muholi, community relations director of a lesbian rights group, reports having recorded 50 rape cases over the past decade involving black lesbians in townships, stating: "The problem is largely that of patriarchy. The men who perpetrate such crimes see rape as curative and as an attempt to show women their place in society."[13][14][15]
Everyday Lesbophobia[edit]
Jane Czyzselska, the editor of British lesbian magazine Diva, launched a social media campaign called Everyday Lesbophobia in 2013. She told PinkNews.co.uk: "Like the brilliant Everyday Sexism project, our Everyday Lesbophobia campaign has been set up to document instances of prejudice from serious abuse to casual put downs that have become so commonplace that we often don't feel able to protest about them." Everyday Lesbophobia includes a blog, Facebook page, and Twitter account.[16]
See also[edit]

Portal icon LGBT portal
Portal icon Discrimination portal
Societal attitudes toward homosexuality
Compulsory heterosexuality
Heterosexism
Violence against LGBT people
History of lesbianism
Lesbianism in erotica
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Petersen, Cynthia (1994). "Living Dangerously: Speaking Lesbian, Teaching Law". Canadian Journal of Women & the Law 7(2).
2.Jump up ^ "What is "Lesbophobia"?". ILGA. 2006-12-18. Archived from the original on 20 February 2012. Retrieved 2007-08-07.
3.Jump up ^ Jillian Todd Weiss, "The Gender Caste System – Identity, Privacy, and Heteronormativity" 10 Law & Sexuality 123 (Tulane Law School, 2001)
4.Jump up ^ Peper, Karen, "Female athlete=Lesbian: a complex myth constructed from gender role expectations and lesbiphobia", Queer words, queer images: communications and the construction of homosexuality, pages 193–208 (New York University Press, 1994)
5.Jump up ^ Darcy Plymire and Pamela Forman, "Breaking the Silence: Lesbian Fans, the Internet, and the Sexual Politics of Women's Sport", International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies, pages 1566–1768 (Springer Netherlands, April 2000)
6.Jump up ^ Megan Radclyffe, Lesbophobia!: Gay Men and Misogyny (Continuum, October 2005)
7.Jump up ^ Kristen Raizada, "An Interview with the Guerrilla Girls, Dyke Action Machine (DAM!), and the Toxic Titties", NWSA Journal, pages 39–58 (Volume 19, Number 1, Spring 2007)
8.Jump up ^ Ndaba, Baldwin. "'Hate crime' against lesbians slated". IOL News. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
9.Jump up ^ Pithouse, Richard. "Only Protected on Paper". The South African Civil Society Information Service. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
10.Jump up ^ "Lesbian killers in South Africa get 18-year jail terms". BBC News. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
11.Jump up ^ Kelly, Annie. "Raped and killed for being a lesbian: South Africa ignores 'corrective' attacks". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
12.Jump up ^ "South Africa killing of lesbian Nogwaza 'a hate crime'". BBC News. 3 May 2011. Archived from the original on 28 November 2012. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
13.Jump up ^ Bridgland, Fred (2007-07-14). "Lesbian couple killed in execution-style murder: Hate crimes increase despite equal rights law". Sunday Herald. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
14.Jump up ^ Cogswell, Kelly Jean (2007-07-26). "Cut It Off – And Stop AIDS". Gay City News. Archived from the original on 2007-07-27. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
15.Jump up ^ "S. Africa gangs using rape to 'cure' lesbians". MSN. 13 March 2009. Archived from the original on 15 March 2009.
16.Jump up ^ "Diva magazine launches campaign against 'lesbophobia'". 2013. Retrieved August 18, 2014.
Further reading[edit]
Czyzselska, Jane. "Lesbophobia is homophobia with a side-order of sexism." The Guardian. Tuesday 9 July 2013.


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Lesbophobia

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Lesbophobia (sometimes lesbiphobia) comprises various forms of negativity toward lesbians as individuals, as couples, or as a social group. Based on the categories of sex or biological gender, sexual orientation, lesbian identity, and gender expression, this negativity encompasses prejudice, discrimination, and abuse, in addition to attitudes and feelings ranging from disdain to hostility. As such, lesbophobia is sexism against women that intersects with homophobia and vice versa. Cynthia Petersen, a professor of law at University of Ottawa, has defined lesbophobia as also including "the fear that women have of loving other women, as well as the fear that men (including gay men) have of women not loving them."[1]


Contents  [hide]
1 Related terminology
2 Extent of lesbophobia 2.1 Lesbophobic violence
3 Everyday Lesbophobia
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading

Related terminology[edit]
While some people use only the more general term homophobia to describe this sort of prejudice or behavior, others believe that the terms homosexual and homophobia do not adequately reflect the specific concerns of lesbians, because they experience the double discrimination of both homophobia and sexism.[2] Similarly, bisexual women may prefer to use the term biphobia to refer to prejudice or abuse that they encounter which is based on their bisexual identity or behaviour, and people who identify as transgender often prefer to use the word transphobia.[citation needed]
Extent of lesbophobia[edit]
The idea that lesbians are dangerous—while heterosexual interactions are natural, normal, and spontaneous—is a common example of beliefs which are lesbophobic. Like homophobia, this belief is classed as heteronormative, as it assumes that heterosexuality is dominant, presumed, and normal, and that other sexual or relationship arrangements are abnormal and unnatural.[3] A stereotype that has been identified as lesbophobic is that female athletes are always or predominantly lesbians.[4][5] Lesbians encounter lesbophobic attitudes not only in straight men and women, but from gay men, as well as bisexual people.[6] Lesbophobia in gay men is regarded as manifest in the perceived subordination of lesbian issues in the campaign for gay rights.[7]
Lesbophobic violence[edit]



 Soweto Pride 2012 participants remember two lesbians who were raped and murdered in 2007.
Lesbophobia is sometimes demonstrated through crimes of violence, including corrective rape and even murder. In South Africa, Sizakele Sigasa (a lesbian activist living in Soweto) and her partner Salome Masooa were raped, tortured, and murdered in July 2007 in an attack that South African lesbian-gay rights organizations, including the umbrella-group Joint Working Group, said were driven by lesbophobia.[8] Two other rape/murders of lesbians occurred in South Africa earlier in summer 2007: Simangele Nhlapo, member of an HIV-positive support group, was raped and murdered in June, along with her two-year-old daughter; and Madoe Mafubedu, aged 16, was raped and stabbed to death.[9]
In 2006, Zoliswa Nkonyana, aged 19, was killed for being openly lesbian by 4 men in the Cape Town township of Khayelitsha, who stabbed and stoned her to death.[10] Banyana Banyana soccer player Eudy Simelane and LGBT activist Noxolo Nogwaza were raped and murdered in the Gauteng township of KwaThema.[11][12] Zanele Muholi, community relations director of a lesbian rights group, reports having recorded 50 rape cases over the past decade involving black lesbians in townships, stating: "The problem is largely that of patriarchy. The men who perpetrate such crimes see rape as curative and as an attempt to show women their place in society."[13][14][15]
Everyday Lesbophobia[edit]
Jane Czyzselska, the editor of British lesbian magazine Diva, launched a social media campaign called Everyday Lesbophobia in 2013. She told PinkNews.co.uk: "Like the brilliant Everyday Sexism project, our Everyday Lesbophobia campaign has been set up to document instances of prejudice from serious abuse to casual put downs that have become so commonplace that we often don't feel able to protest about them." Everyday Lesbophobia includes a blog, Facebook page, and Twitter account.[16]
See also[edit]

Portal icon LGBT portal
Portal icon Discrimination portal
Societal attitudes toward homosexuality
Compulsory heterosexuality
Heterosexism
Violence against LGBT people
History of lesbianism
Lesbianism in erotica
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Petersen, Cynthia (1994). "Living Dangerously: Speaking Lesbian, Teaching Law". Canadian Journal of Women & the Law 7(2).
2.Jump up ^ "What is "Lesbophobia"?". ILGA. 2006-12-18. Archived from the original on 20 February 2012. Retrieved 2007-08-07.
3.Jump up ^ Jillian Todd Weiss, "The Gender Caste System – Identity, Privacy, and Heteronormativity" 10 Law & Sexuality 123 (Tulane Law School, 2001)
4.Jump up ^ Peper, Karen, "Female athlete=Lesbian: a complex myth constructed from gender role expectations and lesbiphobia", Queer words, queer images: communications and the construction of homosexuality, pages 193–208 (New York University Press, 1994)
5.Jump up ^ Darcy Plymire and Pamela Forman, "Breaking the Silence: Lesbian Fans, the Internet, and the Sexual Politics of Women's Sport", International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies, pages 1566–1768 (Springer Netherlands, April 2000)
6.Jump up ^ Megan Radclyffe, Lesbophobia!: Gay Men and Misogyny (Continuum, October 2005)
7.Jump up ^ Kristen Raizada, "An Interview with the Guerrilla Girls, Dyke Action Machine (DAM!), and the Toxic Titties", NWSA Journal, pages 39–58 (Volume 19, Number 1, Spring 2007)
8.Jump up ^ Ndaba, Baldwin. "'Hate crime' against lesbians slated". IOL News. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
9.Jump up ^ Pithouse, Richard. "Only Protected on Paper". The South African Civil Society Information Service. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
10.Jump up ^ "Lesbian killers in South Africa get 18-year jail terms". BBC News. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
11.Jump up ^ Kelly, Annie. "Raped and killed for being a lesbian: South Africa ignores 'corrective' attacks". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
12.Jump up ^ "South Africa killing of lesbian Nogwaza 'a hate crime'". BBC News. 3 May 2011. Archived from the original on 28 November 2012. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
13.Jump up ^ Bridgland, Fred (2007-07-14). "Lesbian couple killed in execution-style murder: Hate crimes increase despite equal rights law". Sunday Herald. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
14.Jump up ^ Cogswell, Kelly Jean (2007-07-26). "Cut It Off – And Stop AIDS". Gay City News. Archived from the original on 2007-07-27. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
15.Jump up ^ "S. Africa gangs using rape to 'cure' lesbians". MSN. 13 March 2009. Archived from the original on 15 March 2009.
16.Jump up ^ "Diva magazine launches campaign against 'lesbophobia'". 2013. Retrieved August 18, 2014.
Further reading[edit]
Czyzselska, Jane. "Lesbophobia is homophobia with a side-order of sexism." The Guardian. Tuesday 9 July 2013.


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 Trans bashing ·
 Victimization ·
 White power music ·
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 Witch-hunt
 

Discriminatory policies
Segregation  (age ·
 desegregation ·
 racial ·
 religious ·
 sex)
   ·
 Age of candidacy ·
 Blood quantum ·
 Cleanliness of blood ·
 Apartheid ·
 Gerrymandering ·
 Ethnocracy ·
 MSM blood donor controversy ·
 Gender pay gap ·
 Gender roles ·
 Gerontocracy ·
 Ghetto benches ·
 Internment ·
 Jewish quota ·
 Jim Crow laws ·
 Jizya ·
 Male privilege ·
 Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota) ·
 Nuremberg Laws ·
 One-drop rule ·
 Racial quota ·
 Redlining ·
 Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting) ·
 Sodomy law ·
 Ugly law ·
 Voter suppression ·
 Disabilities
 

Countermeasures
Affirmative action ·
 Animal Rights ·
 Cultural assimilation ·
 Cultural pluralism ·
 Desegregation ·
 Diversity training ·
 Empowerment ·
 Ethnopluralism ·
 Feminism ·
 Fighting Discrimination ·
 Human rights ·
 Multiculturalism ·
 Racial integration ·
 Self-determination ·
 Social integration ·
 Toleration
 

Related topics
Allophilia ·
 Anthropocentrism ·
 Assimilation ·
 Bigotry ·
 Diversity ·
 Ethnic penalty ·
 Eugenics ·
 Intersectionality ·
 Multiculturalism ·
 Neurodiversity ·
 Oppression ·
 Police brutality ·
 Political correctness ·
 Prejudice ·
 Racism by country ·
 Religious intolerance ·
 Speciesism ·
 Stereotypes ·
 White privilege
 

Category Category ·
 Portal Portal
 

  


Categories: Discrimination
Violence against women
Hatred
Homophobia
Sexual orientation and society
Sexual and gender prejudices
Lesbianism
Misogyny
Phobias
Sexism





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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbophobia