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Racism consists of ideologies and practices that seek to justify, or cause, the unequal distribution of privileges, rights or goods among different racial groups. Modern variants are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems that consider different races to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. It may also hold that members of different races should be treated differently.[1][2][3]
Among the questions about how to define racism are the question of whether to include forms of discrimination that are unintentional, such as making assumptions about preferences or abilities of others based on racial stereotypes, whether to include symbolic or institutionalized forms of discrimination such as the circulation of ethnic stereotypes through the media, and whether to include the sociopolitical dynamics of social stratification that sometimes have a racial component.
In sociology and psychology, some definitions include only consciously malignant forms of discrimination.[4][5] Some definitions of racism also include discriminatory behaviors and beliefs based on cultural, national, ethnic, caste, or religious stereotypes.[2][6] One view holds that racism is best understood as 'prejudice plus power' because without the support of political or economic power, prejudice would not be able to manifest as a pervasive cultural, institutional or social phenomenon.[7][8][9]
While race and ethnicity are considered to be separate phenomena in contemporary social science, the two terms have a long history of equivalence in popular usage and older social science literature. Racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. According to the United Nations convention, there is no distinction between the terms racial discrimination and ethnic discrimination, superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and dangerous, and there is no justification for racial discrimination, in theory or in practice, anywhere.[10]
In history, racism was a driving force behind conquest and the Transatlantic slave trade,[11] and behind states based on racial segregation such as the United States in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and South Africa under apartheid.[12] Practices and ideologies of racism are universally condemned by the United Nations in the Declaration of Human Rights.[13] It has also been a major part of the political and ideological underpinning of genocides such as the Holocaust, but also in colonial contexts such as the rubber booms in South America and the Congo, and in the European conquest of the Americas and colonization of Africa, Asia and Australia.


Contents  [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Definitions 2.1 Legal
2.2 Sociological
2.3 Xenophobia
2.4 Supremacism
2.5 Segregationism
3 Types 3.1 Racial discrimination
3.2 Institutional
3.3 Economic
3.4 Symbolic/Modern
3.5 Cultural
3.6 Color blindness
3.7 Othering
4 Declarations and international law against racial discrimination
5 Ideology 5.1 Ethnic nationalism
6 Ethnic conflicts
7 Academic variants 7.1 Scientific variants 7.1.1 Heredity and eugenics
7.1.2 Polygenism and racial typologies
7.1.3 Human zoos

8 Evolutionary theories about the origins of racism
9 Research on influencing factors
10 History 10.1 In Antiquity
10.2 Middle Ages and Renaissance
10.3 19th century
10.4 20th century
10.5 Contemporary
11 As state-sponsored activity
12 Inter-minority variants 12.1 In Europe
12.2 In North America
13 Unconscious Racism
14 Anti-racism 14.1 International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
15 See also
16 References & notes
17 Further reading
18 External links

Etymology

Race
Classification

Genetics and differences
Race and genetics
Human genetic variation

Society
Historical concepts
Race
in Brazil
in the United States
Racial inequality in the United States
Racial wage gap in the United States
Racial profiling
Racism
in the U.S.
Scientific Racism

Race and...

Crime in the U.K.
Crime in the U.S.

Incarceration
in the U.S.

Race and health
in the United States

Intelligence
History of the race
 and intelligence controversy
Sports

Related topics
Ethnic group
Eugenics
Genetics
Human evolution

Index
Category

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In the 19th century, some scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population is divided into races,[14] that some races were inferior to others, and that differential treatment of races was consequently justified.[15][16][17] Such theories are generally termed scientific racism.
Today, most biologists, anthropologists, and sociologists reject a taxonomy of races in favor of more specific and/or empirically verifiable criteria, such as geography, ethnicity, or a history of endogamy.[18]
The Oxford English Dictionary defined "racialism" as "belief in the superiority of a particular race" and gave a 1907 quote as the first recorded use. The updated entry in the Oxford English Dictionary (2008) defines racialism simply as "An earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it," and cites it in a 1902 quote.[19] The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term "racism" in a quote from the following year, 1903.[20][21][22] It was first defined by the OED as "[t]he theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by race", which gives 1936 as the first recorded use. Additionally, the OED records racism as a synonym of racialism: "belief in the superiority of a particular race". By the end of World War II, racism had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with racialism: racism now implied racial discrimination, racial supremacism and a harmful intent. (The term "race hatred" had also been used by sociologist Frederick Hertz in the late 1920s.)
Modeled on the term "racism", a large number of -ism terms have been created to describe various types of prejudice: sexism, ageism, ableism, speciesism, etc. Related concepts are antisemitism, chauvinism, homophobia and Islamophobia.
Definitions
As its etymology indicates, the first use of the word racism is relatively recent—i.e., the 1900s, most literally the 1930s. Linguistically, as the word is a general abstraction that does not in and of itself connote a great deal of positive or negative meaning without additional context (i.e., "racism" = noun of action/condition regarding "race"), its definition and semantics are not entirely settled. Nonetheless, the term is commonly used, often negatively as a pejorative (e.g., "racist"), and is associated with race-based prejudice, violence, dislike, discrimination, or oppression.
Dictionaries define the word as follows:
The Oxford English Dictionary defines racism as the "belief that all members of each race possess characteristics, abilities, or qualities specific to that race, especially so as to distinguish it as inferior or superior to another race or races" and the expression of such prejudice,[23][24]
Merriam-Webster's Dictionary defines it as a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority or inferiority of a particular racial group, and alternatively that it is also the prejudice based on such a belief.[25]
The Macquarie Dictionary defines racism as: "the belief that human races have distinctive characteristics which determine their respective cultures, usually involving the idea that one's own race is superior and has the right to rule or dominate others."
Legal
The UN does not define "racism"; however, it does define "racial discrimination": According to the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,

the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.[26]
This definition does not make any difference between discrimination based on ethnicity and race, in part because the distinction between the two remains debatable among anthropologists.[27] Similarly, in British law the phrase racial group means "any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin".[28]
In Norway, the word "race" has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination as the use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical.[29][30] The Norwegian Anti-Discrimination Act bans discrimination based on ethnicity, national origin, descent and skin color.[31]
Sociological
Some sociologists have defined racism as a system of categorical privilege. In Portraits of White Racism, David Wellman defined racism as "culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of the subordinated position of racial minorities".[32] Sociologists Noël A. Cazenave and Darlene Alvarez Maddern define racism as "... a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy. Sellers and Shelton (2003) found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional distress was moderated by racial ideology and public regard beliefs. That is, racial centrality appears to promote the degree of discrimination African American young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buffer the detrimental emotional effects of that discrimination. Racist systems include, but cannot be reduced to, racial bigotry,".[33]
Some sociologists have also argued that, in some instances, racism has changed from blatant to more covert expression. The "newer" (more hidden and less easily detectable) forms of racism—which can be considered as embedded in social processes and structures—are more difficult to explore as well as challenge. It has been suggested that, while in many countries overt and explicit racism has become increasingly taboo, even in those who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an implicit or aversive racism is still maintained subconsciously. CITE?
Xenophobia
Main article: Xenophobia
Dictionary definitions of xenophobia include: intense or irrational dislike or fear of people from other countries (Oxford Dictionaries),[34] unreasonable fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners or of anything that is strange or foreign (Merriam-Webster)[35] The Dictionary of Psychology defines it as "a fear of strangers".[36]
Supremacism
Main article: Supremacism
Centuries of European colonialism of the Americas, Africa and Asia was often justified by white supremacist attitudes.[37] During the early 20th century, the phrase "The White Man's Burden" was widely used to justify imperialist policy as a noble enterprise.[38][39]



 A rally against school integration in 1959.
Segregationism
Main article: Racial segregation
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bath room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home.[40] Segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by Thomas Schelling's models of segregation and subsequent work.
Types
External video
 James A. White Sr.: The little problem I had renting a house, TED Talks, 14:20, February 20, 2015
Racial discrimination
Racial discrimination refers to the separation of people through a process of social division into categories not necessarily related to races for purposes of differential treatment. Racial segregation policies may formalize it, but it is also often exerted without being legalized. Researchers Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan, at the University of Chicago and MIT found in a 2004 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black". These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews. Devah Pager, a sociologist at Princeton University, sent matched pairs of applicants to apply for jobs in Milwaukee and New York City, finding that black applicants received callbacks or job offers at half the rate of equally qualified whites.[41][42] In contrast, institutions and courts have upheld discrimination against whites when it is done to promote a diverse work or educational environment, even when it was shown to be to the detriment of qualified applicants.[43][44] The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the United States' long history of discrimination (e.g., Jim Crow laws, etc.)[45]
Institutional
Further information: Institutional racism, State racism, Affirmative action, Racial profiling and Racism by country



 Students protesting against racial quotas in Brazil. The sign reads: "Want an opening (i.e. job opening)? Pass the entry exam!"
Institutional racism (also known as structural racism, state racism or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. Stokely Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".[46]
Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility, and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples."[47]
Economic
Further information: Racial wage gap in the United States and Racial wealth gap in the United States



Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses, Germany, 1933
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of discrimination caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population.
In 2011, Bank of America agreed to pay $335 million to settle a federal government claim that its mortgage division, Countrywide Financial, discriminated against black and Hispanic homebuyers.[48]
During the Spanish colonial period, Spaniards developed a complex caste system based on race, which was used for social control and which also determined a person's importance in society.[49] While many Latin American countries have long since rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, usually at the time of their independence, prejudice based on degrees of perceived racial distance from European ancestry combined with one's socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the colonial caste system.[50]
Symbolic/Modern
Main article: Symbolic racism
Some scholars argue that in the US earlier violent and aggressive forms of racism have evolved into a more subtle form of prejudice in the late 20th century. This new form of racism is sometimes referred to as "modern racism" and characterized by outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes, and displaying subtle prejudiced behaviors such as actions informed by attributing qualities to others based on racial stereotypes, and evaluating the same behavior differently based on the race of the person being evaluated.[51] This view is based on studies of prejudice and discriminatory behavior, where some people will act ambivalently towards black people, with positive reactions in certain, more public contexts, but more negative views and expressions in more private contexts. This ambivalence may also be visible for example in hiring decisions where job candidates that are otherwise positively evaluated may be unconsciously disfavored by employers in the final decision because of their race.[52][53][54] Some scholars consider modern racism to be characterized by an explicit rejection of stereotypes, combined with resistance to changing structures of discrimination for reasons that are ostensibly non-racial, an ideology that considers opportunity at a purely individual basis denying the relevance of race in determining individual opportunities, and the exhibition of indirect forms of micro-aggression and/or avoidance towards people of other races.[55]
Cultural
Cultural racism is a term used to describe and explain new racial ideologies and practices that have emerged since World War II. It can be defined as societal beliefs and customs that promote the assumption that the products of a given culture, including the language and traditions of that culture are superior to those of other cultures. It shares a great deal with xenophobia, which is often characterised by fear of, or aggression toward, members of an outgroup by members of an ingroup.
Cultural racism exists when there is a widespread acceptance of stereotypes concerning different ethnic or population groups.[56] Where racism can be characterised by the belief that one race is inherently superior to another, cultural racism can be characterised by the belief that one culture is inherently superior to another.[57]
Color blindness
Main article: Color blindness (race) in the United States
Color blindness is held to be the disregard of racial characteristics in social interaction. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva argues that color blind racism arises from an "abstract liberalism, biologization of culture, naturalization of racial matters, and minimization of racism".[58] Color blind practices are "subtle, institutional, and apparently nonracial"[59] because race is explicitly ignored in decision making. If race is disregarded in predominately white populations, for example, whiteness becomes the normative standard, whereas people of color are othered, and the racism these individuals experience may be minimized or erased.[60][61] At an individual level, people with "color blind prejudice" reject racist ideology, but also reject systemic policies intended to fix institutional racism.[61]
Othering
Main article: Other
Othering is the term used by some to describe a system of discrimination whereby the characteristics of a group are used to distinguish them as separate from the norm.[62]
Othering plays a fundamental role in the history and continuation of racism. By objectifying a culture as something different, exotic or underdeveloped is to generalize that it is not like 'normal' society. Europe's colonial attitude towards the Orient exemplifies this as it was thought that the East was the opposite of the West; feminine where the West was masculine, weak where the West was strong and traditional where the West was progressive.[63] By making these generalizations and othering the East, Europe was simultaneously defining herself as the norm, further entrenching the gap.[64]
Much of the process of othering relies on imagined difference, or the expectation of difference. Spatial difference can be enough to conclude that "we" are "here" and the "others" are over "there".[63] Imagined differences serve to categorize people into groups and assign them characteristics that suit the imaginer's expectations.[65]
Declarations and international law against racial discrimination
In 1919, a proposal to include a racial equality provision in the Covenant of the League of Nations was supported by a majority, but not adopted in the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. In 1943, Japan and its allies declared work for the abolition of racial discrimination to be their aim at the Greater East Asia Conference.[66] Article 1 of the 1945 UN Charter includes "promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race" as UN purpose.
In 1950, UNESCO suggested in The Race Question —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as Ashley Montagu, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Gunnar Myrdal, Julian Huxley, etc. — to "drop the term race altogether and instead speak of ethnic groups". The statement condemned scientific racism theories that had played a role in the Holocaust. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the Enlightenment and its assumption of equal rights for all. Along with Myrdal's An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944), The Race Question influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court desegregation decision in "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka".[67] Also in 1950, the European Convention on Human Rights was adopted, widely used on racial discrimination issues.[68]
The United Nations use the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted in 1966:

... any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination)[69]
In 2001, the European Union explicitly banned racism, along with many other forms of social discrimination, in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, the legal effect of which, if any, would necessarily be limited to Institutions of the European Union: "Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality."[70]
Ideology



 A racist political campaign poster from the 1866 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election


 A sign on a racially segregated beach during the Apartheid in South Africa
Racism existed during the 19th century as "scientific racism", which attempted to provide a racial classification of humanity.[71] Johann Blumenbach in 1775, advocating polygenism, divided the world's population into five groups according to skin color (Caucasians, Mongols, etc.). The archetypical form of racism is, perhaps, found with the polygenist Christoph Meiners. He split mankind into two divisions which he labeled the "beautiful White race" and the "ugly Black race". In Meiners's book, The Outline of History of Mankind, Meiners claimed that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. He viewed only the white race as beautiful. He considered ugly races as inferior, immoral and animal-like.
Anders Retzius demonstrated that neither Europeans nor others are one "pure race", but of mixed origins. While discredited, derivations of Blumenbach's taxonomy are still widely used for classification of the population in USA. H. P. Steensby, while strongly emphasizing that all humans today are of mixed origins, in 1907 claimed that the origins of human differences must be traced extraordinarily far back in time, and conjectured that the "purest race" today would be the Australian Aboriginals.[72]
Scientific racism fell strongly out of favor in the early 20th Century, but the origins of fundamental human and societal differences are still researched within academia, in fields such as human genetics including paleogenetics, social anthropology, comparative politics, history of religions, history of ideas, prehistory, history, ethics, and psychiatry. There is widespread rejection of any methodology based on anything similar to Blumenbach's races. It is more unclear to which extent ethnic and national stereotypes are accepted, and when.
Although after World War II and the Holocaust, racist ideologies were discredited on ethical, political and scientific grounds, but racism and racial discrimination have remained widespread around the world.
Du Bois observed that it is not so much "race" that we think about, but culture: "... a common history, common laws and religion, similar habits of thought and a conscious striving together for certain ideals of life".[73] Late 19th century nationalists were the first to embrace contemporary discourses on "race", ethnicity, and "survival of the fittest" to shape new nationalist doctrines. Ultimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as decisively shaping the character and personality of the nation.[74] According to this view, culture is the physical manifestation created by ethnic groupings, as such fully determined by racial characteristics. Culture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each other, sometimes even to the extent of including nationality or language to the set of definition. Pureness of race tended to be related to rather superficial characteristics that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics. In the case of Nordicism, the denomination "Germanic" was equivalent to superiority of race.
Bolstered by some nationalist and ethnocentric values and achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority evolved to distinguish from other cultures that were considered inferior or impure. This emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream definition of racism: "Racism does not originate from the existence of 'races'. It creates them through a process of social division into categories: anybody can be racialised, independently of their somatic, cultural, religious differences."[75]
This definition explicitly ignores the biological concept of race, still subject to scientific debate. In the words of David C. Rowe "A racial concept, although sometimes in the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology and in other fields because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is captured by race."[76]
Racial prejudice became subject to international legislation. For instance, the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, 1963, address racial prejudice explicitly next to discrimination for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin (Article I).[77]
Racism has been a motivating factor in social discrimination, racial segregation, hate speech and violence (such as pogroms, genocides and ethnic cleansings). Despite the persistence of racial stereotypes in humor and epithets in some everyday language, racial discrimination is illegal in many countries.
Some claim that anti-racism is a political instrument of abuse. In a reversal of values, anti-racism is claimed to be propagated by despots in the service of obscurantism and the suppression of women. Philosopher Pascal Bruckner claimed that "[a]nti-racism in the UN has become the ideology of totalitarian regimes who use it in their own interests."[78]
Ethnic nationalism
Further information: Ethnic nationalism and Romantic nationalism



Eugène Delacroix's Scene of the massacre at Chios (1824); Greek families awaiting death or slavery
After the Napoleonic Wars, Europe was confronted with the new "nationalities question," leading to reconfigurations of the European map, on which the frontiers between the states had been delimited during the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Nationalism had made its first appearance with the invention of the levée en masse by the French revolutionaries, thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly founded Republic against the Ancien Régime order represented by the European monarchies. This led to the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to the subsequent European-wide debates on the concepts and realities of nations, and in particular of nation-states. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms (Ottoman Empire, Holy Roman Empire, Swedish Empire, Kingdom of France, etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (Kabinettskriege in German).
Modern nation-states appeared in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of patriotic sentiments for the first time in Spain during the Peninsula War (1808–1813, known in Spain as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the Industrial Era, leading in particular to the 1848 Revolutions, the Italian unification completed during the 1871 Franco-Prussian War, which itself culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, thus achieving the German unification.
Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire, the "sick man of Europe", was confronted with endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, would lead to the creation after World War I of the various nation-states of the Balkans, with "national minorities" in their borders.[79] Ethnic nationalism, which advocated the belief in a hereditary membership of the nation, made its appearance in the historical context surrounding the creation of the modern nation-states.
One of its main influences was the Romantic nationalist movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as Johann Herder (1744–1803), Johan Fichte (1762–1814) in the Addresses to the German Nation (1808), Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), or also, in France, Jules Michelet (1798–1874). It was opposed to liberal nationalism, represented by authors such as Ernest Renan (1823–1892), who conceived of the nation as a community, which, instead of being based on the Volk ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily plebiscite", 1882) or also John Stuart Mill (1806–1873).[80] Ethnic nationalism blended with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental imperialist" (Hannah Arendt, 1951[81]) discourses, for example in the pan-Germanism discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk. The Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband), created in 1891, promoted German imperialism, "racial hygiene" and was opposed to intermarriage with Jews. Another popular current, the Völkisch movement, was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which combined with modern antisemitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the Thule Society, would participate in the founding of the German Workers' Party (DAP) in Munich in 1918, the predecessor of the NSDAP Nazi party. Pan-Germanism and played a decisive role in the interwar period of the 1920s–1930s.[81]
These currents began to associate the idea of the nation with the biological concept of a "master race" (often the "Aryan race" or "Nordic race") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflated nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses that posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying ethnic cleansing in order to achieve "racial purity" and also to achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.
Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not, however, limited to pan-Germanism. In France, the transition from Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made nationalism a characteristic of far-right movements in France, took place during the Dreyfus Affair at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide crisis affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Émile Zola, who wrote J'accuse in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet, Maurice Barrès (1862–1923), one of the founders of the ethnic nationalist discourse in France.[82] At the same time, Charles Maurras (1868–1952), founder of the monarchist Action française movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative métèques). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners", who threatened the ethnic unity of the French people.
Ethnic conflicts
Further information: Ethnicity
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as xenophobia and ethnocentrism, although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an ideology or from scientific racism, which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia. Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe itself to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases, ethnicity and nationalism were harnessed to rally combatants in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).



 Picture showing Armenians killed during the Armenian Genocide of 1915.
Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Throughout history, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (in particular when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by moral or ethical considerations. According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other."[83] Basil Davidson insists in his documentary, Africa: Different but Equal, that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 19th century, due to the need for a justification for slavery in the Americas.
The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West. Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the Triangular Trade. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but, then, due to European diseases, their populations drastically decreased. Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's Europe and the People without History).
Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda argued that, during the Valladolid controversy in the middle of the 16th century, the Native Americans were natural slaves because they had no souls. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th–20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.
Academic variants



 Drawings from Josiah C. Nott and George Gliddon's Indigenous races of the earth (1857), which suggested black people ranked between white people and chimpanzees in terms of intelligence.
Owen 'Alik Shahadah comments on this racism by stating: "Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa, other than raw material."[84]
Scottish philosopher and economist David Hume said, "I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences."[85] German philosopher Immanuel Kant stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people."[86]
In the 19th century, the German philosopher, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." Hegel further claimed that blacks had no "sense of personality; their spirit sleeps, remains sunk in itself, makes no advance, and thus parallels the compact, undifferentiated mass of the African continent."[87]
Fewer than 30 years before Nazi Germany instigated World War II, the Austrian, Otto Weininger, claimed: "A genius has perhaps scarcely ever appeared amongst the negroes, and the standard of their morality is almost universally so low that it is beginning to be acknowledged in America that their emancipation was an act of imprudence."[88]
The German conservative, Oswald Spengler, remarked on what he perceived as the culturally degrading influence of Africans in modern Western culture: in The Hour of Decision Spengler denounced "the 'happy ending' of an empty existence, the boredom of which has brought to jazz music and Negro dancing to perform the Death March for a great Culture."[89] During the Nazi era, German scientists rearranged academia to support claims of a grand "Aryan" agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt.[86]



 People Show (a human zoo) (Völkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928.
Scientific variants
Main article: Scientific racism
Further information: Unilineal evolution
The modern biological definition of race developed in the 19th century with scientific racist theories. The term scientific racism refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the New Imperialism period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the Church's resistance to positivist accounts of history and its support of monogenism, the concept that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with creationist accounts of history.
These racist theories put forth on scientific hypothesis were combined with unilineal theories of social progress, which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the idea of "survival of the fittest", a term coined by Herbert Spencer in 1864, associated with ideas of competition, which were named social Darwinism in the 1940s. Charles Darwin himself opposed the idea of rigid racial differences in The Descent of Man (1871) in which he argued that humans were all of one species, sharing common descent. He recognised racial differences as varieties of humanity, and emphasised the close similarities between people of all races in mental faculties, tastes, dispositions and habits, while still contrasting the culture of the "lowest savages" with European civilization.[90][91]
At the end of the 19th century, proponents of scientific racism intertwined themselves with eugenics discourses of "degeneration of the race" and "blood heredity."[citation needed] Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social Darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on physical anthropology, anthropometry, craniometry, phrenology, physiognomy, and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices.
Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of cultural anthropology (Franz Boas, etc.), the British school of social anthropology (Bronisław Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, etc.), the French school of ethnology (Claude Lévi-Strauss, etc.), as well as the discovery of the neo-Darwinian synthesis, such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances.
The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a gene-centered view of evolution in the 1960s. According to the Human Genome Project, the most complete mapping of human DNA to date indicates that there is no clear genetic basis to racial groups. While some genes are more common in certain populations, there are no genes that exist in all members of one population and no members of any other.[92]
Heredity and eugenics
Further information: Eugenics
The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by Francis Galton (1822–1911), who used the then popular concept of degeneration. He applied statistics to study human differences and the alleged "inheritance of intelligence", foreshadowing future uses of "intelligence testing" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer Émile Zola (1840–1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, Les Rougon-Macquart, where he linked heredity to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons as those involved in politics (Son Excellence Eugène Rougon) and medicine (Le Docteur Pascal) and the low-born Macquarts as those fatally falling into alcoholism (L'Assommoir), prostitution (Nana), and homicide (La Bête humaine).
During the rise of Nazism in Germany, some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century.[93] According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, The Race Question, an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, UNESCO declared that it had resumed:

up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project that the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation has wished to carry through but that it had to abandon in deference to the appeasement policy of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of Nazi ideology and policy. Masaryk and Beneš took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race ... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.
The Third Reich's racial policies, its eugenics programs and the extermination of Jews in the Holocaust, as well as Romani people in the Porrajmos (the Romani Holocaust) and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war.[citation needed] Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the Boasian school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. These theories were strongly denounced in the 1950 UNESCO statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled The Race Question.
Polygenism and racial typologies
Further information: Polygenism and Typology (anthropology)



 Madison Grant's map, from 1916, charting the "present distribution of European races", with the Nordics in red, the Alpines in green, and the Mediterraneans in yellow.
Works such as Arthur de Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853–1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of Boulainvilliers for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality, which changed over time. Gobineau, thus, attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological differences among humans, giving it the legitimacy of biology. He was one of the first theorists to postulate polygenism, stating that there were, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races."
Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854–1936)'s typology of races, who published in 1899 The Aryan and his Social Role, in which he claimed that the white, "Aryan race", "dolichocephalic", was opposed to the "brachycephalic" race, of whom the "Jew" was the archetype. Vacher de Lapouge thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "Homo europaeus (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "Homo alpinus" (Auvergnat, Turkish, etc.), and finally the "Homo mediterraneus" (Neapolitan, Andalus, etc.) He assimilated races and social classes, considering that the French upper class was a representation of the Homo europaeus, while the lower class represented the Homo alpinus. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of trade unionists, considered to be a "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of labour conditions. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking social conflict by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order[94]
The same year, William Z. Ripley used identical racial classification in The Races of Europe (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Other scientific authors include H.S. Chamberlain at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who naturalized himself as German because of his admiration for the "Aryan race") and Madison Grant, a eugenicist and author of The Passing of the Great Race (1916). Madison Grant provided statistics for the Immigration Act of 1924, which severely restricted immigration of Jews, Slavs, and southern Europeans, who were subsequently hindered in seeking to escape Nazi Germany.[95]
Human zoos
Human zoos (called "People Shows"), were an important means of bolstering popular racism by connecting it to scientific racism: they were both objects of public curiosity and of anthropology and anthropometry.[96][97] Joice Heth, an African American slave, was displayed by P.T. Barnum in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of Saartjie Baartman, the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until World War II. Carl Hagenbeck, inventor of the modern zoos, exhibited animals beside humans who were considered "savages".[98][99]
Congolese pygmy Ota Benga was displayed in 1906 by eugenicist Madison Grant, head of the Bronx Zoo, as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to Darwinism, creating a social Darwinist ideology that tried to ground itself in Darwin's scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris Colonial Exhibition displayed Kanaks from New Caledonia.[100] A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the Brussels' World Fair.
Evolutionary theories about the origins of racism
See also: Ethnocentrism



 Sociological model of ethnic and racial conflict.
Biologists John Tooby and Leda Cosmides were puzzled by the fact that in the US race is one of the three characteristics most often used in brief descriptions of individuals (the others are age and sex). They reasoned that natural selection would not have favoured the evolution of an instinct for using race as a classification, because for most of human history, humans almost never encountered members of other races. Tooby and Cosmides hypothesized that modern people use race as a proxy (rough-and-ready indicator) for coalition membership, since a better-than-random guess about "which side" another person is on will be helpful if one does not actually know in advance.
Their colleague Robert Kurzban designed an experiment whose results appeared to support this hypothesis. Using the Memory confusion protocol, they presented subjects with pictures of individuals and sentences, allegedly spoken by these individuals, which presented two sides of a debate. The errors that the subjects made in recalling who said what indicated that they sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker of the same race as the "correct" speaker, although they also sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker "on the same side" as the "correct" speaker. In a second run of the experiment, the team also distinguished the "sides" in the debate by clothing of similar colors; and in this case the effect of racial similarity in causing mistakes almost vanished, being replaced by the color of their clothing. In other words, the first group of subjects, with no clues from clothing, used race as a visual guide to guessing who was on which side of the debate; the second group of subjects used the clothing color as their main visual clue, and the effect of race became very small.[101]
Some research suggests that ethnocentric thinking may have actually contributed to the development of cooperation. Political scientists Ross Hammond and Robert Axelrod created a computer simulation wherein virtual individuals were randomly assigned one of a variety of skin colors, and then one of a variety of trading strategies: be color-blind, favor those of your own color, or favor those of other colors. They found that the ethnocentric individuals clustered together, then grew until all the non-ethnocentric individuals were wiped out.[102]
In The Selfish Gene, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins writes that "Blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretable in terms of Hamilton's genetic theory." Dawkins writes that racial prejudice, while not evolutionarily adaptive, "could be interpreted as an irrational generalization of a kin-selected tendency to identify with individuals physically resembling oneself, and to be nasty to individuals different in appearance".[103] Simulation-based experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.[104]
Research on influencing factors
Research has examined factors influencing tolerance, in particular ethnic tolerance, prejudice, and trust. Authoritarian personality has been associated with prejudice and intolerance. Education has an inverse association which is stronger in established democracies than in emerging. Different groups are viewed differently and including illegal groups in tolerance surveys may reduce tolerance levels in all countries except the United States. Increased contact with other groups increase tolerance. Increased perception of threat, including from the home land of an ethnic minority, reduces tolerance. Competition over jobs reduces tolerance and occupational segregation reduced ethnic conflicts and ethnic prejudice in studies in the United States and Yugoslavia. Tolerance is increased by democratic stability and a federal system. Increased ethnic heterogeneity increases tolerance up to a point but beyond this tolerance decreases. The negative effect of increased ethnic heterogeneity is stronger when looking at larger areas such as nations compared to smaller areas such as neighborhoods. This may be due to the contact effect being relatively more important at local levels while the threat effect becomes more important in larger areas.[105] One study, published by Carl Bell, revealed that "racist attitudes may be indicative of a narcissistic personality disorder or of a regression to primitive narcissistic functioning secondary to environmental forces."[106]
History
In Antiquity



 In some interpretations of the biblical story of Noah, Ham and his descendants were cursed with black skin
Edith Sanders in 1969 cited the Babylonian Talmud, which divides mankind between the three sons of Noah, stating that "the descendants of Ham are cursed by being black, and [it] depicts Ham as a sinful man and his progeny as degenerates."[107] Although the curse of Ham has been used as an explanation for the origin of dark-skinned people since the 3rd century A.D., David M. Goldenberg (2005) writes that this was based on a theory that different climates and sun exposure effect semen composition and through this the physical composition of descendants. Furthermore the earliest appearance of dark skin as a punishment for the descendants of Ham directly related to "Black Africans" does not appear until the 9th or 10th century (in the Pirqei de-Rabbenu ha-Qadosh). Earlier sources assign the punishment of blackness to Ham himself and make no mention of the people of Kush or their skin being a curse. As well, Goldenberg goes on to explain that the earlier (3rd century) sources understood "dark skin" to include not only sub-Saharan Africa but also:

... the Copts, Fezzan, Zaghawa, Brbr, Indians, Arabs, the people of Marw, the inhabitants of the islands in the Indian Ocean, even the Chinese, as well as the Ethiopians (Habash), Zanj, Buja, and Nubians. In other words, "the coloured people of the world."[108]
Bernard Lewis has cited the Greek philosopher Aristotle who, in his discussion of slavery, stated that while Greeks are free by nature, 'barbarians' (non-Greeks) are slaves by nature, in that it is in their nature to be more willing to submit to despotic government.[109] Though Aristotle does not specify any particular races, he argues that people from outside Greece are more prone to the burden of slavery than those from Greece.[110] Such proto-racism and ethnocentrism must be looked at within context, because a modern understanding of racism based on hereditary inferiority (modern racism based in: eugenics and scientific racism) was not yet developed and it is unclear whether Aristotle believed the natural inferiority of Barbarians was caused by environment and climate (like many of his contemporaries) or by birth.[111] While Aristotle makes remarks about the most natural slaves being those with strong bodies and slave souls (unfit for rule, unintelligent) which would seem to imply a physical basis for discrimination, he also explicitly states that the right kind of souls and bodies don't always go together, implying that the greatest determinate for inferiority and natural slaves versus natural masters is the soul, not the body.[112] This proto-racism is seen as an important precursor to modern racism by classicist Benjamin Isaac.
Historian Dante A. Puzzo, in his discussion of Aristotle, racism, and the ancient world writes that:

Racism rests on two basic assumptions: that a correlation exists between physical characteristics and moral qualities; that mankind is divisible into superior and inferior stocks. Racism, thus defined, is a modern conception, for prior to the XVIth century there was virtually nothing in the life and thought of the West that can be described as racist. To prevent misunderstanding a clear distinction must be made between racism and ethnocentrism ... The Ancient Hebrews, in referring to all who were not Hebrews as Gentiles, were indulging in ethnocentrism, not in racism. ... So it was with the Hellenes who denominated all non-Hellenes——whether the wild Scythians or the Egyptians whom they acknowledged as their mentors in the arts if civilization——Barbarians, the term denoting that which was strange or foreign.[113]
Middle Ages and Renaissance
Further information: Limpieza de sangre
In the Middle East and North Africa region, racist opinions were expressed within the works of some of its historians and geographers[114] including Al-Muqaddasi, Al-Jahiz, Al-Masudi, Abu Rayhan Biruni, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn Qutaybah.[114] In the 14th century CE, the Tunisian scholar Ibn Khaldun wrote:

- :"beyond [known peoples of black West Africa] to the south there is no civilization in the proper sense. There are only humans who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings. They live in thickets and caves, and eat herbs and unprepared grain. They frequently eat each other. They cannot be considered human beings." "Therefore, the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because (Negroes) have little that is (essentially) human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated."[114][115]
Though the Qur'an expresses no racial prejudice, such prejudices later developed among Arabs for a variety of reasons:[109] their extensive conquests and slave trade; the influence of Aristotelian ideas regarding slavery, which some Muslim philosophers directed towards Zanj (Bantu[116]) and Turkic peoples;[109] and the influence of Judeo-Christian ideas regarding divisions among humankind.[117] In response to such views, the Afro-Arab author Al-Jahiz, himself having a Zanj grandfather, wrote a book entitled Superiority Of The Blacks To The Whites,[118] and explained why the Zanj were black in terms of environmental determinism in the "On the Zanj" chapter of The Essays.[119] By the 14th century, a significant number of slaves came from sub-Saharan Africa, leading to the likes of Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) writing: "It is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals."[120] According to J. Philippe Rushton, Arab relations with blacks whom the Muslims had dealt as slave traders for over 1,000 years could be summed up as follows:



 13th-century slave market in Yemen. Yemen officially abolished slavery in 1962.[121]
It should be noted that ethnic prejudice among some elite Arabs was not limited to darker-skinned black people, but was also directed towards fairer-skinned "ruddy people" (including Persians, Turks, Caucasians and Europeans), while Arabs referred to themselves as "swarthy people".[122]
However, the Umayyad Caliphate invaded Hispania and founded the civilization of Al-Andalus, where an era of religious tolerance and a Golden age of Jewish culture lasted for six centuries.[123] It was followed by a violent Reconquista under the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand V and Isabella I. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the Cleanliness of blood doctrine. It was during this time in history that the Western concept of aristocratic "blue blood" emerged in a highly racialized and implicitly white supremacist context, as author Robert Lacey explains:

It was the Spaniards who gave the world the notion that an aristocrat's blood is not red but blue. The Spanish nobility started taking shape around the ninth century in classic military fashion, occupying land as warriors on horseback. They were to continue the process for more than five hundred years, clawing back sections of the peninsula from its Moorish occupiers, and a nobleman demonstrated his pedigree by holding up his sword arm to display the filigree of blue-blooded veins beneath his pale skin—proof that his birth had not been contaminated by the dark-skinned enemy. Sangre azul, blue blood, was thus a euphemism for being a white man—Spain's own particular reminder that the refined footsteps of the aristocracy through history carry the rather less refined spoor of racism.[124]
Following the expulsion of most Sephardic Jews from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to convert to Roman Catholicism, becoming "New Christians" which were despised and discriminated by the "Old Christians". An Inquisition was carried out by members of the Dominican Order in order to weed out converts that still practiced Judaism and Islam in secret. The system and ideology of the limpieza de sangre ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith.
In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was only ended through a legal decree issued by the Marquis of Pombal in 1772, almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The limpieza de sangre doctrine was also very common in the colonization of the Americas, where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by Eduardo Galeano in the Open Veins of Latin America (1971). It included, among others terms, mestizo (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), castizo (75% European and 25% Native American), Spaniard (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), Mulatto (50% European and 50% African), Albarazado (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.
At the end of the Renaissance, the Valladolid debate (1550–1551) concerning the treatment of natives of the "New World" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas Bartolomé de Las Casas to another Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and natural law. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversies concerning racism, slavery and Eurocentrism that would arise in the following centuries.
Although antisemitism has a long European history, related to Christianism (anti-Judaism), racism itself is frequently described as a modern phenomenon. In the view of the French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault, the first formulation of racism emerged in the Early Modern period as the "discourse of race struggle", a historical and political discourse, which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of sovereignty.[125] Foucault thus argued that the first appearance of racism as a social discourse (as opposed to simple xenophobia, which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 Glorious Revolution in Great Britain, in Edward Coke or John Lilburne's work.
However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from the 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "scientific racism". Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a historical notion. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the bourgeoisie, the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy. This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as Boulainvilliers, Nicolas Fréret, and then, during the 1789 French Revolution, Sieyès, and afterward Augustin Thierry and Cournot. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people".
He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified nation-state is, of course, here an anachronism — which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the absolute monarchy, who tried to bypass the aristocracy by establishing a direct relationship to the Third Estate. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "Franks", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished Gallo-Romans, who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the right of conquest. Early modern racism was opposed to nationalism and the nation-state: the Comte de Montlosier, in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "this new people born of slaves ... mixture of all races and of all times".
19th century
While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism,[126] leading to the ethnic nationalist discourse that identified the "race" to the "folk", leading to such movements as pan-Germanism, Zionism,[127] pan-Turkism, pan-Arabism, and pan-Slavism, medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and social conflicts. Michel Foucault traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and eugenicists, who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "state racism" (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, Marxists also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle that provided the real engine of history and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the essentialist notion of "race" into the historical notion of "class struggle", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In The Will to Knowledge (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis, which opposed the concepts of "blood heredity", prevalent in the 19th century racist discourse.
Authors such as Hannah Arendt, in her 1951 book The Origins of Totalitarianism, have said that the racist ideology (popular racism) that developed at the end of the 19th century helped legitimize the imperialist conquests of foreign territories and atrocities that sometimes accompanied them (such as the Herero and Namaqua Genocide of 1904–1907 or the Armenian Genocide of 1915–1917). Rudyard Kipling's poem The White Man's Burden (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the European culture over the rest of the world, though also it is also thought to be a satirical appraisal of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize the conquest and incorporation of foreign territories into an empire, which were regarded as a humanitarian obligation partially as a result of these racist beliefs.



 A late-19th-century illustration from Ireland from One or Two Neglected Points of View by H. Strickland Constable shows an alleged similarity between "Irish Iberian" and "Negro" features in contrast to the "higher" "Anglo-Teutonic."
However, during the 19th century, West European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the Arab slave trade in Africa,[128] as well as in suppression of the slave trade in West Africa.[129] Some Europeans during the time period objected to injustices that occurred in some colonies and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the Hottentot Venus was displayed in England in the beginning of the 19th century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, Joseph Conrad published Heart of Darkness (1899), a clear criticism of the Congo Free State owned by Leopold II of Belgium.
Examples of racial theories used include the creation of the Hamitic ethno-linguistic group during the European exploration of Africa. It was then restricted by Karl Friedrich Lepsius (1810–1877) to non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic languages.[130]
The term Hamite was applied to different populations within Africa, mainly comprising Ethiopians, Eritreans, Somalis, Berbers, and the ancient Egyptians. Hamites were regarded as Caucasoid peoples who probably originated in either Arabia or Asia on the basis of their cultural, physical and linguistic similarities with the peoples of those areas.[131][132][133] Europeans considered Hamites to be more civilized than Black Africans, and more akin to themselves and Semitic peoples.[134] In the first two-thirds of the 20th century, the Hamitic race was, in fact, considered one of the branches of the Caucasian race, along with the Indo-Europeans, Semites, and the Mediterranean race.
However, the Hamitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have failed as rulers, which was usually ascribed to interbreeding with Negroes. In the mid-20th century, the German scholar Carl Meinhof (1857–1944) claimed that the Bantu race was formed by a merger of Hamitic and Negro races. The Hottentots (Nama or Khoi) were formed by the merger of Hamitic and Bushmen (San) races — both being termed nowadays as Khoisan peoples).



 One in a series of posters attacking Radical Republicans on the issue of black suffrage, issued during the Pennsylvania gubernatorial election of 1866.
In the United States in the early 19th century, the American Colonization Society was established as the primary vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa.[135] The colonization effort resulted from a mixture of motives with its founder Henry Clay stating; "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off".[136] Racism spread throughout the New World in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Whitecapping, which started in Indiana in the late 19th century, soon spread throughout all of North America, causing many African laborers to flee from the land they worked on. In the US during the 1860s, racist posters were used during election campaigns. In one of these racist posters (see above), a black man is depicted lounging idly in the foreground as one white man ploughs his field and another chops wood. Accompanying labels are: "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread," and "The white man must work to keep his children and pay his taxes." The black man wonders, "Whar is de use for me to work as long as dey make dese appropriations." Above in a cloud is an image of the "Freedman's Bureau! Negro Estimate of Freedom!" The bureau is pictured as a large domed building resembling the U.S. Capitol and is inscribed "Freedom and No Work." Its columns and walls are labeled, "Candy," "Rum, Gin, Whiskey," "Sugar Plums," "Indolence," "White Women," "Apathy," "White Sugar," "Idleness," and so on.
On June 5, 1873, Sir Francis Galton, distinguished English explorer and cousin of Charles Darwin, wrote in a letter to The Times:

My proposal is to make the encouragement of Chinese settlements of Africa a part of our national policy, in the belief that the Chinese immigrants would not only maintain their position, but that they would multiply and their descendants supplant the inferior Negro race ... I should expect that the African seaboard, now sparsely occupied by lazy, palavering savages, might in a few years be tenanted by industrious, order-loving Chinese, living either as a semidetached dependency of China, or else in perfect freedom under their own law.[137]
20th century
Further information: Holocaust, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, Racial segregation in the United States and Rwandan Genocide



 Naked Soviet POWs in Mauthausen concentration camp. Between June 1941 and January 1942, the Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million Red Army POWs, whom they viewed as "subhuman".[138]


Drinking fountain from mid-20th century with African-American drinking
During World War II and the period of the Nazi regime in Europe, all of the Jews, Gypsies, Blacks, mixed race people, and Slavic people—mainly ethnic Poles, Serbs, and Russians—along with other ethnic groups whose racial origin were non-European (with some small exceptions i.e. the "honorary Aryans", the "Indische Legion", or the "Free Arabian Legion"), according to the Nazi ideology were classified as "subhumans" (Untermenschen) and were viewed as the opposite to the superior Aryan "master race" (Herrenvolk). The Nazi philosophy was that the Germans were part of a "master race", and therefore had the right to expand their territory and enslave or kill members of other races deemed inferior.[139] Approximately 6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis during the Holocaust. In the longer term, the Nazis planned to exterminate some 30–45 million Slavs (mostly Poles and Serbs), however some of them were seen as good material for slaves.[140] Eventually over 2.5 million ethnic Poles, 0.7 million Gypsies, and 0.5 million ethnic Serbs died during the World War II, and were among the main non-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.[141]
Before Nazi Germany invaded Poland, Nazis prepared a special settlement plan named Generalplan Ost ("Master Plan East") which foresaw the eventual expulsion of more than 50 million non-Germanized Slavic peoples of Central Europe and Eastern Europe through forced migration and partial extermination of those Slavs by starvation. Also, according to the Nazi plans for Eastern Europe, some of the Balts were to be expelled beyond the Ural Mountains and into Siberia. In their place, Germans would settle in an extended "living space" (Lebensraum) of the 1000-Year Empire (Tausendjähriges Reich). Herbert Backe was one of the orchestrators of the Hunger Plan—the idea to starve tens of millions of Slavs in order to ensure steady food supplies for the German people and troops.[142]
Heinrich Himmler speech to about 100 SS Group Leaders in Posen, German-occupied Poland, 1943:

What happens to the Russians, what happens to the Czechs, is a matter of utter indifference to me ... Whether the other peoples live in comfort or perish of hunger interests me only in so far as we need them as slaves for our culture; apart from that it does not interest me. Whether or not 10,000 Russian women collapse from exhaustion while digging a tank ditch interests me only in so far as the tank ditch is completed for Germany ... We Germans, who are the only people in the world who have a decent attitude to animals, will also adopt a decent attitude to these human animals, but it is a crime against our own blood to worry about them and to bring them ideals ... I shall speak to you here with all frankness of a very serious subject. We shall now discuss it absolutely openly among ourselves, nevertheless we shall never speak of it in public. I mean the evacuation of the Jews, the extermination of the Jewish race.[143]
Serious race riots in Durban between Indians and Zulus erupted in 1949.[144] Ne Win's rise to power in Burma in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" led to an exodus of some 300,000 Burmese Indians.[145] They migrated to escape racial discrimination and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.[146] The Zanzibar Revolution of January 12, 1964 put an end to the local Arab dynasty.[147] Thousands of Arabs and Indians in Zanzibar were massacred in riots, and thousands more were detained or fled the island.[148] On 4 August 1972, Idi Amin, President of Uganda, ethnically cleansed Uganda's Asians giving them 90 days to leave the country.[149]
Shortly after world war II the South African National Party took control over the governance in South Africa. Between 1948 and 1994, the Apartheid regime took place. This regime based their ideologies on the racial separation of whites and non- whites including the unequal rights of non-whites. Several protests and violence occurred during the Apartheid in South Africa, the most famous of these include the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960, the Soweto uprising in 1976, the Church Street bombing of 1983 and the Cape Town peace march of 1989.[150]
Contemporary



 On 12 September 2011, Julius Malema, youth leader of South Africa's ruling ANC, was found guilty of hate speech for singing 'Shoot the Boer' at a number of public events.[151]
During the Congo Civil War (1998–2003), Pygmies were hunted down like game animals and eaten. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. UN human rights activists reported in 2003 that rebels had carried out acts of cannibalism. Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti pygmies, has asked the UN Security Council to recognise cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.[152] A report released by the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination condemns Botswana's treatment of the 'Bushmen' as racist.[153] In 2008, the tribunal of the 15-nation Southern African Development Community (SADC) accused Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe of having a racist attitude towards white people.[154][155]
The mass demonstrations and riots against African students in Nanjing, China, lasted from December 1988 to January 1989.[156] Bar owners in central Beijing had been forced by the police "not to serve black people or Mongolians" during the 2008 Summer Olympics, as the police associates these ethnic groups with illegal prostitution and drug trafficking.[157] In November 2009, British newspaper The Guardian reported that Lou Jing, of mixed Chinese and African parentage, had emerged as the most famous talent show contestant in China and has become the subject of intense debate because of her skin color.[158] Her attention in the media opened serious debates about racism in China and racial prejudice.[159]
In Asia and Latin America, light skin is seen as more attractive.[160] Thus, skin whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia[161] and India.[6] Some activists, most prominently at the UN conference at Durban, have asserted that the caste system in India is a form of racial discrimination,[162][163] although many prominent[164] scholars debunk this viewpoint as "scientifically nonsense",[165] since there are no consistent racial differences between the different castes in India. These activists utilize genetic studies that claim to corroborate their view,[166] although other more detailed studies have challenged these assertions as overtly simplistic[167][168] Currently, there are approximately 165 million Dalits (formerly known as "untouchables") in India.[169]
Some 70,000 black African Mauritanians were expelled from Mauritania in the late 1980s.[170] In the Sudan, black African captives in the civil war were often enslaved, and female prisoners were often used sexually.[171] The Darfur conflict has been described by some as a racial matter.[172] In October 2006, Niger announced that it would deport the Arabs living in the Diffa region of eastern Niger to Chad.[173] This population numbered about 150,000.[174] While the Government collected Arabs in preparation for the deportation, two girls died, reportedly after fleeing Government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages.[175]



 The burnt out remains of Govinda's Indian Restaurant in Fiji, May 2000
The Jakarta riots of May 1998 targeted many Chinese Indonesians.[176] The anti-Chinese legislation was in the Indonesian constitution until 1998. Resentment against Chinese workers has led to violent confrontations in Africa[177][178][179] and Oceania.[180][181] Anti-Chinese rioting, involving tens of thousands of people,[182] broke out in Papua New Guinea in May 2009.[183] Indo-Fijians suffered violent attacks after the Fiji coup of 2000.[184] Non-indigenous citizens of Fiji are subject to discrimination.[185][186] Racial divisions also exist in Guyana,[187] Malaysia,[188] Trinidad and Tobago,[189] Madagascar,[190] or South Africa.[191]
Israel, as well as elements within Israeli society has been accused of discriminatory behavior towards Ethiopian Jews and other non-white Jews.[192] Accusations of racism range from birth control policies,[193][194] education, and housing discrimination.[195]
One form of racism in the United States was enforced racial segregation which existed until the 1960s when it was outlawed. It has been argued that this separation of races continues to exist today de facto. The causes of segregation vary from lack of access to loans and resources to discrimination in realty.[196][197]
As state-sponsored activity
Main articles: Nazism and race, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, Racism in Germany, Generalplan Ost, Eugenics in Showa Japan, Apartheid in South Africa, Racial segregation in the United States, Ketuanan Melayu, Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia and White Australia policy



 Separate "white" and "colored" entrances to a cafe in North Carolina, 1940
State racism—that is, institutions and practices of a nation-state that are grounded in racist ideology—has played a major role in all instances of settler colonialism, from the United States to Australia. It also played a prominent role in the Nazi German regime and fascist regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's Shōwa period. These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal.[198][199] The politics of Zimbabwe promote discrimination against whites, in an effort to ethnically cleanse the country.[200]
Legislative state racism is known to have been enforced by the National Party of South Africa during their Apartheid regime between 1948 and 1994. Here a series of Apartheid legislation in South Africa was passed through the legal systems to make it legal for white South Africans to have rights which were superior to those of non-white South Africans. Non-white South Africans were not allowed involvement in any governing matters, including voting; access to quality healthcare; the provision of basic services, including clean water; electricity; as well as access to adequate schooling. Non-white South Africans were also prevented from accessing certain public areas, using certain public transportation and were required to live only in certain designated areas. Non-white South Africans were taxed differently from white South Africans and were required to carry on them at all times additional documentation, which later became known as "dom passes", to certify their non-white South African citizenship. All of these legislative racial laws were abolished through a series of equal human rights laws passed at the end of Apartheid in the early 1990s.
The current constitution of Liberia, as enacted in 1984, is racist[201] in its Article 27, as it does not allow Whites to become Liberian citizens:[202] "only persons who are Negroes or of Negro descent shall qualify by birth or by naturalization to be citizens of Liberia".[203]
Inter-minority variants
Main article: Interminority racism
Prejudiced thinking among and between minority groups does occur.
In Europe
In Britain, tensions between minority groups can be just as strong as those between minorities and the majority population.[204] In Birmingham, there have been long-term divisions between the Black and South Asian communities, which were illustrated in the Handsworth riots and in the smaller 2005 Birmingham riots.[205] In Dewsbury, a Yorkshire town with a relatively high Muslim population, there have been tensions and minor civil disturbances between Kurds and South Asians.[206][207]
In France, home to Europe's largest population of Muslims (about 6 million) as well as the continent's largest community of Jews (about 600,000), anti-Jewish violence, property destruction, and racist language has been increasing over the last several years. Jewish leaders perceive the Muslim population as intensifying antisemitism in France, mainly among Muslims of Arab or African heritage, but also this antisemitism is perceived as also growing among Caribbean islanders from former colonies.[208][209]
In North America
For example, conflicts between African Americans and Korean Americans (notably in the Los Angeles riots of 1992), by blacks towards Jews (such as the riots in Crown Heights in 1991), between new immigrant groups (such as Latinos), or towards whites.[210][211][212][213]



 African-Americans in Dallas boycotting a Korean owned Kwik Stop in a mostly black neighborhood, March 2012.[214]
There has been a long-running racial tension between African Americans and Mexican Americans.[215][216][217] There have been several significant riots in California prisons in which Mexican American inmates and African Americans have specifically targeted each other based on racial reasons.[217][218] There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against African Americans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by Mexican Americans, and vice versa.[219][220]
In the late 1920s in California, there was animosity between the Filipinos and the Mexicans and between European Americans and Filipino Americans since they competed for the same jobs.[221] Recently, there has also been an increase in racial violence between African immigrants and Blacks who have already lived in the country for generations.[222]
Over 50 members of the Azusa 13 gang, associated with the Mexican Mafia, were indicted in 2011 for harassing and intimidating African Americans.[223]
Unconscious Racism
Based on Forbes Leadership website, understanding race includes understanding how race operates in our minds out of awareness. Widely reported examples include significant racial bias in job applications, restaurant service, to court cases.[224] According to social psychologist Jennifer L. Eberhardt, a professor in Stanford University, race can influence our visual processing and how our minds work when we are exposed to faces of different colors subliminally. As she says, "blackness is so associated with crime you're ready to pick out these crime objects." These exposures influence our mind and can cause unconscious racism in our behavior towards other people or even objects. Racism goes beyond prejudicial discrimination and bigotry. It arises from stereotypes and fears of which we are not aware.[225]
Anti-racism
Main article: Anti-racism



 An anti-racism rally held outside Sydney Town Hall, December 2005.
Anti-racism includes beliefs, actions, movements, and policies adopted or developed to oppose racism. In general, it promotes an egalitarian society in which people are not discriminated against in race. Movements such as the African-American Civil Rights Movement and the Anti-Apartheid Movement were examples of anti-racist movements. Nonviolent resistance is sometimes an element of anti-racial movements, although this was not always the case. Hate crime laws, affirmative action, and bans on racist speech are also examples of government policy designed to suppress racism.
International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
UNESCO marks March 21 as the yearly International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, in memory of the events that occurred on March 21, 1960 in Sharpeville, South Africa, where police killed student demonstrators peacefully protesting against the apartheid regime.
See also
Allport's Scale
Discrimination based on skin color
Fascism
Index of racism-related articles
Labeling theory
Neo-Nazism
Racial bias in criminal news
Racial fetishism
Racial literacy
Racial segregation
Racialization
Racism in the LGBT community
Research Materials: Max Planck Society Archive
Reverse discrimination
Romantic racism
Scientific racism
Social interpretations of race
Sociology of race and ethnic relations
Stereotype threat
Yellow Peril
References & notes
1.Jump up ^ Racism Oxford Dictionaries
2.^ Jump up to: a b "Racism" in R. Schefer. 2008 Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. SAGE. p. 1113
3.Jump up ^ Newman, D. M. (2012). Sociology : exploring the architecture of everyday life (9th ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. p. 405. ISBN 978-1-4129-8729-5. "racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior."
4.Jump up ^ Reilly, Kevin; Kaufman, Stephen; Bodino, Angela (2003). Racism : a global reader. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-7656-1060-7.
5.Jump up ^ Eberhardt, Jennifer Lynn; Fiske, Susan T (1998). Confronting Racism: The Problem and the Response. SAGE. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0-7619-0368-0.
6.^ Jump up to: a b "In India, Skin-Whitening Creams Reflect Old Biases". NPR: National Public Radio. November 12, 2005
7.Jump up ^ Operario, Don and Susan T. Fiske (1998). Racism equals power plus prejudice: A social psychological equation for racial oppression. Pp. 33-53 in Jennifer Lynn Eberhardt and Susan T Fiske (eds), Confronting racism: The problem and the response. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.
8.Jump up ^ ""Only White People can be Racist: What does Power have to do with Prejudice?" - Sawrikar - Cosmopolitan Civil Societies: An Interdisciplinary Journal". uts.edu.au.
9.Jump up ^ Hoyt, Carlos. "The Pedagogy of the Meaning of Racism: Reconciling a Discordant Discourse" (PDF).
10.Jump up ^ "International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved December 23, 2011.
11.Jump up ^ Fredrickson, George M. 1988. The arrogance of race: historical perspectives on slavery, racism, and social inequality. Middletown, Conn: Wesleyan University Press
12.Jump up ^ Reilly, Kevin; Kaufman, Stephen; Bodino, Angela (2003). Racism : a global reader. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 45–52. ISBN 978-0-7656-1060-7.
13.Jump up ^ UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III), available at: [1] [accessed 18 July 2012]
14.Jump up ^ Frideres, J.S. (May 2010). "Racism". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-07-23. "Racism was developed and popularized by scientists in the 19th century, as they were regarded as purveyors of truth."
15.Jump up ^ "racism". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009-03-16. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
16.Jump up ^ "Framework decision on combating racism and xenophobia". Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA of 28 November 2008. European Union. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
17.Jump up ^ "International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination". UN Treaty Series. United Nations. Archived from the original on 2011-08-26. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
18.Jump up ^ Bamshad, Michael; Steve E. Olson (December 2003). "Does Race Exist?". Scientific American. "If races are defined as genetically discrete groups, no. But researchers can use some genetic information to group individuals into clusters with medical relevance."
19.Jump up ^ "racialism, n.". OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed December 03, 2013).
20.Jump up ^ "racism, n.". OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed December 03, 2013).
21.Jump up ^ Miles, Robert (1989). Racism. Routledge. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-415-01809-8.
22.Jump up ^ The term "racism" was used as the title of a 1930s book, and possibly coined, by sexologist and homosexual activist Magnus Hirschfeld.
23.Jump up ^ "racism, n.". OED Online. Oxford University Press. March 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
24.Jump up ^ marissa mills (2007-08-31). "Minorities, Race, and Genomics". Ornl.gov. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
25.Jump up ^ "racism". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
26.Jump up ^ UN International Convention on the Elimination of All of Racial Discrimination, New York 7 March 1966
27.Jump up ^ Metraux, A. (1950). "United nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race". American Anthropologist 53 (1): 142–145.
28.Jump up ^ "Racist and Religious Crime – CPS Prosecution Policy". The CPS. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
29.Jump up ^ Jon Dagsland Holgersen (23 July 2010) Rasebegrepet på vei ut av loven Aftenposten. Retrieved 10 December 2013 (Norwegian)
30.Jump up ^ Rase: Et ubrukelig ord Aftenposten. Retrieved 10 December 2013 (Norwegian)
31.Jump up ^ Ministry of Labour The Act on prohibition of discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, etc. Regjeringen.no. Retrieved 10 December 2013
32.Jump up ^ Wellman, David T. (1993). Portraits of White Racism. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. x.
33.Jump up ^ Cazenave, Noël A.; Darlene Alvarez (1999). "Defending the White Race:White Male Faculty Opposition to a White Racism Course" Race and Society 2. pp. 25–50.
34.Jump up ^ http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/xenophobia?q=xenophobia, 2012
35.Jump up ^ "Xenophobia - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". merriam-webster.com.
36.Jump up ^ Dictionary of Psychology, Chapman, Dell Publishing, 1975 fifth printing 1979.
37.Jump up ^ Takashi Fujitani; Geoffrey Miles White; Lisa Yoneyama (2001). Perilous memories: the Asia-Pacific War(s). Duke University Press. p. 303. ISBN 978-0-8223-2564-2.
38.Jump up ^ Miller, Stuart Creighton (1984-09-10). Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03081-5. p. 5: "... imperialist editors came out in favor of retaining the entire archipelago (using) higher-sounding justifications related to the "white man's burden."
39.Jump up ^ Opinion archive, International Herald Tribune (February 4, 1999). "In Our Pages: 100, 75 and 50 Years Ago; 1899: Kipling's Plea". International Herald Tribune: 6.: Notes that Rudyard Kipling's new poem, "The White Man's Burden," "is regarded as the strongest argument yet published in favor of expansion."
40.Jump up ^ Principles to Guide Housing Policy at the Beginning of the Millennium, Michael Schill & Susan Wachter, Cityscape
41.Jump up ^ "Discrimination in a Low Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment," 2009, American Sociological Review, by Devah Pager, Bruce Western, and Bart Bonikowski
42.Jump up ^ "The Mark of a Criminal Record," 2003, American Journal of Sociology, by Devah Pager
43.Jump up ^ Biskupic, Joan (April 22, 2009). "Court tackles racial bias in work promotions". USA Today. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
44.Jump up ^ "The Struggle for Access in Law School Admissions". Academic.udayton.edu. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
45.Jump up ^ Bertrand, M.; Mullainathan, S. (2004). "Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination". American Economic Review 94 (4): 991–1013. doi:10.1257/0002828042002561. edit
46.Jump up ^ Richard W. Race, Critics have replied that Carmichael's definition glosses over individual responsibility and leaves no room to question whether the members of a group are failing or not meeting standards due not to discrimination but due to their own dysfunctional behaviour and bad choices. Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales PDF (47.2 KB), Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research, University of Sheffield, p.12. Retrieved 20 June 2006. Archived September 23, 2006 at the Wayback Machine
47.Jump up ^ "Ethics of Reparations". "Ron Karenga".
48.Jump up ^ Savage, Charlie (December 21, 2011). "Countrywide Will Settle a Bias Suit". The New York Times. Retrieved December 24, 2011.
49.Jump up ^ Acuña, Rodolfo F. (2010-01-21). Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (7th ed.). Boston: Longman. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-205-78618-3
50.Jump up ^ "The World; Racism? Mexico's in Denial.", The New York Times, June 11, 1995.
51.Jump up ^ Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2010). Social Psychology (7th edition). New York: Pearson.
52.Jump up ^ McConahay, J. B. (1983). "Modern Racism and Modern Discrimination The Effects of Race, Racial Attitudes, and Context on Simulated Hiring Decisions". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 9 (4): 551–558. doi:10.1177/0146167283094004.
53.Jump up ^ Brief, A. P.; Dietz, J.; Cohen, R. R.; Pugh, S. D.; Vaslow, J. B. (2000). "Just doing business: Modern racism and obedience to authority as explanations for employment discrimination". Organizational behavior and human decision processes 81 (1): 72–97. doi:10.1006/obhd.1999.2867.
54.Jump up ^ McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern racism scale.
55.Jump up ^ Pettigrew, T. F. (1989). The nature of modern racism in the United States. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale; Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale. Chicago
56.Jump up ^ "An Error Occurred Setting Your User Cookie". tandfonline.com.
57.Jump up ^ "Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography". columbia.edu.
58.Jump up ^ Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2001). White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. pp. 137–166. ISBN 978-1-58826-032-1.
59.Jump up ^ Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2003). Racism without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 2–29. ISBN 978-0-7425-1633-5.
60.Jump up ^ Parker, Laurence (1999). Race Is-- Race Isn't: Critical Race Theory and Qualitative Studies in Education. Westview Press. p. 184. ISBN 0-8133-9069-9.
61.^ Jump up to: a b Ballantine, Jeanne H.; Roberts, Keith A. (2015). Our Social World: Introduction to Sociology (Condensed Version) (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. ISBN 9781452275758.
62.Jump up ^ Mountz, Alison. (2009) Key Concepts in Political Geography. SAGE. pp. 328
63.^ Jump up to: a b Said, Edward. (1978) Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books. pp.357
64.Jump up ^ Gregory, Derek. (2004). The Colonial Present. Blackwell publishers. pp.4
65.Jump up ^ Said, Edward. (1978) Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books. pp.360
66.Jump up ^ C. Peter Chen (1945-02-23). "Joint Declaration of the Greater East Asia Conference (below)". Ww2db.com. Retrieved 2011-01-26.
67.Jump up ^ "Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946–1962)", by Harald E.L. Prins, UNESCO
68.Jump up ^ "European Court of Human Rights case law factsheet on racial discrimination" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-01-26.
69.Jump up ^ Text of the Convention, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 1966 Archived July 26, 2011 at the Wayback Machine
70.Jump up ^ [2] Archived July 24, 2011 at the Wayback Machine
71.Jump up ^ Pierre-André Taguieff, La force du préjugé, 1987 (French)
72.Jump up ^ "Race Studies in Denmark" (PDF). Geografisk Tidsskrift (in Danish) (Norwegian Geographical Society) 19. 1907. Retrieved 2013-11-14.
73.Jump up ^ DuBois, W. E. B. (1897). "The Conservation of Races". p. 21.
74.Jump up ^ Marius Turda (2004). The idea of national superiority in Central Europe, 1880–1918. Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-6180-2.
75.Jump up ^ National Analytical Study on Racist Violence and Crime, RAXEN Focal Point for ITALY – Annamaria Rivera FRA. "Helping to make fundamental rights a reality for everyone in the European Union" (PDF). European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 17, 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
76.Jump up ^ Joseph L. Graves (2001). The Emperor's new clothes: biological theories of race at the millennium. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-2847-2.
77.Jump up ^ Inter-American Convention against Racism and all forms of Discrimination and Intolerance – Study prepared by the Inter-American Juridical Committee 2002
78.Jump up ^ Pascal Bruckner (16 June 2008). "Boycot Durban II".
79.Jump up ^ On this "nationalities question" and the problem of nationalism, see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (1983); Eric Hobsbawm,The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789–1848 (1962), Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality (1990); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (1991); Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990–1992 (1990); Anthony D. Smith, Theories of Nationalism (1971), etc.
80.Jump up ^ John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, 1861
81.^ Jump up to: a b Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
82.Jump up ^ Maurice Barrès, Le Roman de l'énergie nationale (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897)
83.Jump up ^ Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, p. 208
84.Jump up ^ The Removal of Agency from Africa by Owen 'Alik Shahadah Archived 1 February 2010 at WebCite
85.Jump up ^ Eric Morton. "Race nad Racism in the works of David Hume". Archived from the original on July 18, 2011.
86.^ Jump up to: a b Race and Racism (O. R. P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback) by Bernard Boxill
87.Jump up ^ On Blackness Without Blacks: Essays on the Image of the Black in Germany, Boston: C.W. Hall, 1982, p. 94.
88.Jump up ^ Sex and Character, New York: G.P. Putnam, 1906, p. 302.
89.Jump up ^ The Hour of Decision, pp. 227–228
90.Jump up ^ Charles Darwin (1871). "The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex". John Murray. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
91.Jump up ^ Desmond, Adrian; James Richard Moore (1991). Darwin. Michael Joseph, Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-7181-3430-3. OCLC 185764721. pp. 28, 147, 580.
92.Jump up ^ "Minorities, Race, and Genomics". Retrieved 2009-05-12.
93.Jump up ^ UNESCO, The Race Question, 1950
94.Jump up ^ Matsuo Takeshi (University of Shimane, Japan). L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in Études de langue et littérature françaises 2001, n°79, pp. 47–57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 (Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS
95.Jump up ^ Tucker, William H. (2007). The funding of scientific racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07463-9. Lay summary (4 September 2010).
96.Jump up ^ On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism, Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000
97.Jump up ^ Pascal Blanchard, Sandrine Lemaire and Nicolas Bancel (August 2000). "Human zoos – Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists". Le Monde diplomatique. ; "Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale". Le Monde diplomatique (in French). August 2000. (available to everyone)
98.Jump up ^ Human Zoos, by Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard and Sandrine Lemaire, in Le Monde diplomatique, August 2000 French – free
99.Jump up ^ Savages and Beasts – The Birth of the Modern Zoo, Nigel Rothfels, Johns Hopkins University Press
100.Jump up ^ The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931 PDF (96.6 KB) by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., Santa Clara University, USA
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224.Jump up ^ Todd Essig (21 September 2014). "Unconscious Racial Bias: From Ferguson To The NBA To You". Forbes.
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Further reading
Allen, Theodore. (1994). 'The Invention of the White Race: Volume 1 London, UK: Verso.
Allen, Theodore. (1997). The Invention of the White Race: Volume 2 London, UK: Verso.
Barkan, Elazar (1992), The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
Barth, Boris: nbn:de:0159-2010092173 Racism , European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: November 16, 2011.
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2003. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Dain, Bruce (2002), A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory)
Daniels, Jessie (1997), White Lies: Race, Class, Gender and Sexuality in White Supremacist Discourse, Routledge, New York, NY.
Daniels, Jessie (2009), Cyber Racism: White Supremacy Online and the New Attack on Civil Rights, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD.
Ehrenreich, Eric (2007), The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN.
Ewen & Ewen (2006), "Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality", Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
Feagin, Joe R. (2006). Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression, Routledge: New York, NY.
Feagin, Joe R. (2009). Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations, 2nd Edition.Routledge: New York, NY.
Eliav-Feldon, Miriam, Isaac, Benjamin & Ziegler, Joseph. 2009. The Origins of Racism in the West, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
Gibson, Rich (2004) Against Racism and Nationalism
Graves, Joseph. (2004) The Race Myth NY: Dutton.
Ignatiev, Noel. 1995. How the Irish Became White NY: Routledge.
Isaac, Benjamin. 1995 The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity Princeton: Princeton University Press
Lentin, Alana. (2008) Racism: A Beginner's Guide Oxford: One World.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1952), Race and History, (UNESCO).
Memmi, Albert (2000). Racism. University Of Minnesota Press. ISBN 9780816631650.
Moody-Adams, Michele (2005), "Racism", in Frey, R.G.; Heath Wellman, Christopher, A companion to applied ethics, Blackwell Companions to Philosophy, Oxford, UK Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 89–101, doi:10.1002/9780470996621.ch7, ISBN 9781405133456.
Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture, Westview Press.
Smedley, Audrey; Smedley, Brian D. (2005). "Race as Biology if Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem is Real". American Psychologist 60: 16–26. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.1.16.
Smedley, Audrey. 2007. Race in North America: Origins and Evolution of a World View. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", Political Power and Social Theory 11 (1997), 183–206. (historiography of race and racism)
Taguieff, Pierre-André (1987), La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles, Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
Trepagnier, Barbara. 2006. Silent Racism: How Well-Meaning White People Perpetuate the Racial Divide. Paradigm Publishers.
Twine, France Winddance (1997), Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil, Rutgers University Press.
UNESCO, The Race Question, 1950
Tali Farkash, "Racists among us" in Y-Net (Yediot Aharonot), "Jewish Scene" section, April 20, 2007
Winant, Howard The New Politics of Race (2004)
Winant, Howard and Omi, Michael Racial Formation In The United States Routeledge (1986); Second Edition (1994).
Bettina Wohlgemuth (May 2007). Racism in the 21st century: how everybody can make a difference. ISBN 978-3-8364-1033-5.
Wright W. D. (1998) "Racism Matters", Westport, CT: Praeger.
External links
 Look up racism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Racism.
Being a Black Male in Cuba By Lucia Lopez, Havana Times May 5, 2009
Race, history and culture – Ethics – March 1996 – Extract of two articles by Claude Lévi-Strauss
Race, Racism and the Law – Information about race, racism and racial distinctions in the law.
RacismReview, – created and maintained by American sociologists Joe Feagin, PhD and Jessie Daniels, PhD, provides a research-based analysis of racism.
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Racism

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Racism consists of ideologies and practices that seek to justify, or cause, the unequal distribution of privileges, rights or goods among different racial groups. Modern variants are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems that consider different races to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. It may also hold that members of different races should be treated differently.[1][2][3]
Among the questions about how to define racism are the question of whether to include forms of discrimination that are unintentional, such as making assumptions about preferences or abilities of others based on racial stereotypes, whether to include symbolic or institutionalized forms of discrimination such as the circulation of ethnic stereotypes through the media, and whether to include the sociopolitical dynamics of social stratification that sometimes have a racial component.
In sociology and psychology, some definitions include only consciously malignant forms of discrimination.[4][5] Some definitions of racism also include discriminatory behaviors and beliefs based on cultural, national, ethnic, caste, or religious stereotypes.[2][6] One view holds that racism is best understood as 'prejudice plus power' because without the support of political or economic power, prejudice would not be able to manifest as a pervasive cultural, institutional or social phenomenon.[7][8][9]
While race and ethnicity are considered to be separate phenomena in contemporary social science, the two terms have a long history of equivalence in popular usage and older social science literature. Racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. According to the United Nations convention, there is no distinction between the terms racial discrimination and ethnic discrimination, superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and dangerous, and there is no justification for racial discrimination, in theory or in practice, anywhere.[10]
In history, racism was a driving force behind conquest and the Transatlantic slave trade,[11] and behind states based on racial segregation such as the United States in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and South Africa under apartheid.[12] Practices and ideologies of racism are universally condemned by the United Nations in the Declaration of Human Rights.[13] It has also been a major part of the political and ideological underpinning of genocides such as the Holocaust, but also in colonial contexts such as the rubber booms in South America and the Congo, and in the European conquest of the Americas and colonization of Africa, Asia and Australia.


Contents  [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Definitions 2.1 Legal
2.2 Sociological
2.3 Xenophobia
2.4 Supremacism
2.5 Segregationism
3 Types 3.1 Racial discrimination
3.2 Institutional
3.3 Economic
3.4 Symbolic/Modern
3.5 Cultural
3.6 Color blindness
3.7 Othering
4 Declarations and international law against racial discrimination
5 Ideology 5.1 Ethnic nationalism
6 Ethnic conflicts
7 Academic variants 7.1 Scientific variants 7.1.1 Heredity and eugenics
7.1.2 Polygenism and racial typologies
7.1.3 Human zoos

8 Evolutionary theories about the origins of racism
9 Research on influencing factors
10 History 10.1 In Antiquity
10.2 Middle Ages and Renaissance
10.3 19th century
10.4 20th century
10.5 Contemporary
11 As state-sponsored activity
12 Inter-minority variants 12.1 In Europe
12.2 In North America
13 Unconscious Racism
14 Anti-racism 14.1 International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
15 See also
16 References & notes
17 Further reading
18 External links

Etymology

Race
Classification

Genetics and differences
Race and genetics
Human genetic variation

Society
Historical concepts
Race
in Brazil
in the United States
Racial inequality in the United States
Racial wage gap in the United States
Racial profiling
Racism
in the U.S.
Scientific Racism

Race and...

Crime in the U.K.
Crime in the U.S.

Incarceration
in the U.S.

Race and health
in the United States

Intelligence
History of the race
 and intelligence controversy
Sports

Related topics
Ethnic group
Eugenics
Genetics
Human evolution

Index
Category

v ·
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In the 19th century, some scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population is divided into races,[14] that some races were inferior to others, and that differential treatment of races was consequently justified.[15][16][17] Such theories are generally termed scientific racism.
Today, most biologists, anthropologists, and sociologists reject a taxonomy of races in favor of more specific and/or empirically verifiable criteria, such as geography, ethnicity, or a history of endogamy.[18]
The Oxford English Dictionary defined "racialism" as "belief in the superiority of a particular race" and gave a 1907 quote as the first recorded use. The updated entry in the Oxford English Dictionary (2008) defines racialism simply as "An earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it," and cites it in a 1902 quote.[19] The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term "racism" in a quote from the following year, 1903.[20][21][22] It was first defined by the OED as "[t]he theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by race", which gives 1936 as the first recorded use. Additionally, the OED records racism as a synonym of racialism: "belief in the superiority of a particular race". By the end of World War II, racism had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with racialism: racism now implied racial discrimination, racial supremacism and a harmful intent. (The term "race hatred" had also been used by sociologist Frederick Hertz in the late 1920s.)
Modeled on the term "racism", a large number of -ism terms have been created to describe various types of prejudice: sexism, ageism, ableism, speciesism, etc. Related concepts are antisemitism, chauvinism, homophobia and Islamophobia.
Definitions
As its etymology indicates, the first use of the word racism is relatively recent—i.e., the 1900s, most literally the 1930s. Linguistically, as the word is a general abstraction that does not in and of itself connote a great deal of positive or negative meaning without additional context (i.e., "racism" = noun of action/condition regarding "race"), its definition and semantics are not entirely settled. Nonetheless, the term is commonly used, often negatively as a pejorative (e.g., "racist"), and is associated with race-based prejudice, violence, dislike, discrimination, or oppression.
Dictionaries define the word as follows:
The Oxford English Dictionary defines racism as the "belief that all members of each race possess characteristics, abilities, or qualities specific to that race, especially so as to distinguish it as inferior or superior to another race or races" and the expression of such prejudice,[23][24]
Merriam-Webster's Dictionary defines it as a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority or inferiority of a particular racial group, and alternatively that it is also the prejudice based on such a belief.[25]
The Macquarie Dictionary defines racism as: "the belief that human races have distinctive characteristics which determine their respective cultures, usually involving the idea that one's own race is superior and has the right to rule or dominate others."
Legal
The UN does not define "racism"; however, it does define "racial discrimination": According to the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,

the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.[26]
This definition does not make any difference between discrimination based on ethnicity and race, in part because the distinction between the two remains debatable among anthropologists.[27] Similarly, in British law the phrase racial group means "any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin".[28]
In Norway, the word "race" has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination as the use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical.[29][30] The Norwegian Anti-Discrimination Act bans discrimination based on ethnicity, national origin, descent and skin color.[31]
Sociological
Some sociologists have defined racism as a system of categorical privilege. In Portraits of White Racism, David Wellman defined racism as "culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of the subordinated position of racial minorities".[32] Sociologists Noël A. Cazenave and Darlene Alvarez Maddern define racism as "... a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy. Sellers and Shelton (2003) found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional distress was moderated by racial ideology and public regard beliefs. That is, racial centrality appears to promote the degree of discrimination African American young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buffer the detrimental emotional effects of that discrimination. Racist systems include, but cannot be reduced to, racial bigotry,".[33]
Some sociologists have also argued that, in some instances, racism has changed from blatant to more covert expression. The "newer" (more hidden and less easily detectable) forms of racism—which can be considered as embedded in social processes and structures—are more difficult to explore as well as challenge. It has been suggested that, while in many countries overt and explicit racism has become increasingly taboo, even in those who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an implicit or aversive racism is still maintained subconsciously. CITE?
Xenophobia
Main article: Xenophobia
Dictionary definitions of xenophobia include: intense or irrational dislike or fear of people from other countries (Oxford Dictionaries),[34] unreasonable fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners or of anything that is strange or foreign (Merriam-Webster)[35] The Dictionary of Psychology defines it as "a fear of strangers".[36]
Supremacism
Main article: Supremacism
Centuries of European colonialism of the Americas, Africa and Asia was often justified by white supremacist attitudes.[37] During the early 20th century, the phrase "The White Man's Burden" was widely used to justify imperialist policy as a noble enterprise.[38][39]



 A rally against school integration in 1959.
Segregationism
Main article: Racial segregation
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bath room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home.[40] Segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by Thomas Schelling's models of segregation and subsequent work.
Types
External video
 James A. White Sr.: The little problem I had renting a house, TED Talks, 14:20, February 20, 2015
Racial discrimination
Racial discrimination refers to the separation of people through a process of social division into categories not necessarily related to races for purposes of differential treatment. Racial segregation policies may formalize it, but it is also often exerted without being legalized. Researchers Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan, at the University of Chicago and MIT found in a 2004 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black". These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews. Devah Pager, a sociologist at Princeton University, sent matched pairs of applicants to apply for jobs in Milwaukee and New York City, finding that black applicants received callbacks or job offers at half the rate of equally qualified whites.[41][42] In contrast, institutions and courts have upheld discrimination against whites when it is done to promote a diverse work or educational environment, even when it was shown to be to the detriment of qualified applicants.[43][44] The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the United States' long history of discrimination (e.g., Jim Crow laws, etc.)[45]
Institutional
Further information: Institutional racism, State racism, Affirmative action, Racial profiling and Racism by country



 Students protesting against racial quotas in Brazil. The sign reads: "Want an opening (i.e. job opening)? Pass the entry exam!"
Institutional racism (also known as structural racism, state racism or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. Stokely Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".[46]
Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility, and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples."[47]
Economic
Further information: Racial wage gap in the United States and Racial wealth gap in the United States



Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses, Germany, 1933
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of discrimination caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population.
In 2011, Bank of America agreed to pay $335 million to settle a federal government claim that its mortgage division, Countrywide Financial, discriminated against black and Hispanic homebuyers.[48]
During the Spanish colonial period, Spaniards developed a complex caste system based on race, which was used for social control and which also determined a person's importance in society.[49] While many Latin American countries have long since rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, usually at the time of their independence, prejudice based on degrees of perceived racial distance from European ancestry combined with one's socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the colonial caste system.[50]
Symbolic/Modern
Main article: Symbolic racism
Some scholars argue that in the US earlier violent and aggressive forms of racism have evolved into a more subtle form of prejudice in the late 20th century. This new form of racism is sometimes referred to as "modern racism" and characterized by outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes, and displaying subtle prejudiced behaviors such as actions informed by attributing qualities to others based on racial stereotypes, and evaluating the same behavior differently based on the race of the person being evaluated.[51] This view is based on studies of prejudice and discriminatory behavior, where some people will act ambivalently towards black people, with positive reactions in certain, more public contexts, but more negative views and expressions in more private contexts. This ambivalence may also be visible for example in hiring decisions where job candidates that are otherwise positively evaluated may be unconsciously disfavored by employers in the final decision because of their race.[52][53][54] Some scholars consider modern racism to be characterized by an explicit rejection of stereotypes, combined with resistance to changing structures of discrimination for reasons that are ostensibly non-racial, an ideology that considers opportunity at a purely individual basis denying the relevance of race in determining individual opportunities, and the exhibition of indirect forms of micro-aggression and/or avoidance towards people of other races.[55]
Cultural
Cultural racism is a term used to describe and explain new racial ideologies and practices that have emerged since World War II. It can be defined as societal beliefs and customs that promote the assumption that the products of a given culture, including the language and traditions of that culture are superior to those of other cultures. It shares a great deal with xenophobia, which is often characterised by fear of, or aggression toward, members of an outgroup by members of an ingroup.
Cultural racism exists when there is a widespread acceptance of stereotypes concerning different ethnic or population groups.[56] Where racism can be characterised by the belief that one race is inherently superior to another, cultural racism can be characterised by the belief that one culture is inherently superior to another.[57]
Color blindness
Main article: Color blindness (race) in the United States
Color blindness is held to be the disregard of racial characteristics in social interaction. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva argues that color blind racism arises from an "abstract liberalism, biologization of culture, naturalization of racial matters, and minimization of racism".[58] Color blind practices are "subtle, institutional, and apparently nonracial"[59] because race is explicitly ignored in decision making. If race is disregarded in predominately white populations, for example, whiteness becomes the normative standard, whereas people of color are othered, and the racism these individuals experience may be minimized or erased.[60][61] At an individual level, people with "color blind prejudice" reject racist ideology, but also reject systemic policies intended to fix institutional racism.[61]
Othering
Main article: Other
Othering is the term used by some to describe a system of discrimination whereby the characteristics of a group are used to distinguish them as separate from the norm.[62]
Othering plays a fundamental role in the history and continuation of racism. By objectifying a culture as something different, exotic or underdeveloped is to generalize that it is not like 'normal' society. Europe's colonial attitude towards the Orient exemplifies this as it was thought that the East was the opposite of the West; feminine where the West was masculine, weak where the West was strong and traditional where the West was progressive.[63] By making these generalizations and othering the East, Europe was simultaneously defining herself as the norm, further entrenching the gap.[64]
Much of the process of othering relies on imagined difference, or the expectation of difference. Spatial difference can be enough to conclude that "we" are "here" and the "others" are over "there".[63] Imagined differences serve to categorize people into groups and assign them characteristics that suit the imaginer's expectations.[65]
Declarations and international law against racial discrimination
In 1919, a proposal to include a racial equality provision in the Covenant of the League of Nations was supported by a majority, but not adopted in the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. In 1943, Japan and its allies declared work for the abolition of racial discrimination to be their aim at the Greater East Asia Conference.[66] Article 1 of the 1945 UN Charter includes "promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race" as UN purpose.
In 1950, UNESCO suggested in The Race Question —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as Ashley Montagu, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Gunnar Myrdal, Julian Huxley, etc. — to "drop the term race altogether and instead speak of ethnic groups". The statement condemned scientific racism theories that had played a role in the Holocaust. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the Enlightenment and its assumption of equal rights for all. Along with Myrdal's An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944), The Race Question influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court desegregation decision in "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka".[67] Also in 1950, the European Convention on Human Rights was adopted, widely used on racial discrimination issues.[68]
The United Nations use the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted in 1966:

... any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination)[69]
In 2001, the European Union explicitly banned racism, along with many other forms of social discrimination, in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, the legal effect of which, if any, would necessarily be limited to Institutions of the European Union: "Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality."[70]
Ideology



 A racist political campaign poster from the 1866 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election


 A sign on a racially segregated beach during the Apartheid in South Africa
Racism existed during the 19th century as "scientific racism", which attempted to provide a racial classification of humanity.[71] Johann Blumenbach in 1775, advocating polygenism, divided the world's population into five groups according to skin color (Caucasians, Mongols, etc.). The archetypical form of racism is, perhaps, found with the polygenist Christoph Meiners. He split mankind into two divisions which he labeled the "beautiful White race" and the "ugly Black race". In Meiners's book, The Outline of History of Mankind, Meiners claimed that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. He viewed only the white race as beautiful. He considered ugly races as inferior, immoral and animal-like.
Anders Retzius demonstrated that neither Europeans nor others are one "pure race", but of mixed origins. While discredited, derivations of Blumenbach's taxonomy are still widely used for classification of the population in USA. H. P. Steensby, while strongly emphasizing that all humans today are of mixed origins, in 1907 claimed that the origins of human differences must be traced extraordinarily far back in time, and conjectured that the "purest race" today would be the Australian Aboriginals.[72]
Scientific racism fell strongly out of favor in the early 20th Century, but the origins of fundamental human and societal differences are still researched within academia, in fields such as human genetics including paleogenetics, social anthropology, comparative politics, history of religions, history of ideas, prehistory, history, ethics, and psychiatry. There is widespread rejection of any methodology based on anything similar to Blumenbach's races. It is more unclear to which extent ethnic and national stereotypes are accepted, and when.
Although after World War II and the Holocaust, racist ideologies were discredited on ethical, political and scientific grounds, but racism and racial discrimination have remained widespread around the world.
Du Bois observed that it is not so much "race" that we think about, but culture: "... a common history, common laws and religion, similar habits of thought and a conscious striving together for certain ideals of life".[73] Late 19th century nationalists were the first to embrace contemporary discourses on "race", ethnicity, and "survival of the fittest" to shape new nationalist doctrines. Ultimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as decisively shaping the character and personality of the nation.[74] According to this view, culture is the physical manifestation created by ethnic groupings, as such fully determined by racial characteristics. Culture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each other, sometimes even to the extent of including nationality or language to the set of definition. Pureness of race tended to be related to rather superficial characteristics that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics. In the case of Nordicism, the denomination "Germanic" was equivalent to superiority of race.
Bolstered by some nationalist and ethnocentric values and achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority evolved to distinguish from other cultures that were considered inferior or impure. This emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream definition of racism: "Racism does not originate from the existence of 'races'. It creates them through a process of social division into categories: anybody can be racialised, independently of their somatic, cultural, religious differences."[75]
This definition explicitly ignores the biological concept of race, still subject to scientific debate. In the words of David C. Rowe "A racial concept, although sometimes in the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology and in other fields because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is captured by race."[76]
Racial prejudice became subject to international legislation. For instance, the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, 1963, address racial prejudice explicitly next to discrimination for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin (Article I).[77]
Racism has been a motivating factor in social discrimination, racial segregation, hate speech and violence (such as pogroms, genocides and ethnic cleansings). Despite the persistence of racial stereotypes in humor and epithets in some everyday language, racial discrimination is illegal in many countries.
Some claim that anti-racism is a political instrument of abuse. In a reversal of values, anti-racism is claimed to be propagated by despots in the service of obscurantism and the suppression of women. Philosopher Pascal Bruckner claimed that "[a]nti-racism in the UN has become the ideology of totalitarian regimes who use it in their own interests."[78]
Ethnic nationalism
Further information: Ethnic nationalism and Romantic nationalism



Eugène Delacroix's Scene of the massacre at Chios (1824); Greek families awaiting death or slavery
After the Napoleonic Wars, Europe was confronted with the new "nationalities question," leading to reconfigurations of the European map, on which the frontiers between the states had been delimited during the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Nationalism had made its first appearance with the invention of the levée en masse by the French revolutionaries, thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly founded Republic against the Ancien Régime order represented by the European monarchies. This led to the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to the subsequent European-wide debates on the concepts and realities of nations, and in particular of nation-states. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms (Ottoman Empire, Holy Roman Empire, Swedish Empire, Kingdom of France, etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (Kabinettskriege in German).
Modern nation-states appeared in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of patriotic sentiments for the first time in Spain during the Peninsula War (1808–1813, known in Spain as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the Industrial Era, leading in particular to the 1848 Revolutions, the Italian unification completed during the 1871 Franco-Prussian War, which itself culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, thus achieving the German unification.
Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire, the "sick man of Europe", was confronted with endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, would lead to the creation after World War I of the various nation-states of the Balkans, with "national minorities" in their borders.[79] Ethnic nationalism, which advocated the belief in a hereditary membership of the nation, made its appearance in the historical context surrounding the creation of the modern nation-states.
One of its main influences was the Romantic nationalist movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as Johann Herder (1744–1803), Johan Fichte (1762–1814) in the Addresses to the German Nation (1808), Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), or also, in France, Jules Michelet (1798–1874). It was opposed to liberal nationalism, represented by authors such as Ernest Renan (1823–1892), who conceived of the nation as a community, which, instead of being based on the Volk ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily plebiscite", 1882) or also John Stuart Mill (1806–1873).[80] Ethnic nationalism blended with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental imperialist" (Hannah Arendt, 1951[81]) discourses, for example in the pan-Germanism discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk. The Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband), created in 1891, promoted German imperialism, "racial hygiene" and was opposed to intermarriage with Jews. Another popular current, the Völkisch movement, was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which combined with modern antisemitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the Thule Society, would participate in the founding of the German Workers' Party (DAP) in Munich in 1918, the predecessor of the NSDAP Nazi party. Pan-Germanism and played a decisive role in the interwar period of the 1920s–1930s.[81]
These currents began to associate the idea of the nation with the biological concept of a "master race" (often the "Aryan race" or "Nordic race") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflated nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses that posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying ethnic cleansing in order to achieve "racial purity" and also to achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.
Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not, however, limited to pan-Germanism. In France, the transition from Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made nationalism a characteristic of far-right movements in France, took place during the Dreyfus Affair at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide crisis affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Émile Zola, who wrote J'accuse in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet, Maurice Barrès (1862–1923), one of the founders of the ethnic nationalist discourse in France.[82] At the same time, Charles Maurras (1868–1952), founder of the monarchist Action française movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative métèques). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners", who threatened the ethnic unity of the French people.
Ethnic conflicts
Further information: Ethnicity
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as xenophobia and ethnocentrism, although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an ideology or from scientific racism, which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia. Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe itself to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases, ethnicity and nationalism were harnessed to rally combatants in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).



 Picture showing Armenians killed during the Armenian Genocide of 1915.
Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Throughout history, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (in particular when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by moral or ethical considerations. According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other."[83] Basil Davidson insists in his documentary, Africa: Different but Equal, that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 19th century, due to the need for a justification for slavery in the Americas.
The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West. Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the Triangular Trade. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but, then, due to European diseases, their populations drastically decreased. Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's Europe and the People without History).
Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda argued that, during the Valladolid controversy in the middle of the 16th century, the Native Americans were natural slaves because they had no souls. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th–20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.
Academic variants



 Drawings from Josiah C. Nott and George Gliddon's Indigenous races of the earth (1857), which suggested black people ranked between white people and chimpanzees in terms of intelligence.
Owen 'Alik Shahadah comments on this racism by stating: "Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa, other than raw material."[84]
Scottish philosopher and economist David Hume said, "I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences."[85] German philosopher Immanuel Kant stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people."[86]
In the 19th century, the German philosopher, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." Hegel further claimed that blacks had no "sense of personality; their spirit sleeps, remains sunk in itself, makes no advance, and thus parallels the compact, undifferentiated mass of the African continent."[87]
Fewer than 30 years before Nazi Germany instigated World War II, the Austrian, Otto Weininger, claimed: "A genius has perhaps scarcely ever appeared amongst the negroes, and the standard of their morality is almost universally so low that it is beginning to be acknowledged in America that their emancipation was an act of imprudence."[88]
The German conservative, Oswald Spengler, remarked on what he perceived as the culturally degrading influence of Africans in modern Western culture: in The Hour of Decision Spengler denounced "the 'happy ending' of an empty existence, the boredom of which has brought to jazz music and Negro dancing to perform the Death March for a great Culture."[89] During the Nazi era, German scientists rearranged academia to support claims of a grand "Aryan" agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt.[86]



 People Show (a human zoo) (Völkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928.
Scientific variants
Main article: Scientific racism
Further information: Unilineal evolution
The modern biological definition of race developed in the 19th century with scientific racist theories. The term scientific racism refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the New Imperialism period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the Church's resistance to positivist accounts of history and its support of monogenism, the concept that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with creationist accounts of history.
These racist theories put forth on scientific hypothesis were combined with unilineal theories of social progress, which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the idea of "survival of the fittest", a term coined by Herbert Spencer in 1864, associated with ideas of competition, which were named social Darwinism in the 1940s. Charles Darwin himself opposed the idea of rigid racial differences in The Descent of Man (1871) in which he argued that humans were all of one species, sharing common descent. He recognised racial differences as varieties of humanity, and emphasised the close similarities between people of all races in mental faculties, tastes, dispositions and habits, while still contrasting the culture of the "lowest savages" with European civilization.[90][91]
At the end of the 19th century, proponents of scientific racism intertwined themselves with eugenics discourses of "degeneration of the race" and "blood heredity."[citation needed] Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social Darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on physical anthropology, anthropometry, craniometry, phrenology, physiognomy, and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices.
Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of cultural anthropology (Franz Boas, etc.), the British school of social anthropology (Bronisław Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, etc.), the French school of ethnology (Claude Lévi-Strauss, etc.), as well as the discovery of the neo-Darwinian synthesis, such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances.
The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a gene-centered view of evolution in the 1960s. According to the Human Genome Project, the most complete mapping of human DNA to date indicates that there is no clear genetic basis to racial groups. While some genes are more common in certain populations, there are no genes that exist in all members of one population and no members of any other.[92]
Heredity and eugenics
Further information: Eugenics
The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by Francis Galton (1822–1911), who used the then popular concept of degeneration. He applied statistics to study human differences and the alleged "inheritance of intelligence", foreshadowing future uses of "intelligence testing" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer Émile Zola (1840–1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, Les Rougon-Macquart, where he linked heredity to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons as those involved in politics (Son Excellence Eugène Rougon) and medicine (Le Docteur Pascal) and the low-born Macquarts as those fatally falling into alcoholism (L'Assommoir), prostitution (Nana), and homicide (La Bête humaine).
During the rise of Nazism in Germany, some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century.[93] According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, The Race Question, an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, UNESCO declared that it had resumed:

up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project that the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation has wished to carry through but that it had to abandon in deference to the appeasement policy of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of Nazi ideology and policy. Masaryk and Beneš took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race ... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.
The Third Reich's racial policies, its eugenics programs and the extermination of Jews in the Holocaust, as well as Romani people in the Porrajmos (the Romani Holocaust) and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war.[citation needed] Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the Boasian school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. These theories were strongly denounced in the 1950 UNESCO statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled The Race Question.
Polygenism and racial typologies
Further information: Polygenism and Typology (anthropology)



 Madison Grant's map, from 1916, charting the "present distribution of European races", with the Nordics in red, the Alpines in green, and the Mediterraneans in yellow.
Works such as Arthur de Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853–1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of Boulainvilliers for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality, which changed over time. Gobineau, thus, attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological differences among humans, giving it the legitimacy of biology. He was one of the first theorists to postulate polygenism, stating that there were, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races."
Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854–1936)'s typology of races, who published in 1899 The Aryan and his Social Role, in which he claimed that the white, "Aryan race", "dolichocephalic", was opposed to the "brachycephalic" race, of whom the "Jew" was the archetype. Vacher de Lapouge thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "Homo europaeus (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "Homo alpinus" (Auvergnat, Turkish, etc.), and finally the "Homo mediterraneus" (Neapolitan, Andalus, etc.) He assimilated races and social classes, considering that the French upper class was a representation of the Homo europaeus, while the lower class represented the Homo alpinus. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of trade unionists, considered to be a "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of labour conditions. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking social conflict by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order[94]
The same year, William Z. Ripley used identical racial classification in The Races of Europe (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Other scientific authors include H.S. Chamberlain at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who naturalized himself as German because of his admiration for the "Aryan race") and Madison Grant, a eugenicist and author of The Passing of the Great Race (1916). Madison Grant provided statistics for the Immigration Act of 1924, which severely restricted immigration of Jews, Slavs, and southern Europeans, who were subsequently hindered in seeking to escape Nazi Germany.[95]
Human zoos
Human zoos (called "People Shows"), were an important means of bolstering popular racism by connecting it to scientific racism: they were both objects of public curiosity and of anthropology and anthropometry.[96][97] Joice Heth, an African American slave, was displayed by P.T. Barnum in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of Saartjie Baartman, the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until World War II. Carl Hagenbeck, inventor of the modern zoos, exhibited animals beside humans who were considered "savages".[98][99]
Congolese pygmy Ota Benga was displayed in 1906 by eugenicist Madison Grant, head of the Bronx Zoo, as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to Darwinism, creating a social Darwinist ideology that tried to ground itself in Darwin's scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris Colonial Exhibition displayed Kanaks from New Caledonia.[100] A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the Brussels' World Fair.
Evolutionary theories about the origins of racism
See also: Ethnocentrism



 Sociological model of ethnic and racial conflict.
Biologists John Tooby and Leda Cosmides were puzzled by the fact that in the US race is one of the three characteristics most often used in brief descriptions of individuals (the others are age and sex). They reasoned that natural selection would not have favoured the evolution of an instinct for using race as a classification, because for most of human history, humans almost never encountered members of other races. Tooby and Cosmides hypothesized that modern people use race as a proxy (rough-and-ready indicator) for coalition membership, since a better-than-random guess about "which side" another person is on will be helpful if one does not actually know in advance.
Their colleague Robert Kurzban designed an experiment whose results appeared to support this hypothesis. Using the Memory confusion protocol, they presented subjects with pictures of individuals and sentences, allegedly spoken by these individuals, which presented two sides of a debate. The errors that the subjects made in recalling who said what indicated that they sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker of the same race as the "correct" speaker, although they also sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker "on the same side" as the "correct" speaker. In a second run of the experiment, the team also distinguished the "sides" in the debate by clothing of similar colors; and in this case the effect of racial similarity in causing mistakes almost vanished, being replaced by the color of their clothing. In other words, the first group of subjects, with no clues from clothing, used race as a visual guide to guessing who was on which side of the debate; the second group of subjects used the clothing color as their main visual clue, and the effect of race became very small.[101]
Some research suggests that ethnocentric thinking may have actually contributed to the development of cooperation. Political scientists Ross Hammond and Robert Axelrod created a computer simulation wherein virtual individuals were randomly assigned one of a variety of skin colors, and then one of a variety of trading strategies: be color-blind, favor those of your own color, or favor those of other colors. They found that the ethnocentric individuals clustered together, then grew until all the non-ethnocentric individuals were wiped out.[102]
In The Selfish Gene, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins writes that "Blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretable in terms of Hamilton's genetic theory." Dawkins writes that racial prejudice, while not evolutionarily adaptive, "could be interpreted as an irrational generalization of a kin-selected tendency to identify with individuals physically resembling oneself, and to be nasty to individuals different in appearance".[103] Simulation-based experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.[104]
Research on influencing factors
Research has examined factors influencing tolerance, in particular ethnic tolerance, prejudice, and trust. Authoritarian personality has been associated with prejudice and intolerance. Education has an inverse association which is stronger in established democracies than in emerging. Different groups are viewed differently and including illegal groups in tolerance surveys may reduce tolerance levels in all countries except the United States. Increased contact with other groups increase tolerance. Increased perception of threat, including from the home land of an ethnic minority, reduces tolerance. Competition over jobs reduces tolerance and occupational segregation reduced ethnic conflicts and ethnic prejudice in studies in the United States and Yugoslavia. Tolerance is increased by democratic stability and a federal system. Increased ethnic heterogeneity increases tolerance up to a point but beyond this tolerance decreases. The negative effect of increased ethnic heterogeneity is stronger when looking at larger areas such as nations compared to smaller areas such as neighborhoods. This may be due to the contact effect being relatively more important at local levels while the threat effect becomes more important in larger areas.[105] One study, published by Carl Bell, revealed that "racist attitudes may be indicative of a narcissistic personality disorder or of a regression to primitive narcissistic functioning secondary to environmental forces."[106]
History
In Antiquity



 In some interpretations of the biblical story of Noah, Ham and his descendants were cursed with black skin
Edith Sanders in 1969 cited the Babylonian Talmud, which divides mankind between the three sons of Noah, stating that "the descendants of Ham are cursed by being black, and [it] depicts Ham as a sinful man and his progeny as degenerates."[107] Although the curse of Ham has been used as an explanation for the origin of dark-skinned people since the 3rd century A.D., David M. Goldenberg (2005) writes that this was based on a theory that different climates and sun exposure effect semen composition and through this the physical composition of descendants. Furthermore the earliest appearance of dark skin as a punishment for the descendants of Ham directly related to "Black Africans" does not appear until the 9th or 10th century (in the Pirqei de-Rabbenu ha-Qadosh). Earlier sources assign the punishment of blackness to Ham himself and make no mention of the people of Kush or their skin being a curse. As well, Goldenberg goes on to explain that the earlier (3rd century) sources understood "dark skin" to include not only sub-Saharan Africa but also:

... the Copts, Fezzan, Zaghawa, Brbr, Indians, Arabs, the people of Marw, the inhabitants of the islands in the Indian Ocean, even the Chinese, as well as the Ethiopians (Habash), Zanj, Buja, and Nubians. In other words, "the coloured people of the world."[108]
Bernard Lewis has cited the Greek philosopher Aristotle who, in his discussion of slavery, stated that while Greeks are free by nature, 'barbarians' (non-Greeks) are slaves by nature, in that it is in their nature to be more willing to submit to despotic government.[109] Though Aristotle does not specify any particular races, he argues that people from outside Greece are more prone to the burden of slavery than those from Greece.[110] Such proto-racism and ethnocentrism must be looked at within context, because a modern understanding of racism based on hereditary inferiority (modern racism based in: eugenics and scientific racism) was not yet developed and it is unclear whether Aristotle believed the natural inferiority of Barbarians was caused by environment and climate (like many of his contemporaries) or by birth.[111] While Aristotle makes remarks about the most natural slaves being those with strong bodies and slave souls (unfit for rule, unintelligent) which would seem to imply a physical basis for discrimination, he also explicitly states that the right kind of souls and bodies don't always go together, implying that the greatest determinate for inferiority and natural slaves versus natural masters is the soul, not the body.[112] This proto-racism is seen as an important precursor to modern racism by classicist Benjamin Isaac.
Historian Dante A. Puzzo, in his discussion of Aristotle, racism, and the ancient world writes that:

Racism rests on two basic assumptions: that a correlation exists between physical characteristics and moral qualities; that mankind is divisible into superior and inferior stocks. Racism, thus defined, is a modern conception, for prior to the XVIth century there was virtually nothing in the life and thought of the West that can be described as racist. To prevent misunderstanding a clear distinction must be made between racism and ethnocentrism ... The Ancient Hebrews, in referring to all who were not Hebrews as Gentiles, were indulging in ethnocentrism, not in racism. ... So it was with the Hellenes who denominated all non-Hellenes——whether the wild Scythians or the Egyptians whom they acknowledged as their mentors in the arts if civilization——Barbarians, the term denoting that which was strange or foreign.[113]
Middle Ages and Renaissance
Further information: Limpieza de sangre
In the Middle East and North Africa region, racist opinions were expressed within the works of some of its historians and geographers[114] including Al-Muqaddasi, Al-Jahiz, Al-Masudi, Abu Rayhan Biruni, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn Qutaybah.[114] In the 14th century CE, the Tunisian scholar Ibn Khaldun wrote:

- :"beyond [known peoples of black West Africa] to the south there is no civilization in the proper sense. There are only humans who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings. They live in thickets and caves, and eat herbs and unprepared grain. They frequently eat each other. They cannot be considered human beings." "Therefore, the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because (Negroes) have little that is (essentially) human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated."[114][115]
Though the Qur'an expresses no racial prejudice, such prejudices later developed among Arabs for a variety of reasons:[109] their extensive conquests and slave trade; the influence of Aristotelian ideas regarding slavery, which some Muslim philosophers directed towards Zanj (Bantu[116]) and Turkic peoples;[109] and the influence of Judeo-Christian ideas regarding divisions among humankind.[117] In response to such views, the Afro-Arab author Al-Jahiz, himself having a Zanj grandfather, wrote a book entitled Superiority Of The Blacks To The Whites,[118] and explained why the Zanj were black in terms of environmental determinism in the "On the Zanj" chapter of The Essays.[119] By the 14th century, a significant number of slaves came from sub-Saharan Africa, leading to the likes of Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) writing: "It is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals."[120] According to J. Philippe Rushton, Arab relations with blacks whom the Muslims had dealt as slave traders for over 1,000 years could be summed up as follows:



 13th-century slave market in Yemen. Yemen officially abolished slavery in 1962.[121]
It should be noted that ethnic prejudice among some elite Arabs was not limited to darker-skinned black people, but was also directed towards fairer-skinned "ruddy people" (including Persians, Turks, Caucasians and Europeans), while Arabs referred to themselves as "swarthy people".[122]
However, the Umayyad Caliphate invaded Hispania and founded the civilization of Al-Andalus, where an era of religious tolerance and a Golden age of Jewish culture lasted for six centuries.[123] It was followed by a violent Reconquista under the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand V and Isabella I. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the Cleanliness of blood doctrine. It was during this time in history that the Western concept of aristocratic "blue blood" emerged in a highly racialized and implicitly white supremacist context, as author Robert Lacey explains:

It was the Spaniards who gave the world the notion that an aristocrat's blood is not red but blue. The Spanish nobility started taking shape around the ninth century in classic military fashion, occupying land as warriors on horseback. They were to continue the process for more than five hundred years, clawing back sections of the peninsula from its Moorish occupiers, and a nobleman demonstrated his pedigree by holding up his sword arm to display the filigree of blue-blooded veins beneath his pale skin—proof that his birth had not been contaminated by the dark-skinned enemy. Sangre azul, blue blood, was thus a euphemism for being a white man—Spain's own particular reminder that the refined footsteps of the aristocracy through history carry the rather less refined spoor of racism.[124]
Following the expulsion of most Sephardic Jews from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to convert to Roman Catholicism, becoming "New Christians" which were despised and discriminated by the "Old Christians". An Inquisition was carried out by members of the Dominican Order in order to weed out converts that still practiced Judaism and Islam in secret. The system and ideology of the limpieza de sangre ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith.
In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was only ended through a legal decree issued by the Marquis of Pombal in 1772, almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The limpieza de sangre doctrine was also very common in the colonization of the Americas, where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by Eduardo Galeano in the Open Veins of Latin America (1971). It included, among others terms, mestizo (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), castizo (75% European and 25% Native American), Spaniard (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), Mulatto (50% European and 50% African), Albarazado (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.
At the end of the Renaissance, the Valladolid debate (1550–1551) concerning the treatment of natives of the "New World" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas Bartolomé de Las Casas to another Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and natural law. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversies concerning racism, slavery and Eurocentrism that would arise in the following centuries.
Although antisemitism has a long European history, related to Christianism (anti-Judaism), racism itself is frequently described as a modern phenomenon. In the view of the French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault, the first formulation of racism emerged in the Early Modern period as the "discourse of race struggle", a historical and political discourse, which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of sovereignty.[125] Foucault thus argued that the first appearance of racism as a social discourse (as opposed to simple xenophobia, which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 Glorious Revolution in Great Britain, in Edward Coke or John Lilburne's work.
However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from the 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "scientific racism". Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a historical notion. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the bourgeoisie, the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy. This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as Boulainvilliers, Nicolas Fréret, and then, during the 1789 French Revolution, Sieyès, and afterward Augustin Thierry and Cournot. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people".
He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified nation-state is, of course, here an anachronism — which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the absolute monarchy, who tried to bypass the aristocracy by establishing a direct relationship to the Third Estate. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "Franks", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished Gallo-Romans, who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the right of conquest. Early modern racism was opposed to nationalism and the nation-state: the Comte de Montlosier, in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "this new people born of slaves ... mixture of all races and of all times".
19th century
While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism,[126] leading to the ethnic nationalist discourse that identified the "race" to the "folk", leading to such movements as pan-Germanism, Zionism,[127] pan-Turkism, pan-Arabism, and pan-Slavism, medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and social conflicts. Michel Foucault traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and eugenicists, who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "state racism" (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, Marxists also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle that provided the real engine of history and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the essentialist notion of "race" into the historical notion of "class struggle", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In The Will to Knowledge (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis, which opposed the concepts of "blood heredity", prevalent in the 19th century racist discourse.
Authors such as Hannah Arendt, in her 1951 book The Origins of Totalitarianism, have said that the racist ideology (popular racism) that developed at the end of the 19th century helped legitimize the imperialist conquests of foreign territories and atrocities that sometimes accompanied them (such as the Herero and Namaqua Genocide of 1904–1907 or the Armenian Genocide of 1915–1917). Rudyard Kipling's poem The White Man's Burden (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the European culture over the rest of the world, though also it is also thought to be a satirical appraisal of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize the conquest and incorporation of foreign territories into an empire, which were regarded as a humanitarian obligation partially as a result of these racist beliefs.



 A late-19th-century illustration from Ireland from One or Two Neglected Points of View by H. Strickland Constable shows an alleged similarity between "Irish Iberian" and "Negro" features in contrast to the "higher" "Anglo-Teutonic."
However, during the 19th century, West European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the Arab slave trade in Africa,[128] as well as in suppression of the slave trade in West Africa.[129] Some Europeans during the time period objected to injustices that occurred in some colonies and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the Hottentot Venus was displayed in England in the beginning of the 19th century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, Joseph Conrad published Heart of Darkness (1899), a clear criticism of the Congo Free State owned by Leopold II of Belgium.
Examples of racial theories used include the creation of the Hamitic ethno-linguistic group during the European exploration of Africa. It was then restricted by Karl Friedrich Lepsius (1810–1877) to non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic languages.[130]
The term Hamite was applied to different populations within Africa, mainly comprising Ethiopians, Eritreans, Somalis, Berbers, and the ancient Egyptians. Hamites were regarded as Caucasoid peoples who probably originated in either Arabia or Asia on the basis of their cultural, physical and linguistic similarities with the peoples of those areas.[131][132][133] Europeans considered Hamites to be more civilized than Black Africans, and more akin to themselves and Semitic peoples.[134] In the first two-thirds of the 20th century, the Hamitic race was, in fact, considered one of the branches of the Caucasian race, along with the Indo-Europeans, Semites, and the Mediterranean race.
However, the Hamitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have failed as rulers, which was usually ascribed to interbreeding with Negroes. In the mid-20th century, the German scholar Carl Meinhof (1857–1944) claimed that the Bantu race was formed by a merger of Hamitic and Negro races. The Hottentots (Nama or Khoi) were formed by the merger of Hamitic and Bushmen (San) races — both being termed nowadays as Khoisan peoples).



 One in a series of posters attacking Radical Republicans on the issue of black suffrage, issued during the Pennsylvania gubernatorial election of 1866.
In the United States in the early 19th century, the American Colonization Society was established as the primary vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa.[135] The colonization effort resulted from a mixture of motives with its founder Henry Clay stating; "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off".[136] Racism spread throughout the New World in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Whitecapping, which started in Indiana in the late 19th century, soon spread throughout all of North America, causing many African laborers to flee from the land they worked on. In the US during the 1860s, racist posters were used during election campaigns. In one of these racist posters (see above), a black man is depicted lounging idly in the foreground as one white man ploughs his field and another chops wood. Accompanying labels are: "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread," and "The white man must work to keep his children and pay his taxes." The black man wonders, "Whar is de use for me to work as long as dey make dese appropriations." Above in a cloud is an image of the "Freedman's Bureau! Negro Estimate of Freedom!" The bureau is pictured as a large domed building resembling the U.S. Capitol and is inscribed "Freedom and No Work." Its columns and walls are labeled, "Candy," "Rum, Gin, Whiskey," "Sugar Plums," "Indolence," "White Women," "Apathy," "White Sugar," "Idleness," and so on.
On June 5, 1873, Sir Francis Galton, distinguished English explorer and cousin of Charles Darwin, wrote in a letter to The Times:

My proposal is to make the encouragement of Chinese settlements of Africa a part of our national policy, in the belief that the Chinese immigrants would not only maintain their position, but that they would multiply and their descendants supplant the inferior Negro race ... I should expect that the African seaboard, now sparsely occupied by lazy, palavering savages, might in a few years be tenanted by industrious, order-loving Chinese, living either as a semidetached dependency of China, or else in perfect freedom under their own law.[137]
20th century
Further information: Holocaust, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, Racial segregation in the United States and Rwandan Genocide



 Naked Soviet POWs in Mauthausen concentration camp. Between June 1941 and January 1942, the Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million Red Army POWs, whom they viewed as "subhuman".[138]


Drinking fountain from mid-20th century with African-American drinking
During World War II and the period of the Nazi regime in Europe, all of the Jews, Gypsies, Blacks, mixed race people, and Slavic people—mainly ethnic Poles, Serbs, and Russians—along with other ethnic groups whose racial origin were non-European (with some small exceptions i.e. the "honorary Aryans", the "Indische Legion", or the "Free Arabian Legion"), according to the Nazi ideology were classified as "subhumans" (Untermenschen) and were viewed as the opposite to the superior Aryan "master race" (Herrenvolk). The Nazi philosophy was that the Germans were part of a "master race", and therefore had the right to expand their territory and enslave or kill members of other races deemed inferior.[139] Approximately 6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis during the Holocaust. In the longer term, the Nazis planned to exterminate some 30–45 million Slavs (mostly Poles and Serbs), however some of them were seen as good material for slaves.[140] Eventually over 2.5 million ethnic Poles, 0.7 million Gypsies, and 0.5 million ethnic Serbs died during the World War II, and were among the main non-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.[141]
Before Nazi Germany invaded Poland, Nazis prepared a special settlement plan named Generalplan Ost ("Master Plan East") which foresaw the eventual expulsion of more than 50 million non-Germanized Slavic peoples of Central Europe and Eastern Europe through forced migration and partial extermination of those Slavs by starvation. Also, according to the Nazi plans for Eastern Europe, some of the Balts were to be expelled beyond the Ural Mountains and into Siberia. In their place, Germans would settle in an extended "living space" (Lebensraum) of the 1000-Year Empire (Tausendjähriges Reich). Herbert Backe was one of the orchestrators of the Hunger Plan—the idea to starve tens of millions of Slavs in order to ensure steady food supplies for the German people and troops.[142]
Heinrich Himmler speech to about 100 SS Group Leaders in Posen, German-occupied Poland, 1943:

What happens to the Russians, what happens to the Czechs, is a matter of utter indifference to me ... Whether the other peoples live in comfort or perish of hunger interests me only in so far as we need them as slaves for our culture; apart from that it does not interest me. Whether or not 10,000 Russian women collapse from exhaustion while digging a tank ditch interests me only in so far as the tank ditch is completed for Germany ... We Germans, who are the only people in the world who have a decent attitude to animals, will also adopt a decent attitude to these human animals, but it is a crime against our own blood to worry about them and to bring them ideals ... I shall speak to you here with all frankness of a very serious subject. We shall now discuss it absolutely openly among ourselves, nevertheless we shall never speak of it in public. I mean the evacuation of the Jews, the extermination of the Jewish race.[143]
Serious race riots in Durban between Indians and Zulus erupted in 1949.[144] Ne Win's rise to power in Burma in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" led to an exodus of some 300,000 Burmese Indians.[145] They migrated to escape racial discrimination and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.[146] The Zanzibar Revolution of January 12, 1964 put an end to the local Arab dynasty.[147] Thousands of Arabs and Indians in Zanzibar were massacred in riots, and thousands more were detained or fled the island.[148] On 4 August 1972, Idi Amin, President of Uganda, ethnically cleansed Uganda's Asians giving them 90 days to leave the country.[149]
Shortly after world war II the South African National Party took control over the governance in South Africa. Between 1948 and 1994, the Apartheid regime took place. This regime based their ideologies on the racial separation of whites and non- whites including the unequal rights of non-whites. Several protests and violence occurred during the Apartheid in South Africa, the most famous of these include the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960, the Soweto uprising in 1976, the Church Street bombing of 1983 and the Cape Town peace march of 1989.[150]
Contemporary



 On 12 September 2011, Julius Malema, youth leader of South Africa's ruling ANC, was found guilty of hate speech for singing 'Shoot the Boer' at a number of public events.[151]
During the Congo Civil War (1998–2003), Pygmies were hunted down like game animals and eaten. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. UN human rights activists reported in 2003 that rebels had carried out acts of cannibalism. Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti pygmies, has asked the UN Security Council to recognise cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.[152] A report released by the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination condemns Botswana's treatment of the 'Bushmen' as racist.[153] In 2008, the tribunal of the 15-nation Southern African Development Community (SADC) accused Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe of having a racist attitude towards white people.[154][155]
The mass demonstrations and riots against African students in Nanjing, China, lasted from December 1988 to January 1989.[156] Bar owners in central Beijing had been forced by the police "not to serve black people or Mongolians" during the 2008 Summer Olympics, as the police associates these ethnic groups with illegal prostitution and drug trafficking.[157] In November 2009, British newspaper The Guardian reported that Lou Jing, of mixed Chinese and African parentage, had emerged as the most famous talent show contestant in China and has become the subject of intense debate because of her skin color.[158] Her attention in the media opened serious debates about racism in China and racial prejudice.[159]
In Asia and Latin America, light skin is seen as more attractive.[160] Thus, skin whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia[161] and India.[6] Some activists, most prominently at the UN conference at Durban, have asserted that the caste system in India is a form of racial discrimination,[162][163] although many prominent[164] scholars debunk this viewpoint as "scientifically nonsense",[165] since there are no consistent racial differences between the different castes in India. These activists utilize genetic studies that claim to corroborate their view,[166] although other more detailed studies have challenged these assertions as overtly simplistic[167][168] Currently, there are approximately 165 million Dalits (formerly known as "untouchables") in India.[169]
Some 70,000 black African Mauritanians were expelled from Mauritania in the late 1980s.[170] In the Sudan, black African captives in the civil war were often enslaved, and female prisoners were often used sexually.[171] The Darfur conflict has been described by some as a racial matter.[172] In October 2006, Niger announced that it would deport the Arabs living in the Diffa region of eastern Niger to Chad.[173] This population numbered about 150,000.[174] While the Government collected Arabs in preparation for the deportation, two girls died, reportedly after fleeing Government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages.[175]



 The burnt out remains of Govinda's Indian Restaurant in Fiji, May 2000
The Jakarta riots of May 1998 targeted many Chinese Indonesians.[176] The anti-Chinese legislation was in the Indonesian constitution until 1998. Resentment against Chinese workers has led to violent confrontations in Africa[177][178][179] and Oceania.[180][181] Anti-Chinese rioting, involving tens of thousands of people,[182] broke out in Papua New Guinea in May 2009.[183] Indo-Fijians suffered violent attacks after the Fiji coup of 2000.[184] Non-indigenous citizens of Fiji are subject to discrimination.[185][186] Racial divisions also exist in Guyana,[187] Malaysia,[188] Trinidad and Tobago,[189] Madagascar,[190] or South Africa.[191]
Israel, as well as elements within Israeli society has been accused of discriminatory behavior towards Ethiopian Jews and other non-white Jews.[192] Accusations of racism range from birth control policies,[193][194] education, and housing discrimination.[195]
One form of racism in the United States was enforced racial segregation which existed until the 1960s when it was outlawed. It has been argued that this separation of races continues to exist today de facto. The causes of segregation vary from lack of access to loans and resources to discrimination in realty.[196][197]
As state-sponsored activity
Main articles: Nazism and race, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, Racism in Germany, Generalplan Ost, Eugenics in Showa Japan, Apartheid in South Africa, Racial segregation in the United States, Ketuanan Melayu, Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia and White Australia policy



 Separate "white" and "colored" entrances to a cafe in North Carolina, 1940
State racism—that is, institutions and practices of a nation-state that are grounded in racist ideology—has played a major role in all instances of settler colonialism, from the United States to Australia. It also played a prominent role in the Nazi German regime and fascist regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's Shōwa period. These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal.[198][199] The politics of Zimbabwe promote discrimination against whites, in an effort to ethnically cleanse the country.[200]
Legislative state racism is known to have been enforced by the National Party of South Africa during their Apartheid regime between 1948 and 1994. Here a series of Apartheid legislation in South Africa was passed through the legal systems to make it legal for white South Africans to have rights which were superior to those of non-white South Africans. Non-white South Africans were not allowed involvement in any governing matters, including voting; access to quality healthcare; the provision of basic services, including clean water; electricity; as well as access to adequate schooling. Non-white South Africans were also prevented from accessing certain public areas, using certain public transportation and were required to live only in certain designated areas. Non-white South Africans were taxed differently from white South Africans and were required to carry on them at all times additional documentation, which later became known as "dom passes", to certify their non-white South African citizenship. All of these legislative racial laws were abolished through a series of equal human rights laws passed at the end of Apartheid in the early 1990s.
The current constitution of Liberia, as enacted in 1984, is racist[201] in its Article 27, as it does not allow Whites to become Liberian citizens:[202] "only persons who are Negroes or of Negro descent shall qualify by birth or by naturalization to be citizens of Liberia".[203]
Inter-minority variants
Main article: Interminority racism
Prejudiced thinking among and between minority groups does occur.
In Europe
In Britain, tensions between minority groups can be just as strong as those between minorities and the majority population.[204] In Birmingham, there have been long-term divisions between the Black and South Asian communities, which were illustrated in the Handsworth riots and in the smaller 2005 Birmingham riots.[205] In Dewsbury, a Yorkshire town with a relatively high Muslim population, there have been tensions and minor civil disturbances between Kurds and South Asians.[206][207]
In France, home to Europe's largest population of Muslims (about 6 million) as well as the continent's largest community of Jews (about 600,000), anti-Jewish violence, property destruction, and racist language has been increasing over the last several years. Jewish leaders perceive the Muslim population as intensifying antisemitism in France, mainly among Muslims of Arab or African heritage, but also this antisemitism is perceived as also growing among Caribbean islanders from former colonies.[208][209]
In North America
For example, conflicts between African Americans and Korean Americans (notably in the Los Angeles riots of 1992), by blacks towards Jews (such as the riots in Crown Heights in 1991), between new immigrant groups (such as Latinos), or towards whites.[210][211][212][213]



 African-Americans in Dallas boycotting a Korean owned Kwik Stop in a mostly black neighborhood, March 2012.[214]
There has been a long-running racial tension between African Americans and Mexican Americans.[215][216][217] There have been several significant riots in California prisons in which Mexican American inmates and African Americans have specifically targeted each other based on racial reasons.[217][218] There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against African Americans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by Mexican Americans, and vice versa.[219][220]
In the late 1920s in California, there was animosity between the Filipinos and the Mexicans and between European Americans and Filipino Americans since they competed for the same jobs.[221] Recently, there has also been an increase in racial violence between African immigrants and Blacks who have already lived in the country for generations.[222]
Over 50 members of the Azusa 13 gang, associated with the Mexican Mafia, were indicted in 2011 for harassing and intimidating African Americans.[223]
Unconscious Racism
Based on Forbes Leadership website, understanding race includes understanding how race operates in our minds out of awareness. Widely reported examples include significant racial bias in job applications, restaurant service, to court cases.[224] According to social psychologist Jennifer L. Eberhardt, a professor in Stanford University, race can influence our visual processing and how our minds work when we are exposed to faces of different colors subliminally. As she says, "blackness is so associated with crime you're ready to pick out these crime objects." These exposures influence our mind and can cause unconscious racism in our behavior towards other people or even objects. Racism goes beyond prejudicial discrimination and bigotry. It arises from stereotypes and fears of which we are not aware.[225]
Anti-racism
Main article: Anti-racism



 An anti-racism rally held outside Sydney Town Hall, December 2005.
Anti-racism includes beliefs, actions, movements, and policies adopted or developed to oppose racism. In general, it promotes an egalitarian society in which people are not discriminated against in race. Movements such as the African-American Civil Rights Movement and the Anti-Apartheid Movement were examples of anti-racist movements. Nonviolent resistance is sometimes an element of anti-racial movements, although this was not always the case. Hate crime laws, affirmative action, and bans on racist speech are also examples of government policy designed to suppress racism.
International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
UNESCO marks March 21 as the yearly International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, in memory of the events that occurred on March 21, 1960 in Sharpeville, South Africa, where police killed student demonstrators peacefully protesting against the apartheid regime.
See also
Allport's Scale
Discrimination based on skin color
Fascism
Index of racism-related articles
Labeling theory
Neo-Nazism
Racial bias in criminal news
Racial fetishism
Racial literacy
Racial segregation
Racialization
Racism in the LGBT community
Research Materials: Max Planck Society Archive
Reverse discrimination
Romantic racism
Scientific racism
Social interpretations of race
Sociology of race and ethnic relations
Stereotype threat
Yellow Peril
References & notes
1.Jump up ^ Racism Oxford Dictionaries
2.^ Jump up to: a b "Racism" in R. Schefer. 2008 Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. SAGE. p. 1113
3.Jump up ^ Newman, D. M. (2012). Sociology : exploring the architecture of everyday life (9th ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. p. 405. ISBN 978-1-4129-8729-5. "racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior."
4.Jump up ^ Reilly, Kevin; Kaufman, Stephen; Bodino, Angela (2003). Racism : a global reader. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-7656-1060-7.
5.Jump up ^ Eberhardt, Jennifer Lynn; Fiske, Susan T (1998). Confronting Racism: The Problem and the Response. SAGE. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0-7619-0368-0.
6.^ Jump up to: a b "In India, Skin-Whitening Creams Reflect Old Biases". NPR: National Public Radio. November 12, 2005
7.Jump up ^ Operario, Don and Susan T. Fiske (1998). Racism equals power plus prejudice: A social psychological equation for racial oppression. Pp. 33-53 in Jennifer Lynn Eberhardt and Susan T Fiske (eds), Confronting racism: The problem and the response. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.
8.Jump up ^ ""Only White People can be Racist: What does Power have to do with Prejudice?" - Sawrikar - Cosmopolitan Civil Societies: An Interdisciplinary Journal". uts.edu.au.
9.Jump up ^ Hoyt, Carlos. "The Pedagogy of the Meaning of Racism: Reconciling a Discordant Discourse" (PDF).
10.Jump up ^ "International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved December 23, 2011.
11.Jump up ^ Fredrickson, George M. 1988. The arrogance of race: historical perspectives on slavery, racism, and social inequality. Middletown, Conn: Wesleyan University Press
12.Jump up ^ Reilly, Kevin; Kaufman, Stephen; Bodino, Angela (2003). Racism : a global reader. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 45–52. ISBN 978-0-7656-1060-7.
13.Jump up ^ UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III), available at: [1] [accessed 18 July 2012]
14.Jump up ^ Frideres, J.S. (May 2010). "Racism". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-07-23. "Racism was developed and popularized by scientists in the 19th century, as they were regarded as purveyors of truth."
15.Jump up ^ "racism". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009-03-16. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
16.Jump up ^ "Framework decision on combating racism and xenophobia". Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA of 28 November 2008. European Union. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
17.Jump up ^ "International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination". UN Treaty Series. United Nations. Archived from the original on 2011-08-26. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
18.Jump up ^ Bamshad, Michael; Steve E. Olson (December 2003). "Does Race Exist?". Scientific American. "If races are defined as genetically discrete groups, no. But researchers can use some genetic information to group individuals into clusters with medical relevance."
19.Jump up ^ "racialism, n.". OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed December 03, 2013).
20.Jump up ^ "racism, n.". OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed December 03, 2013).
21.Jump up ^ Miles, Robert (1989). Racism. Routledge. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-415-01809-8.
22.Jump up ^ The term "racism" was used as the title of a 1930s book, and possibly coined, by sexologist and homosexual activist Magnus Hirschfeld.
23.Jump up ^ "racism, n.". OED Online. Oxford University Press. March 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
24.Jump up ^ marissa mills (2007-08-31). "Minorities, Race, and Genomics". Ornl.gov. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
25.Jump up ^ "racism". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
26.Jump up ^ UN International Convention on the Elimination of All of Racial Discrimination, New York 7 March 1966
27.Jump up ^ Metraux, A. (1950). "United nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race". American Anthropologist 53 (1): 142–145.
28.Jump up ^ "Racist and Religious Crime – CPS Prosecution Policy". The CPS. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
29.Jump up ^ Jon Dagsland Holgersen (23 July 2010) Rasebegrepet på vei ut av loven Aftenposten. Retrieved 10 December 2013 (Norwegian)
30.Jump up ^ Rase: Et ubrukelig ord Aftenposten. Retrieved 10 December 2013 (Norwegian)
31.Jump up ^ Ministry of Labour The Act on prohibition of discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, etc. Regjeringen.no. Retrieved 10 December 2013
32.Jump up ^ Wellman, David T. (1993). Portraits of White Racism. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. x.
33.Jump up ^ Cazenave, Noël A.; Darlene Alvarez (1999). "Defending the White Race:White Male Faculty Opposition to a White Racism Course" Race and Society 2. pp. 25–50.
34.Jump up ^ http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/xenophobia?q=xenophobia, 2012
35.Jump up ^ "Xenophobia - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". merriam-webster.com.
36.Jump up ^ Dictionary of Psychology, Chapman, Dell Publishing, 1975 fifth printing 1979.
37.Jump up ^ Takashi Fujitani; Geoffrey Miles White; Lisa Yoneyama (2001). Perilous memories: the Asia-Pacific War(s). Duke University Press. p. 303. ISBN 978-0-8223-2564-2.
38.Jump up ^ Miller, Stuart Creighton (1984-09-10). Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03081-5. p. 5: "... imperialist editors came out in favor of retaining the entire archipelago (using) higher-sounding justifications related to the "white man's burden."
39.Jump up ^ Opinion archive, International Herald Tribune (February 4, 1999). "In Our Pages: 100, 75 and 50 Years Ago; 1899: Kipling's Plea". International Herald Tribune: 6.: Notes that Rudyard Kipling's new poem, "The White Man's Burden," "is regarded as the strongest argument yet published in favor of expansion."
40.Jump up ^ Principles to Guide Housing Policy at the Beginning of the Millennium, Michael Schill & Susan Wachter, Cityscape
41.Jump up ^ "Discrimination in a Low Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment," 2009, American Sociological Review, by Devah Pager, Bruce Western, and Bart Bonikowski
42.Jump up ^ "The Mark of a Criminal Record," 2003, American Journal of Sociology, by Devah Pager
43.Jump up ^ Biskupic, Joan (April 22, 2009). "Court tackles racial bias in work promotions". USA Today. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
44.Jump up ^ "The Struggle for Access in Law School Admissions". Academic.udayton.edu. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
45.Jump up ^ Bertrand, M.; Mullainathan, S. (2004). "Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination". American Economic Review 94 (4): 991–1013. doi:10.1257/0002828042002561. edit
46.Jump up ^ Richard W. Race, Critics have replied that Carmichael's definition glosses over individual responsibility and leaves no room to question whether the members of a group are failing or not meeting standards due not to discrimination but due to their own dysfunctional behaviour and bad choices. Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales PDF (47.2 KB), Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research, University of Sheffield, p.12. Retrieved 20 June 2006. Archived September 23, 2006 at the Wayback Machine
47.Jump up ^ "Ethics of Reparations". "Ron Karenga".
48.Jump up ^ Savage, Charlie (December 21, 2011). "Countrywide Will Settle a Bias Suit". The New York Times. Retrieved December 24, 2011.
49.Jump up ^ Acuña, Rodolfo F. (2010-01-21). Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (7th ed.). Boston: Longman. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-205-78618-3
50.Jump up ^ "The World; Racism? Mexico's in Denial.", The New York Times, June 11, 1995.
51.Jump up ^ Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2010). Social Psychology (7th edition). New York: Pearson.
52.Jump up ^ McConahay, J. B. (1983). "Modern Racism and Modern Discrimination The Effects of Race, Racial Attitudes, and Context on Simulated Hiring Decisions". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 9 (4): 551–558. doi:10.1177/0146167283094004.
53.Jump up ^ Brief, A. P.; Dietz, J.; Cohen, R. R.; Pugh, S. D.; Vaslow, J. B. (2000). "Just doing business: Modern racism and obedience to authority as explanations for employment discrimination". Organizational behavior and human decision processes 81 (1): 72–97. doi:10.1006/obhd.1999.2867.
54.Jump up ^ McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern racism scale.
55.Jump up ^ Pettigrew, T. F. (1989). The nature of modern racism in the United States. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale; Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale. Chicago
56.Jump up ^ "An Error Occurred Setting Your User Cookie". tandfonline.com.
57.Jump up ^ "Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography". columbia.edu.
58.Jump up ^ Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2001). White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. pp. 137–166. ISBN 978-1-58826-032-1.
59.Jump up ^ Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2003). Racism without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 2–29. ISBN 978-0-7425-1633-5.
60.Jump up ^ Parker, Laurence (1999). Race Is-- Race Isn't: Critical Race Theory and Qualitative Studies in Education. Westview Press. p. 184. ISBN 0-8133-9069-9.
61.^ Jump up to: a b Ballantine, Jeanne H.; Roberts, Keith A. (2015). Our Social World: Introduction to Sociology (Condensed Version) (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. ISBN 9781452275758.
62.Jump up ^ Mountz, Alison. (2009) Key Concepts in Political Geography. SAGE. pp. 328
63.^ Jump up to: a b Said, Edward. (1978) Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books. pp.357
64.Jump up ^ Gregory, Derek. (2004). The Colonial Present. Blackwell publishers. pp.4
65.Jump up ^ Said, Edward. (1978) Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books. pp.360
66.Jump up ^ C. Peter Chen (1945-02-23). "Joint Declaration of the Greater East Asia Conference (below)". Ww2db.com. Retrieved 2011-01-26.
67.Jump up ^ "Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946–1962)", by Harald E.L. Prins, UNESCO
68.Jump up ^ "European Court of Human Rights case law factsheet on racial discrimination" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-01-26.
69.Jump up ^ Text of the Convention, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 1966 Archived July 26, 2011 at the Wayback Machine
70.Jump up ^ [2] Archived July 24, 2011 at the Wayback Machine
71.Jump up ^ Pierre-André Taguieff, La force du préjugé, 1987 (French)
72.Jump up ^ "Race Studies in Denmark" (PDF). Geografisk Tidsskrift (in Danish) (Norwegian Geographical Society) 19. 1907. Retrieved 2013-11-14.
73.Jump up ^ DuBois, W. E. B. (1897). "The Conservation of Races". p. 21.
74.Jump up ^ Marius Turda (2004). The idea of national superiority in Central Europe, 1880–1918. Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-6180-2.
75.Jump up ^ National Analytical Study on Racist Violence and Crime, RAXEN Focal Point for ITALY – Annamaria Rivera FRA. "Helping to make fundamental rights a reality for everyone in the European Union" (PDF). European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 17, 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
76.Jump up ^ Joseph L. Graves (2001). The Emperor's new clothes: biological theories of race at the millennium. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-2847-2.
77.Jump up ^ Inter-American Convention against Racism and all forms of Discrimination and Intolerance – Study prepared by the Inter-American Juridical Committee 2002
78.Jump up ^ Pascal Bruckner (16 June 2008). "Boycot Durban II".
79.Jump up ^ On this "nationalities question" and the problem of nationalism, see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (1983); Eric Hobsbawm,The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789–1848 (1962), Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality (1990); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (1991); Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990–1992 (1990); Anthony D. Smith, Theories of Nationalism (1971), etc.
80.Jump up ^ John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, 1861
81.^ Jump up to: a b Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
82.Jump up ^ Maurice Barrès, Le Roman de l'énergie nationale (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897)
83.Jump up ^ Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, p. 208
84.Jump up ^ The Removal of Agency from Africa by Owen 'Alik Shahadah Archived 1 February 2010 at WebCite
85.Jump up ^ Eric Morton. "Race nad Racism in the works of David Hume". Archived from the original on July 18, 2011.
86.^ Jump up to: a b Race and Racism (O. R. P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback) by Bernard Boxill
87.Jump up ^ On Blackness Without Blacks: Essays on the Image of the Black in Germany, Boston: C.W. Hall, 1982, p. 94.
88.Jump up ^ Sex and Character, New York: G.P. Putnam, 1906, p. 302.
89.Jump up ^ The Hour of Decision, pp. 227–228
90.Jump up ^ Charles Darwin (1871). "The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex". John Murray. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
91.Jump up ^ Desmond, Adrian; James Richard Moore (1991). Darwin. Michael Joseph, Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-7181-3430-3. OCLC 185764721. pp. 28, 147, 580.
92.Jump up ^ "Minorities, Race, and Genomics". Retrieved 2009-05-12.
93.Jump up ^ UNESCO, The Race Question, 1950
94.Jump up ^ Matsuo Takeshi (University of Shimane, Japan). L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in Études de langue et littérature françaises 2001, n°79, pp. 47–57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 (Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS
95.Jump up ^ Tucker, William H. (2007). The funding of scientific racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07463-9. Lay summary (4 September 2010).
96.Jump up ^ On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism, Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000
97.Jump up ^ Pascal Blanchard, Sandrine Lemaire and Nicolas Bancel (August 2000). "Human zoos – Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists". Le Monde diplomatique. ; "Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale". Le Monde diplomatique (in French). August 2000. (available to everyone)
98.Jump up ^ Human Zoos, by Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard and Sandrine Lemaire, in Le Monde diplomatique, August 2000 French – free
99.Jump up ^ Savages and Beasts – The Birth of the Modern Zoo, Nigel Rothfels, Johns Hopkins University Press
100.Jump up ^ The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931 PDF (96.6 KB) by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., Santa Clara University, USA
101.Jump up ^ Robert Kurzban , John Tooby, and Leda Cosmides (December 18, 2001). "Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98 (26): 15387–15392. Bibcode:2001PNAS...9815387K. doi:10.1073/pnas.251541498. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 65039. PMID 11742078. Retrieved 2008-06-11.. The authors provide a summary and other comments at "(untitled)".
102.Jump up ^ New Scientist. Issue 2595, 17 March 2007.
103.Jump up ^ Richard Dawkins (2006). The selfish gene. Oxford University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-19-929115-1.
104.Jump up ^ Hammond, R. A.; Axelrod, R. (2006). "The Evolution of Ethnocentrism". Journal of Conflict Resolution 50 (6): 926–936. doi:10.1177/0022002706293470. edit
105.Jump up ^ "Determinants of political tolerance : a literature review". repec.org. 2 February 2011.
106.Jump up ^ Bell, Carl C. (July 1980). "Racism: A Symptom of the Narcissistic Personality". Journal of the National Medical Association 72 (7): 661–665. PMC 2552506. PMID 2552506.
107.Jump up ^ Sanders, Edith (1969). "The Hamitic Hypothesis: Its Origin and Functions in Time Perspective". Journal African History 10 (4): 521–532. doi:10.1017/S0021853700009683.
108.Jump up ^ The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam – David M. Goldenberg – Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2013-11-14.
109.^ Jump up to: a b c Kevin Reilly; Stephen Kaufman; Angela Bodino (2002-09-30). Racism: A Global Reader. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 52–8. ISBN 978-0-7656-1060-7.
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149.Jump up ^ 1972: Asians given 90 days to leave Uganda. BBC.
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152.Jump up ^ "DR Congo Pygmies appeal to UN". BBC News. 2003-05-23. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
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154.Jump up ^ "Stop your racist land grab, tribunal tells Robert Mugabe". The Times. March 5, 2009
155.Jump up ^ "The end of an era for Zimbabwe's last white farmers?". Telegraph.co.uk. 26 June 2011.
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158.Jump up ^ Stephen Vines (2009-11-01). "China's black pop idol exposes her nation's racism". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2009-11-03.
159.Jump up ^ "TV talent show exposes China's race issue". CNN. 2009-12-22. Retrieved 2010-05-11.
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162.Jump up ^ "The Caste System". NPR: National Public Radio.
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169.Jump up ^ "UN report slams India for caste discrimination". CBC News. March 2, 2007.
170.Jump up ^ "Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance". IRIN Africa. 5 March 2007.
171.Jump up ^ Arab militia use 'rape camps' for ethnic cleansing of Sudan. Telegraph. May 30, 2004.
172.Jump up ^ Racism at root of Sudan's Darfur crisis. Csmonitor.com. July 14, 2004.
173.Jump up ^ "Africa | Niger starts mass Arab expulsions". BBC News. 2006-10-26. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
174.Jump up ^ "Reuters AlertNet – Niger's Arabs say expulsions will fuel race hate". Alertnet.org. 2006-10-25. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
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177.Jump up ^ Algeria: Xenophobia against Chinese on the rise in Africa. Afrik.com. August 5, 2009.
178.Jump up ^ "Rioters attack Chinese after Zambian poll". Telegraph. October 3, 2006.
179.Jump up ^ "Lesotho: Anti-Chinese resentment flares". IRIN Africa. 24 January 2008.
180.Jump up ^ Spiller, Penny: "Riots highlight Chinese tensions", BBC News, Friday, 21 April 2006, 18:57 GMT
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182.Jump up ^ "Looters shot dead amid chaos of Papua New Guinea's anti-Chinese riots". The Australian. May 23, 2009.
183.Jump up ^ "Overseas and under siege". The Economist. August 11, 2009.
184.Jump up ^ Future bleak for Fiji's Indians. BBC News. July, 2000.
185.Jump up ^ "Dealing with the dictator". The Australian. April 16, 2009. Archived from the original on 21 April 2009. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
186.Jump up ^ Fiji Islands: From Immigration to Emigration. Brij V. Lal. The Australian National University.
187.Jump up ^ "Guyana turns attention to racism". BBC News. September 20, 2005.
188.Jump up ^ "Racism alive and well in Malaysia". Asia Times. March 24, 2006.
189.Jump up ^ "Trouble in paradise". BBC News. May 1, 2002
190.Jump up ^ "Ethnic strife rocks Madagascar". BBC News. May 14, 2002.
191.Jump up ^ "Race war rocks Grabouw". Cape Times. March 20, 2012.
192.Jump up ^ http://www.newsweek.com/ethiopians-israel-dont-quite-fit-66085
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197.Jump up ^ Massey, Douglas S.; Denton, Nancy A. (1993). American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
198.Jump up ^ Edward Russel of Liverpool, The Knights of Bushido, 2002, p.238, Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the making of modern Japan, 2001, p.313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese power, 1989, p. 263–272
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200.Jump up ^ "Tale of two farms in Zimbabwe – March 30, 2005". CNN. 2005-03-30. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
201.Jump up ^ "'The Face of America in Africa' Must End Constitutional Racism". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-06-06.
202.Jump up ^ Tannenbaum, Jessie; Valcke, Anthony; McPherson, Andrew (2009-05-01). "Analysis of the Aliens and Nationality Law of the Republic of Liberia". Rochester, NY.
203.Jump up ^ "1984 Liberian Constitution". www.onliberia.org. Retrieved 2015-06-06.
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205.Jump up ^ "Rumours of a riot". The Guardian. November 29, 2005.
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208.Jump up ^ Nickerson, Colin (2006-03-13). "Anti-Semitism seen rising among France's Muslims". Boston Globe. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
209.Jump up ^ More and More French Jews Emigrating to Israel, Der Spiegel, March 22, 2012
210.Jump up ^ "Racial dispute in Texas". The Korea Herald. January 30, 2012.
211.Jump up ^ Susy Buchanan. "Tensions Mounting Between Blacks and Latinos Nationwide". SPLCenter.org. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
212.Jump up ^ "Hispanic Influx Causes Tensions with Blacks". Daily Press.
213.Jump up ^ Racial Tensions Grow Violent At Philly High School". NPR. December 16, 2009
214.Jump up ^ "Racial Tension Rising in Dallas Against Korean Community". The Chosun Ilbo. January 31, 2012.
215.Jump up ^ "Race relations | Where black and brown collide". The Economist. 2007-08-02. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
216.Jump up ^ Scott Conroy (2006-10-14). "Riot Breaks Out At Calif. High School, Melee Involving 500 People Erupts At Southern California School". CBS News. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
217.^ Jump up to: a b "California Prisons on Alert After Weekend Violence". NPR. 2006-02-06. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
218.Jump up ^ "Jurist – Paper Chase: Race riot put down at California state prison". Jurist.law.pitt.edu. 2006-12-31. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
219.Jump up ^ Paul Harris (2007-03-18). "Gang mayhem grips LA". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2010-05-23.
220.Jump up ^ Ruben Navarrette Jr. Special to CNN (2007-10-03). "Commentary: Black-brown friction waste of energy". CNN. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
221.Jump up ^ "Filipino Migrant Workers in California". Opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
222.Jump up ^ Dyer, Ervin (2012-03-16). "African immigrants face bias from blacks". Post-gazette.com. Retrieved 2012-05-07.
223.Jump up ^ Ng, Christina (9 June 2011). "Latino Gang Charged With Racial Cleansing Attacks in California Town". ABC News. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
224.Jump up ^ Todd Essig (21 September 2014). "Unconscious Racial Bias: From Ferguson To The NBA To You". Forbes.
225.Jump up ^ "Drugs, Crime, and Justice". google.com.
Further reading
Allen, Theodore. (1994). 'The Invention of the White Race: Volume 1 London, UK: Verso.
Allen, Theodore. (1997). The Invention of the White Race: Volume 2 London, UK: Verso.
Barkan, Elazar (1992), The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
Barth, Boris: nbn:de:0159-2010092173 Racism , European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: November 16, 2011.
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2003. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Dain, Bruce (2002), A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory)
Daniels, Jessie (1997), White Lies: Race, Class, Gender and Sexuality in White Supremacist Discourse, Routledge, New York, NY.
Daniels, Jessie (2009), Cyber Racism: White Supremacy Online and the New Attack on Civil Rights, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD.
Ehrenreich, Eric (2007), The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN.
Ewen & Ewen (2006), "Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality", Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
Feagin, Joe R. (2006). Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression, Routledge: New York, NY.
Feagin, Joe R. (2009). Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations, 2nd Edition.Routledge: New York, NY.
Eliav-Feldon, Miriam, Isaac, Benjamin & Ziegler, Joseph. 2009. The Origins of Racism in the West, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
Gibson, Rich (2004) Against Racism and Nationalism
Graves, Joseph. (2004) The Race Myth NY: Dutton.
Ignatiev, Noel. 1995. How the Irish Became White NY: Routledge.
Isaac, Benjamin. 1995 The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity Princeton: Princeton University Press
Lentin, Alana. (2008) Racism: A Beginner's Guide Oxford: One World.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1952), Race and History, (UNESCO).
Memmi, Albert (2000). Racism. University Of Minnesota Press. ISBN 9780816631650.
Moody-Adams, Michele (2005), "Racism", in Frey, R.G.; Heath Wellman, Christopher, A companion to applied ethics, Blackwell Companions to Philosophy, Oxford, UK Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 89–101, doi:10.1002/9780470996621.ch7, ISBN 9781405133456.
Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture, Westview Press.
Smedley, Audrey; Smedley, Brian D. (2005). "Race as Biology if Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem is Real". American Psychologist 60: 16–26. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.1.16.
Smedley, Audrey. 2007. Race in North America: Origins and Evolution of a World View. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", Political Power and Social Theory 11 (1997), 183–206. (historiography of race and racism)
Taguieff, Pierre-André (1987), La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles, Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
Trepagnier, Barbara. 2006. Silent Racism: How Well-Meaning White People Perpetuate the Racial Divide. Paradigm Publishers.
Twine, France Winddance (1997), Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil, Rutgers University Press.
UNESCO, The Race Question, 1950
Tali Farkash, "Racists among us" in Y-Net (Yediot Aharonot), "Jewish Scene" section, April 20, 2007
Winant, Howard The New Politics of Race (2004)
Winant, Howard and Omi, Michael Racial Formation In The United States Routeledge (1986); Second Edition (1994).
Bettina Wohlgemuth (May 2007). Racism in the 21st century: how everybody can make a difference. ISBN 978-3-8364-1033-5.
Wright W. D. (1998) "Racism Matters", Westport, CT: Praeger.
External links
 Look up racism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Racism.
Being a Black Male in Cuba By Lucia Lopez, Havana Times May 5, 2009
Race, history and culture – Ethics – March 1996 – Extract of two articles by Claude Lévi-Strauss
Race, Racism and the Law – Information about race, racism and racial distinctions in the law.
RacismReview, – created and maintained by American sociologists Joe Feagin, PhD and Jessie Daniels, PhD, provides a research-based analysis of racism.
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Racial segregation

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Segregation is separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a public toilet, attending school, going to the movies, riding on a bus, or in the rental or purchase of a home.[1] Segregation itself is defined by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance as "the act by which a (natural or legal) person separates other persons on the basis of one of the enumerated grounds without an objective and reasonable justification, in conformity with the proposed definition of discrimination. As a result, the voluntary act of separating oneself from other persons on the basis of one of the enumerated grounds does not constitute segregation".[2] According to the UN Forum on Minority Issues, "The creation and development of classes and schools providing education in minority languages should not be considered impermissible segregation, if the assignment to such classes and schools is of a voluntary nature".[3]
Racial segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist de facto through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by Thomas Schelling's models of segregation and subsequent work.[4] Segregation may be maintained by means ranging from discrimination in hiring and in the rental and sale of housing to certain races to vigilante violence (such as lynchings) Generally, a situation that arises when members of different races mutually prefer to associate and do business with members of their own race would usually be described as separation or de facto separation of the races rather than segregation. In the United States, legal segregation was required in some states and came with "anti-miscegenation laws" (prohibitions against interracial marriage).[5] Segregation, however, often allowed close contact in hierarchical situations, such as allowing a person of one race to work as a servant for a member of another race. Segregation can involve spatial separation of the races, and mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races.


Contents  [hide]
1 Historical cases 1.1 Anglo-Saxons in England
1.2 English Settlers in Ireland
1.3 French Algeria
1.4 Germany
1.5 Imperial China 1.5.1 Tang dynasty
1.5.2 Qing dynasty
1.6 Italy
1.7 Jewish segregation
1.8 Latin America
1.9 Norway
1.10 Rhodesia
1.11 South Africa
1.12 United States
2 Contemporary segregation 2.1 Bahrain
2.2 Canada
2.3 Fiji
2.4 Israel
2.5 Malaysia
2.6 Mauritania
2.7 United Kingdom
2.8 United States
2.9 Yemen
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links

Historical cases[edit]
Wherever there have been multiracial communities, there has been racial segregation. Only areas with extensive miscegenation, or mixing, such as Hawaii and Brazil, despite some social stratification, seem to be exempt.[6]
Anglo-Saxons in England[edit]
Segregation may have existed in early Anglo-Saxon England, restricting intermarriage and resulting in the displacement of the native British population by Germanic incomers.[7] According to research led by the University College London, Anglo-Saxon settlers enjoyed substantial social and economic advantages over Celtic Britons.[8] However, Stephen Oppenheimer and Bryan Sykes argue that there was no population displacement, as the Anglo-Saxons had relatively little genetic impact on England.[9][10] In 2002, the BBC used the headline "English and Welsh are races apart" to report a genetic survey of test subjects from market towns in England and Wales.[11]
English Settlers in Ireland[edit]
The Statutes of Kilkenny were a series of thirty-five acts passed at Kilkenny in 1366. They forbade the intermarriage between the native Irish and the English settlers in Ireland, the English fostering of Irish children, the English adoption of Irish children and use of Irish names and dress.[12]
French Algeria[edit]
Following its conquest of Ottoman controlled Algeria in 1830, for well over a century France maintained colonial rule in the territory which has been described as "quasi-apartheid".[13] The colonial law of 1865 allowed Arab and Berber Algerians to apply for French citizenship only if they abandoned their Muslim identity; Azzedine Haddour argues that this established "the formal structures of a political apartheid".[14] Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that, "[i]n contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates", this "colonial apartheid society" was unique to Algeria.[15]
This "internal system of apartheid" met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection.[16]
Germany[edit]
Main article: Nur für Deutsche



Nur für Deutsche ("Only for Germans") on the tram number 8 in German-occupied Kraków, Poland.


 German warning in occupied Poland 1939 - "No entrance for Poles!"
In fourteenth-century north-east Germany, people of Wendish, i.e. Slavic, origin were not allowed to join some guilds.[17] According to Wilhelm Raabe, "down into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend."[18]
The ban on interracial marriage was a part of the Nuremberg Laws, which prohibited sexual relations and marriages between people classified as "Aryan" and "non-Aryan." Such relationships were called Rassenschande (race defilement). At first the laws were aimed primarily at Jews but were later extended to "Gypsies, Negroes and their bastard offspring".[19][20][21] Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a concentration camp, while non-Aryans could face the death penalty.[22] To preserve the so-called purity of the German blood, after the war began, the Nazis extended the race defilement law to include all foreigners (non-Germans).[23]
Under the General Government of occupied Poland in 1940, the Nazis divided the population into different groups, each with different rights, food rations, allowed housing strips in the cities, public transportation, etc. In an effort to split Polish identity they attempted to establish ethnic divisions of Kashubians and Gorals (Goralenvolk), based on these groups' alleged "Germanic component."



 Young Polish girl wearing Letter "P" patch.


 Women behind the barbed wire fence of the Lvov Ghetto in occupied Poland. Spring 1942
During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in Nazi-controlled states were made to wear yellow ribbons or stars of David, and were, along with Romas (Gypsies), discriminated against by the racial laws. Jewish doctors and professors were not allowed to treat Aryan (effectively, gentile) patients or teach Aryan pupils, respectively. The Jews were not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry, and were able to shop only from 3–5 pm in Jewish stores. After Kristallnacht ("The Night of Broken Glass"), the Jews were fined 1,000,000 marks for damages done by the Nazi troops and SS members.
Jews and Roma were subjected to genocide as "undesirable" "racial" groups in the Holocaust. The Nazis established ghettos to confine Jews and sometimes Romas into tightly packed areas of the cities of Eastern Europe, turning them into de facto concentration camps. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest of these ghettos, with 400,000 people. The Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000.[24]
Between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish citizens were transported to the Reich for forced labour (in all, about 12 million forced laborers were employed in the German war economy inside Nazi Germany).[25][26] Although Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe, Poles, along with other Eastern Europeans viewed as racially inferior,[27] were subject to deeper discriminatory measures. They were forced to wear a yellow with purple border and letter "P" (for Polen/Polish) cloth identifying tag sewn to their clothing, subjected to a curfew, and banned from public transportation.
While the treatment of factory workers or farm hands often varied depending on the individual employer, Polish laborers as a rule were compelled to work longer hours for lower wages than Western Europeans – in many cities, they were forced to live in segregated barracks behind barbed wire. Social relations with Germans outside work were forbidden, and sexual relations (Rassenschande or "racial defilement") were punishable by death.[28]
Imperial China[edit]
Tang dynasty[edit]
Several laws enforcing racial segregation of foreigners from Chinese were passed by the Han chinese during the Tang dynasty. In 779 the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uighurs to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese. Chinese disliked Uighurs because they practiced usury. The magristrate who issued the orders may have wanted to protect "purity" in Chinese custom. In 836, when Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton, he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage between Chinese and foreigners. Lu enforced separation, banning interracial marriages, and made it illegal for foreigners to own property. Lu Chun believed his principles were just and upright.[29] The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "Dark peoples" or "People of colour", which was used to describe foreigners, such as "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", among others.[30][31]
Qing dynasty[edit]
Main article: Eight Banners
The Qing Dynasty was founded not by the Han Chinese who form the majority of the Chinese population, but the Manchus, who are today an ethnic minority of China. The Manchus were keenly aware of their minority status, however, it was only later in the dynasty that they banned intermarriage.
Han defectors played a massive role in the Qing conquest of China. Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu were often given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Manchu leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General Li Yongfang after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618.[32][33] Jurchen (Manchu) women married most the Han Chinese defectors in Liaodong.[34] Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o), Geng Jimao (Keng Chi-mao), Shang Kexi (Shang K'o-hsi), and Wu Sangui (Wu San-kuei).[35]
A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.[32]
Geng Zhongming, a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong become court attendants under Shunzhi and get married to Aisin Gioro women, with Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong and Prince Abatai's (Hong Taiji) granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong.[36]
The Qing differentiated between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen were made out of Han Chinese who defected to the Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75%.[37][38][39] It was this multi-ethnic force in which Manchus were only a minority, which conquered China for the Qing.[40]
It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were responsible for the successful Qing conquest of China, they made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China after the conquest, stabilizing Qing rule.[41] Han Bannermen dominated the post of governor-general in the time of the Shunzhi and Kangxi Emperors, and also the post of governors, largely excluding ordinary Han civilians from the posts.[42]
To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Manchu Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners, it was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.[43][44]
The Qing implemented a policy of segregation between the Bannermen of the Eight Banners (Manchu Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, Han Bannermen) and Han Chinese civilians. This ethnic segregation had cultural and economic reasons: intermarriage was forbidden to keep up the Manchu heritage and minimize sinicization. Han Chinese civilians and Mongol civilians were banned from settling in Manchuria.[45] Han civilians and Mongol civilians were banned from crossing into each other's lands. Ordinary Mongol civilians in Inner Mongolia were banned from even crossing into other Mongol Banners. (A banner in Inner Mongolia was an administrative division and not related to the Mongol Bannermen in the Eight Banners)
These restrictions did not apply Han Bannermen, who were settled in Manchuria by the Qing. Han bannermen were differentiated from Han civilians by the Qing and treated differently.
The Qing Dynasty started colonizing Manchuria with Han Chinese later on in the dynasty's rule, but the Manchu area was still separated from modern-day Inner Mongolia by the Outer Willow Palisade, which kept the Manchu and the Mongols in the area separate.
The policy of segregation applied directly to the banner garrisons, most of which occupied a separate walled zone within the cities in which they were stationed. Manchu Bannermen, Han Bannermen, and Mongol Bannermen were separated from the Han civilian population. While the Manchus followed the governmental structure of the preceding Ming dynasty, their ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han Chinese civilian officials who had passed the highest levels of the state examinations, and because of the small number of Manchus, this insured that a large fraction of them would be government officials.
Italy[edit]
In 1938, the fascist regime led by Benito Mussolini, under pressure from the Nazis, introduced a series of laws instituting an official segregationist policy in the Italian Empire, especially aimed against Jews. This policy enforced various segregationist norms, like the prohibition for Jews to teach or study in ordinary schools and universities, to own industries reputed of major national interest, to work as journalists, to enter the military, and to wed non-Jews. Some of the immediate consequences of the introduction of the 'provvedimenti per la difesa della razza' (norms for the defence of the race) included many of the best Italian scientists leaving their job, or even Italy. Amongst these, world-renowned physicists Emilio Segrè, Enrico Fermi (whose wife was Jewish), Bruno Pontecorvo, Bruno Rossi, Tullio Levi-Civita, mathematicians Federigo Enriques and Guido Fubini and even the fascist propaganda director, art critic and journalist Margherita Sarfatti, who was one of Mussolini's mistresses. Rita Levi-Montalcini, who would successively win the Nobel Prize for Medicine, was forbidden to work at the university. Albert Einstein, upon approval of the racial law, resigned from honorary membership of the Accademia dei Lincei.
After 1943, when Northern Italy was occupied by the Nazis, Italian Jews were rounded up for the Holocaust.
Jewish segregation[edit]
Jews in Europe generally were forced, by decree or by informal pressure, to live in highly segregated ghettos and shtetls.[46] In 1204 the papacy required Jews to segregate themselves from Christians and to wear distinctive clothing.[47] Forced segregation of Jews spread throughout Europe during the 14th and 15th centuries.[48] In the Russian Empire, Jews were restricted to the so-called Pale of Settlement, the Western frontier of the Russian Empire corresponding roughly to the modern-day countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine.[49] By the early 20th century, the majority of European Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement.
Jewish population were confined to mellahs in Morocco beginning from the 15th century. In cities, a mellah was surrounded by a wall with a fortified gateway. In contrast, rural mellahs were separate villages inhabited solely by the Jews.[50]
In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews:

…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town…; for they are considered as unclean creatures… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt… For the same reason, they are prohibited to go out when it rains; for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them, which would sully the feet of the Mussulmans… If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he is subjected to the greatest insults. The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat him… unmercifully… If a Jew enters a shop for anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods… Should his hand incautiously touch the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them... Sometimes the Persians intrude into the dwellings of the Jews and take possession of whatever please them. Should the owner make the least opposition in defense of his property, he incurs the danger of atoning for it with his life... If... a Jew shows himself in the street during the three days of the Katel (Muharram)…, he is sure to be murdered.[51]
Latin America[edit]
Spanish colonists created caste systems in Latin American countries based on classification by race and race mixture. An extensive nomenclature developed, including the familiar terms "mulatto", "mestizo", and "zambo" (the latter the origin of "sambo"). The Spanish had practiced a form of caste system in Hispania before their expulsion of the Jews and Muslims. While many Latin American countries have long since rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, usually at the time of independence, prejudice based on degrees of perceived racial distance from European ancestry combined with one's socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the colonial caste system.[52][53]
Norway[edit]
On 16 May 1940 the Administrasjonsrådet asked Rikskommisariatet why radio receivers had been confiscated from Jews in Norway.[54] That Administrasjonsrådet thereafter "quietly" accepted[55] racial segregation between Norwegian citizens, has been claimed by Tor Bomann-Larsen. Furthermore, he claimed that this segregation "created a precedent. 2 years later (with NS-styret in the ministries of Norway) Norwegian police picked up those who had listened to the radios at the addresses where radios were previously confiscated from Jews. November 26, 1942 it was time for departure and extermination".[56]
Rhodesia[edit]
Following a dispute over the terms for the granting of full independence, the British self-governing colony of Rhodesia, governed by a predominantly white minority government, unilaterally declared independence in 1965. Led by Prime Minister Ian Smith, it endured as an unrecognized state under white rule for the next 14 years, with majority rule coming in 1979 with the Internal Settlement between Smith's government and moderate black nationalists, the associated multiracial elections and the reconstitution of the country as Zimbabwe Rhodesia, with Bishop Abel Muzorewa at the helm of a coalition cabinet comprising 12 blacks and five whites. This new order also failed to win legitimacy in the eyes of the world, and British control returned to the country in December 1979, following the Lancaster House Agreement. New elections were held in 1980, and Zimbabwe gained recognized independence in April 1980, with Robert Mugabe as prime minister.



 "Petty apartheid": sign on Durban beach in English, Afrikaans and Zulu languages
Laws enforcing segregation had been around before 1965, although many institutions simply ignored them. One highly publicized legal battle occurred in 1960 involving the opening of a new theatre that was to be open to all races; the proposed unsegregated public toilets at the newly built Reps Theatre in 1959 caused an argument called "The Battle of the Toilets".
South Africa[edit]
Main article: Apartheid
The apartheid system enacted a nationwide social policy "separate development" with the National Party victory in 1948, following the "colour bar"-discriminatory legislation dating back to the beginning of the Union of South Africa and the Boer republics before which, while repressive to black South Africans along with other minorities, had not gone nearly so far.
Apartheid laws can be generally divided into following acts. Firstly, the Population Registration Act in 1950 classified residents in South Africa into four racial groups: "black", "white", "Coloured", and "Indian" and noted their racial identities on their identifications. Secondly, the Group Areas Act in 1950 assigned different regions according to different races. People were forced to live in their corresponding regions and the action of passing the boundaries without a permit was made illegal, extending pass laws that had already curtailed black movement. Thirdly, under the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act in 1953, amenities in public area, like hospitals, universities and parks, were labeled separately according to particular races. In addition, the Bantu Education Act in 1953 segregated national education in South Africa as well. Additionally, the government of the time enforced the Pass laws, which deprived black South Africans of their right to travel freely within their own country. Under this system black people were severely restricted from urban areas, requiring authorisation from a white employer to enter.
Uprisings and protests against apartheid appeared immediately when apartheid arose. As early as 1949, the youth wing of the African National Congress (ANC) advocated the ending of apartheid and suggested fighting against racial segregation by various methods. During the following decades, hundreds of anti-apartheid actions occurred, including those of the Black Consciousness Movement, students' protests, labor strikes, and church group activism etc. In 1991, the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act was passed, repealing laws enforcing racial segregation, including the Group Areas Act. In 1994, Nelson Mandela won in the first multiracial democratic election in South Africa. His success fulfilled the ending of apartheid in South African history.
United States[edit]
Main article: Racial segregation in the United States
After laws were passed that segregated African Americans and Whites, the lives of those who were negatively affected saw no progress in their quest for equality. Racial segregation was not a new occurrence as most African Americans had been under slavery before the Civil War.[57] The laws passed segregated African Americans to Whites. Signs were used to show African Americans where they could, under legal protection, walk, talk, drink, rest or eat.[57] For those places that were racially mixed, African Americans had to wait until all other White customers were dealt with first.[57] Rules were also enforced that restricted African Americans from entering white stores.[57] The racial segregation affected the lives of African Americans significantly as they were not granted equality.
After the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in America, racial discrimination became regulated by the so-called Jim Crow laws, which mandated strict segregation of the races. Though such laws were instituted shortly after fighting ended in many cases, they only became formalized after the end of Republican-enforced Reconstruction in the 1870s and 80s during a period known as the nadir of American race relations. This legislation that mandated segregation lasted to the mid-1960s.



 An African-American youth at a segregated drinking fountain in Halifax, North Carolina, in 1938.
While the U.S. Supreme Court majority in 1896 Plessy explicitly upheld only "separate but equal" facilities (specifically, transportation facilities), Justice John Marshall Harlan in his dissent protested that the decision was an expression of white supremacy; he predicted that segregation would "stimulate aggressions … upon the admitted rights of colored citizens," "arouse race hate" and "perpetuate a feeling of distrust between [the] races. Feelings between whites and blacks were so tense, even the jails were segregated."[58]
Institutionalized racial segregation was ended as an official practice by the efforts of such civil rights activists as Clarence M. Mitchell, Jr., Rosa Parks, and Martin Luther King Jr., working during the period from the end of World War II through the passage of the Voting Rights Act and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 supported by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Many of their efforts were acts of non-violent civil disobedience aimed at disrupting the enforcement of racial segregation rules and laws, such as refusing to give up a seat in the black part of the bus to a white person (Rosa Parks), or holding sit-ins at all-white diners.
By 1968 all forms of segregation had been declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, and by 1970 support for formal legal segregation had dissolved. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954 outlawed segregation in public schools. The Fair Housing Act of 1968, administered and enforced by the Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity, prohibited discrimination in the sale and rental of housing on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, and disability. Formal racial discrimination was illegal in school systems, businesses, the American military, other civil services and the government. Separate bathrooms, water fountains and schools all disappeared and the civil rights movement had the public's support.
Contemporary segregation[edit]
Bahrain[edit]
See also: Human rights in Bahrain and Bandargate scandal
On 28 April 2007, the lower house of Bahraini Parliament passed a law banning unmarried migrant workers from living in residential areas. To justify the law MP Nasser Fadhala, a close ally of the government said "bachelors also use these houses to make alcohol, run prostitute rings or to rape children and housemaids".[59]
Sadiq Rahma, technical committee head, who is a member of Al Wefaq said: "The rules we are drawing up are designed to protect the rights of both the families and the Asian bachelors (..) these labourers often have habits which are difficult for families living nearby to tolerate (..) they come out of their homes half dressed, brew alcohol illegally in their homes, use prostitutes and make the neighbourhood dirty (..) these are poor people who often live in groups of 50 or more, crammed into one house or apartment," said Mr Rahma. "The rules also state that there must be at least one bathroom for every five people (..) there have also been cases in which young children have been sexually molested."[60]
Bahrain Centre for Human Rights issued a press release condemning this decision as discriminatory and promoting negative racist attitudes towards migrant workers.[59][61] Nabeel Rajab, then BCHR vice president, said: "It is appalling that Bahrain is willing to rest on the benefits of these people's hard work, and often their suffering, but that they refuse to live with them in equality and dignity. The solution is not to force migrant workers into ghettos, but to urge companies to improve living conditions for workers – and not to accommodate large numbers of workers in inadequate space, and to improve the standard of living for them."[59][61]
Canada[edit]
Until 1948, the Canadian Government systematically forced First Nations children to attend Canadian Indian residential school system in order to disconnect them from their indigenous language and culture.
Parts of Canada, particularly British Columbia were highly racialized and featured segregation. Ending in the 1950s and 60s - First Nations were segregated; denied entry to restaurants, made to use separate bathrooms, use different train cars and ride steerage on steamships. Segregation also affected immigrants from China, Japan and India (despite its status as a Dominion).
Since the 1970s, there has been a concern expressed by some academics that major Canadian cities are becoming more segregated on income and ethnic lines. Reports have indicated that the inner suburbs of post-merger Toronto[62] and the southern bedroom communities of Greater Vancouver[62] have become steadily more immigrant and visible minority dominated communities and have lagged behind other neighbourhoods in average income. A CBC panel in Vancouver in 2012 discussed the growing public fear that the proliferation of ethnic enclaves in Greater Vancouver (such as Han Chinese in Richmond and Punjabis in Surrey) amounted to a type of self-segregation. In response to these fears, many minority activists have pointed out that most Canadian neighbourhoods remain predominately White, and yet Whites are never accused of "self-segregation".
The Mohawk tribe of Kahnawake has been criticized for evicting non-Mohawks from the Mohawk reserve.[63] Mohawks who marry outside of their race lose their right to live in their homelands.[64][65] The Mohawk government claims that its policy of racially exclusive membership is for the preservation of its identity,[66] but there is no exemption for those who adopt Mohawk language or culture.[64] The policy is based on a 1981 moratorium which was made law in 1984.[67] All interracial couples are sent eviction notices regardless of how long they have lived on the reserve.[65] The only exemption is for interracial couples married before the 1981 moratorium.
Although some concerned Mohawk citizens contested the racially-exclusive membership policy, the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal ruled that the Mohawk government may adopt policies it deems necessary to ensure the survival of its people.[66]
A long-standing practice of segregation has also been imposed upon the commercial salmon fishery in British Columbia since 1992 when separate commercial fisheries were created for select aboriginal groups on three B.C. river systems. Canadians of other races who fish in the separate fisheries have been arrested, jailed and prosecuted. Although the fishermen who were prosecuted were successful at trial (see the decision in R. v. Kapp),[68] the decision was overturned on appeal.[69] On final appeal, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in favour of the program on the grounds that segregation of this workplace is a step towards equality in Canada.[citation needed] Affirmative action programs in Canada are protected from equality rights challenges by s. 15(2) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Segregation continues today, but more than 35%of the fishermen in the BC commercial fishery are of aboriginal ancestry, yet Canadians of aboriginal ancestry comprise less than 4% of BC's population.[citation needed]
Fiji[edit]


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Two military coups in Fiji in 1987 removed a democratically elected government led by an Indo Fijian,.[70] The coup was supported principally by the Ethnic Fijian population. A new constitution was promulgated in 1990, establishing Fiji as a republic, with the offices of President, Prime Minister, two-thirds of the Senate, and a clear majority of the House of Representatives reserved for ethnic Fijians, Ethnic Fijian ownership of the land was also entrenched in the constitution.[71]
Fiji's case is a situation of de facto ethnic segregation.[72] Fiji has a long complex history with more than 3500 years as a divided tribal nation. Unification under the British rule as a colony for 96 years brought other racial groups, particularly immigrants from the Indian subcontinent.
Israel[edit]
See also: Racism in Israel and Israel and the apartheid analogy



 A barrier gate at Bil'in, West Bank, 2006
Israeli Declaration of Independence proclaims equal rights to all citizens regardless of ethnicity, denomination or race. Israel has a substantial list of laws that demand racial equality (such as prohibition of discrimination, equality in Employment, libel based on race or ethnicity.[73]).
In 2010, the Israeli supreme court sent a message against racial segregation in a case involving the Slonim Hassidic sect of the Ashkenazi Jews, ruling that segregation between Ashkenazi and Sephardi students in a school is illegal.[74] They argue that they seek "to maintain an equal level of religiosity, not from racism."[75] Responding to the charges, the Slonim Haredim invited Sephardi girls to school, and added in a statement: "All along, we said it's not about race, but the High Court went out against our rabbis, and therefore we went to prison."[76]
Due to many cultural differences, and animosity towards a minority perceived to wish to annihilate Israel, a system of passively co-existing communities, segregated along ethnic lines has emerged in Israel, with Arab-Israeli minority communities being left "marooned outside the mainstream". A 2007 poll commissioned by the Center Against Racism (2008) found a worsening of Jewish citizens' perceptions of their Arab counterparts:[77] For instance, 75% of Israeli Jews would not agree to live in a building with Arab residents, 60% would not accept any Arab visitors at their homes, 40% believed that Arabs should be stripped of their right to vote, and 59% believe that the culture of Arabs is primitive.[77] In 2012, a public opinion poll showed that 53% of the polled Israeli Jews said they would not object to an Arab living in their building, while 42% said they would. Asked whether they would object to Arab children being in their child's class in school, 49% said they would not, 42% said they would.[78][79] The secular Israeli public was found to be the most tolerant, while the religious and Haredi respondents were most discriminatory in their opinions.[79]
Malaysia[edit]
Main articles: Bumiputra and Ketuanan Melayu
Malaysia has an article in its constitution which distinguishes the ethnic Malays and indigenous peoples of Malaysia—i.e. bumiputra—from the non-Bumiputra such as ethnic Chinese and Indians under the social contract, of which by law would guarantee the former certain special rights and privileges. To question these rights and privileges however is strictly prohibited under the Internal Security Act, legalised by the 10th Article(IV) of the Constitution of Malaysia.[80] The privileges mentioned herein covers—few of which—the economical and education aspects of Malaysians, e.g. the Malaysian New Economic Policy; an economic policy recently criticised by Thierry Rommel—who headed a European Commission's delegation to Malaysia—as an excuse for "significant protectionism"[81][82] and a quota maintaining higher access of Malays into public universities.
While legal racial segregation in daily life is not practiced, self-segregation does exist.
Mauritania[edit]
Slavery in Mauritania was finally criminalized in August 2007[83] It was already abolished in 1980 though it was still affecting the descendants of black Africans abducted into slavery before generations, who live now in Mauritania as "black Moors" or haratin and who partially still serve the "white Moors", or bidhan (the name means literally white-skinned people), as slaves. The number of slaves in the country was not known exactly, but it was estimated to be up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population.[84][85]
For centuries, the so-called Haratin lower class, mostly poor black Africans living in rural areas, have been considered natural slaves by white Moors of Arab/Berber ancestry. Many descendants of the Arab and Berber tribes today still adhere to the supremacist ideology of their ancestors. This ideology has led to oppression, discrimination and even enslavement of other groups in the region of Sudan and Western Sahara.[86][87] In certain villages in Mauritania there are mosques for lighter-skinned nobles and mosques for black slaves, who are still buried in separate cemeteries.[88]
United Kingdom[edit]
The United Kingdom has no legally sanctioned system of racial segregation and has a substantial list of laws that demand racial equality.[89] However, due to many cultural differences between the pre-existing system of passively co-existing communities, segregation along racial lines has emerged in parts of the United Kingdom, with minority communities being left "marooned outside the mainstream".[90]
The affected and 'ghettoised' communities are often largely representative of Pakistanis, Indians and other Sub-Continentals, and has been thought to be the basis of ethnic tensions, and a deterioration of the standard of living and levels of education and employment among ethnic minorities in poorer areas. These factors are considered by some to have been a cause of the 2001 race riots in Bradford, Oldham and Burnley in the north of England which have large Asian communities.[91][92] Most British commentators claim it is false that the riots were due to a breakdown of multiculturalism alone, and instead claim that it is more likely to have been caused by other factors such as disillusioned youth, high unemployment by a sizeable proportion of the youth, across all ethnicities, of the United Kingdom.[citation needed]
There may be some indication that such segregation, particularly in residential terms, seems to be the result of the unilateral 'steering' of ethnic groups into particular areas as well as a culture of vendor discrimination and distrust of ethnic minority clients by some estate agents and other property professionals.[93] This may be indicative of a market preference amongst the more wealthy to reside in areas of less ethnic mixture; less ethnic mixture being perceived as increasing the value and desirability of a residential area. This is likely as other theories such as "ethnic self segregation" have sometimes been shown to be baseless, and a majority of ethnic respondents to a few surveys on the matter have been in favour of wider social and residential integration.[92]
United States[edit]
De facto segregation in the United States has increased since the civil rights era in the United States.[94] The Supreme Court ruled in Milliken v. Bradley (1974) that de facto racial segregation was acceptable, as long as schools were not actively making policies for racial exclusion; since then, schools have been segregated due to myriad indirect factors.[94]
Redlining is the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking, insurance, access to jobs,[95] access to health care,[96] or even supermarkets[97] to residents in certain, often racially determined,[98] areas. The most devastating form of redlining, and the most common use of the term, refers to mortgage discrimination. Over the next twenty years, a succession of further court decisions and federal laws, including the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act and measure to end mortgage discrimination in 1975, would completely invalidate de jure racial segregation and discrimination in the U.S., although de facto segregation and discrimination have proven more resilient. According to the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, the actual de facto desegregation of U.S. public schools peaked in the late 1980s; since that time, the schools have, in fact, become more segregated mainly due to the ethnic segregation of the nation with whites dominating the suburbs and minorities the urban centers. According to Rajiv Sethi, an economist at Columbia University, black-white segregation in housing is slowly declining for most metropolitan areas in the US[99] Racial segregation or separation can lead to social, economic and political tensions.[100] Thirty years (the year 2000) after the civil rights era, the United States remained in many areas a residentially segregated society, in which blacks, whites and Hispanics inhabit different neighborhoods of vastly different quality.[101][102][103]
Dan Immergluck writes that in 2002 small businesses in black neighborhoods still received fewer loans, even after accounting for businesses density, businesses size, industrial mix, neighborhood income, and the credit quality of local businesses.[104] Gregory D. Squires wrote in 2003 that it is clear that race has long affected and continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance industry.[105] Workers living in American inner cities have a harder time finding jobs than suburban workers.[106]
The desire of many whites to avoid having their children attend integrated schools has been a factor in white flight to the suburbs.[107] A 2007 study in San Francisco showed that groups of homeowners of all races tended to self-segregate in order to be with people of the same education level and race.[108] By 1990, the legal barriers enforcing segregation had been mostly replaced by decentralized racism, where whites pay more than blacks to live in predominantly white areas.[109] Today, many whites are willing, and are able, to pay a premium to live in a predominantly white neighborhood. Equivalent housing in white areas commands a higher rent.[110] These higher rents are largely attributable to exclusionary zoning policies that restrict the supply of housing. Regulations ensure that all housing units are expensive enough to prevent access by undesirable groups. By bidding up the price of housing, many white neighborhoods effectively shut out blacks, because blacks are unwilling, or unable, to pay the premium to buy entry into these expensive neighborhoods. Conversely, equivalent housing in black neighborhoods is far more affordable to those who are unable or unwilling to pay a premium to live in white neighborhoods. Through the 1990s, residential segregation remained at its extreme and has been called "hypersegregation" by some sociologists or "American Apartheid".[111]
In February 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Johnson v. California 543 U.S. 499 (2005) that the California Department of Corrections' unwritten practice of racially segregating prisoners in its prison reception centers – which California claimed was for inmate safety (gangs in California, as throughout the U.S., usually organize on racial lines)— is to be subject to strict scrutiny, the highest level of constitutional review.
Yemen[edit]
See also Castes in Yemen
In Yemen, the Arab elite practices a form of discrimination against the lower class Akhdam people based on their racial system.[112]
See also[edit]
Affirmative Action
African American
Apartheid
Asian American
Bantustan
Caste
Chinatowns
Class conflict
Eagle feather law
Elitism
Endogamy
English as a foreign or second language
Enclave
Ethnic autonomous regions
Forsyth County, Georgia v. The Nationalist Movement
Genocide
 Ghetto
Group Areas Act
Housing Segregation
Jim Crow laws
Judenhut
Ku Klux Klan
Hispanic and Latino Americans (i.e. Mexican American and Chicano)
Mortgage Discrimination
Multiculturalism
Muslim Mosque, Inc.
Nation of Islam
National Alliance (United States)
Nuremberg laws
Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity
One drop rule
 Online segregation
Pass Law
Racial equality proposal
Race card
Redlining
Religious segregation
Residential Segregation
Second-class citizen
segregation academies
Separate but equal
Separatism
Texas (History of Texas, like Tejanos)
Underground Railroad
Xenophobia
Yellow badge

Notes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Principles to Guide Housing Policy at the Beginning of the Millennium, Michael Schill & Susan Wachter, Cityscape
2.Jump up ^ ECRI General Policy Recommendation N°7: National legislation to combat racism and racial discrimination — Explanatory memorandum, Para. 16
3.Jump up ^ Recommendations of the Forum on Minority Issues A/HRC/10/11/Add.1 — para. 27
4.Jump up ^ Thomas C. Schelling (1969) "Models of segregation", American Economic Review, 1969, 59(2), 488–493.
5.Jump up ^ E.g., Virginia Racial Integrity Act, Virginia Code § 20–58 and § 20–59
6.Jump up ^ Racial segregation. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
7.Jump up ^ "Ancient Britain Had Apartheid-Like Society, Study Suggests". News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
8.Jump up ^ Thomas, Mark G. et al. Evidence for a segregated social structure in early Anglo-Saxon England. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 273(1601): 2651–2657.
9.Jump up ^ "Gene Expression: Blood of the Wakas Wakas". Scienceblogs.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
10.Jump up ^ "Special report: 'Myths of British ancestry' by Stephen Oppenheimer | Prospect Magazine October 2006 issue 127". Prospect-magazine.co.uk. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
11.Jump up ^ "English and Welsh are Races Apart", BBC, 30 June 2002
12.Jump up ^ Simms, Katherine (2005). "Gaelicization". In Seán Duffy. Medieval Ireland: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-94824-5.
13.Jump up ^ "Algeria was in fact a colony but constitutionally was a part of France and not thought of in the 1950s (even by many on the left) as a colony. It was a society of nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians who were dominated by the million settlers of diverse origins (but fiercely French) who maintained a quasi-apartheid regime." Bell, David Scott. Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France, Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 36.
14.Jump up ^ "[the] senatus-consulte of 1865 stipulated that all the colonised indigenous were under French jurisdiction, i.e., French nationals subjected to French laws, but it restricted citizenship only to those who renounced their Muslim religion and culture. There was an obvious split in French legal discourse: a split between nationality and citizenship which established the formal structures of a political apartheid encouraging the existence of 'French subjects' disenfranchised, without any rights to citizenship, treated as objects of French law and not citizens". Debra Kelly. Autobiography And Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French, Liverpool University Press, 2005, p. 43.
15.Jump up ^ "In contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates, Algeria was made an integral part of France and became a colony of settlement for more than one million Europeans... under colonial rule, Algerians encountered France's 'civilising mission' only through the plundering of lands and colonial apartheid society..." Bonora-Waisman, Camille. France and the Algerian Conflict: Issues in Democracy and Political Stability, 1988–1995, Ashgate Publishing, 2003, p. 3.
16.Jump up ^ "As a settler colony with an internal system of apartheid, administered under the fiction that it was part of metropolitan France, and endowed with a powerful colonial lobby that virtually determined the course of French politics with respect to its internal affairs, it experienced insurrection in 1954 on the part of its Muslim population." Wall, Irwin M. France, the United States, and the Algerian War, University of California Press, 2001, p. 262.
17.Jump up ^ "The Situation with the Sorbs in the Past and Present" (pdf).
18.Jump up ^ Raabe, p. 189.
19.Jump up ^ S. H. Milton (2001). ""Gypsies" as social outsiders in Nazi Germany". In Robert Gellately and Nathan Stoltzfus. Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany. Princeton University Press. pp. 216, 231. ISBN 9780691086842.
20.Jump up ^ Michael Burleigh (7 November 1991). The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-521-39802-2.
21.Jump up ^ The Laws for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour (15 September 1935), section 1. "Marriages between Jews and citizens of German or kindred blood are forbidden. Marriages concluded in defiance of this law are void, even if, for the purpose of evading this law, they were concluded abroad."
22.Jump up ^ Leila J. Rupp, Mobilizing Women for War, p 125, ISBN 0-691-04649-2
23.Jump up ^ Diemut Majer (2003). "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939-1945. JHU Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-8018-6493-3.
24.Jump up ^ "Holocaust Timeline: The Ghettos". Fcit.usf.edu. 23 November 1939. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
25.Jump up ^ Michael Marek (nda). "Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers". Dw-world.de. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
26.Jump up ^ "Forced Labor at Ford Werke AG during the Second World War". Summeroftruth.org. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
27.Jump up ^ "Hitler's Plans". Dac.neu.edu. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
28.Jump up ^ "Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era". Holocaust-trc.org. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
29.Jump up ^ Edward H. Schafer (1963). The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics. University of California Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-520-05462-8. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
30.Jump up ^ Mark Edward Lewis (2009). China's cosmopolitan empire: the Tang dynasty. Harvard University Press. p. 170. ISBN 0-674-03306-X. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
31.Jump up ^ Jacques Gernet (1996). A history of Chinese civilization. Cambridge University Press. p. 294. ISBN 0-521-49781-7. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
32.^ Jump up to: a b ed. Walthall 2008, p. 148.
33.Jump up ^ Wakeman 1977, p. 79.
34.Jump up ^ Crossley, 2010, p. 95.
35.Jump up ^ eds. Watson, Ebrey 1991, pp. 179-180.
36.Jump up ^ Wakeman 1986, p. 1017.
37.Jump up ^ Naquin 1987, p. 141.
38.Jump up ^ Fairbank, Goldman 2006, p. 2006.
39.Jump up ^ Summing up Naquin/Rawski, chapters 1&2
40.Jump up ^ eds. Watson, Ebrey 1991, p. 175.
41.Jump up ^ Spencer 1990, p. 41.
42.Jump up ^ Spence 1988, pp. 4-5.
43.Jump up ^ Wang 2004, pp. 215-216 & 219-221.
44.Jump up ^ Walthall 2008, p. 140-141.
45.Jump up ^ "From Ming to Qing". Darkwing.uoregon.edu. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
46.Jump up ^ Wirth, Louis. The Ghetto. Transaction Publishers (1997), pp. 29–40. ISBN 1-56000-983-7.
47.Jump up ^ "A Short History of the Jewish Tradition". .kenyon.edu. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
48.Jump up ^ Ghetto. Encyclopædia Britannica.
49.Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. "Anti-Semitism in modern Europe". Britannica.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
50.Jump up ^ "The Jews of Morocco, by Ralph G. Bennettett". Sefarad.org. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
51.Jump up ^ Lewis (1984), pp. 181–183
52.Jump up ^ Soong, Roland. "Racial Classifications in Latin America", 1999.
53.Jump up ^ Cline, Howard F., "Review", The American Historical Review, Vol. 76, No. 5 (Dec. 1971), 1626–1628.
54.Jump up ^ "Population, Führer and acquittal. Racial segregation between Norwegian citizens quietly accepted May 17, 1940
55.Jump up ^ http://www.aftenposten.no/meninger/kronikker/Folk-frer-og-frifinnelse-6730068.html
56.Jump up ^ "Saken dannet presedens. Drøye to år senere (og nå med NS-styret på plass i departementene) rykket norske politimyndigheter ut på ny, denne gang for å hente lytterne på de samme adresser som radioapparatene. 26. november 1942 var det tid for avreise og utradering. Men politifolkene hadde altså vært ute en vårdag før. Raseskillet mellom norske borgere var blitt stilltiende akseptert den 17. mai 1940."
57.^ Jump up to: a b c d Leon Litwack, Jim Crow Blues, Magazine of History (OAH Publications, 2004)
58.Jump up ^ "Brown at 50". Thenation.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
59.^ Jump up to: a b c Staff writer (28 April 2007). "Parliament's law to ban migrant workers who are unmarried from living in residential areas is discriminatory attitudes". Bahrain Centre for Human Rights. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
60.Jump up ^ Tariq Kkonji (23 January 2006). "'No go' rule for bachelor labourers". Gulf Daily News. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
61.^ Jump up to: a b Staff writer (28 April 2007). "Bahraini parliament moves to segregate migrants from citizens". Migrant rights. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
62.^ Jump up to: a b Mendelson, Rachel (12 March 2012). "Vancouver Income Inequality Study Shows City Segregating Along Racial, Income Lines". Huffington Post. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
63.Jump up ^ "Natives only, please: A look into the eviction of non-natives from the Kahnawake reserve". National Post. Canada. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
64.^ Jump up to: a b "Mohawk role model faces eviction over non-native fiancé". National Post. Canada. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
65.^ Jump up to: a b Brennan, Richard (21 February 2010). "Evicting 26 non-natives splits reserve". The Star (Toronto).
66.^ Jump up to: a b "Not native? Then leave reserve, Mohawks say". National Post. Canada. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
67.Jump up ^ "The Agenda – The Agenda Blogs – Behind The Headlines". Tvo.org. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
68.Jump up ^ "R. v. Kapp et al – Reasons for Judgment". Provincialcourt.bc.ca. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
69.Jump up ^ "2004 BCSC 958 R. v. Kapp et al". Courts.gov.bc.ca. 12 July 2004. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
70.Jump up ^ "Country profile: Fiji". BBC News. 22 December 2009. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
71.Jump up ^ Tom Cockrem. "Fiji: History". Lonelyplanet.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
72.Jump up ^ on 9 April 2006 UTC (9 April 2006). "UN seminar highlights concern in Fiji over ethnic segregation". Rnzi.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
73.Jump up ^ "Section 1 of the Israeli 'Libel Law 1965' defines libel as a publication that may humiliate a person (individual or corporation) in the eyes of people, or to deem him/her/it object of hatred, contempt or ridicule their part; degrade a person for the acts, conduct or attributed qualities; damage ones job, whether public office or another job, damage ones business, trade, profession; degrade a person because of race, national origin, religion, place of residence, gender or sexual orientation.".
74.Jump up ^ "The Jewish Religious Conflict Tearing at Israel". Time. 2010-06-17.
75.Jump up ^ Discrimination claimed in Modiin Illit haredi schools – Israel News, Ynetnews. Ynetnews.com (1995-06-20). Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
76.Jump up ^ Hassidim invite Sephardi girls to school. Jpost.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
77.^ Jump up to: a b "יותר ממחצית היהודים: נישואים לערבי הם בגידה – חדשות היום". ynet.co.il. 27 March 2007. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
78.Jump up ^ [1]
79.^ Jump up to: a b Gabe Fisher. Controversial survey ostensibly highlights widespread anti-Arab attitudes in Israel. Times of Israel, 2012
80.Jump up ^ Constitution of Malaysia, Article 10
81.Jump up ^ "Asia-Pacific". BBC News. 25 June 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
82.Jump up ^ "Infernal ramblings". Infernal ramblings. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
83.Jump up ^ Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law by BBC News
84.Jump up ^ Corrigan, T. (6 September 2007). "Mauritania made slavery illegal last month". The East African. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
85.Jump up ^ The Abolition season on BBC World Service
86.Jump up ^ "Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance". Irinnews.org. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
87.Jump up ^ "War and Genocide in Sudan". Iabolish.org. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
88.Jump up ^ "Mauritania: The real beginning of the end of slavery?". Irinnews.org. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
89.Jump up ^ [2]
90.Jump up ^ "Britons warned over 'segregation'". BBC News. 22 September 2005.
91.Jump up ^ "Race 'segregation' caused riots". BBC News. 11 December 2001.
92.^ Jump up to: a b [3]
93.Jump up ^ PHILLIPS, D. (2002) Movement to opportunity? South Asian relocation in northern cities. End of Award report, ESRC R000238038. School of Geography, University of Leeds. Pg.7.
94.^ Jump up to: a b Kozol, Jonathan (2005). The Shame of the Nation. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-5245-5.
95.Jump up ^ "Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities" (PDF). Retrieved 18 January 2010.
96.Jump up ^ See: Race and health
97.Jump up ^ In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition, Elizabeth Eisenhauer, GeoJournal Volume 53, Number 2 / February 2001
98.Jump up ^ How East New York Became a Ghetto by Walter Thabit. ISBN 0-8147-8267-1. Page 42.
99.Jump up ^ Inequality and Segregation R Sethi, R Somanathan – Journal of Political Economy, 2004
100.Jump up ^ Keating William Dennis The Suburban Racial Dilemma: Housing and Neighborhoods (1994) Temple University Press. ISBN 1-56639-147-4
101.Jump up ^ "Myth of the Melting Pot: America's Racial and Ethnic Divides". Washington post.com. 22 February 1998. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
102.Jump up ^ Massey Douglas S. Segregation and stratification: A bio-social perspective Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race (2004), 1: 7–25 Cambridge University Press
103.Jump up ^ Inequality and Segregation Rajiv Sethi and Rohini Somanathan Journal of Political Economy, volume 112 (2004), pages 1296–1321
104.Jump up ^ "Redlining Redux". Urban Affairs Review 38 (1): 22–41. 2002. doi:10.1177/107808702401097781.
105.Jump up ^ Squires, Gregory D. (2003). "Racial Profiling, Insurance Style: Insurance Redlining and the Uneven Development of Metropolitan Areas". Journal of Urban Affairs 25 (4): 391–410. doi:10.1111/1467-9906.t01-1-00168.
106.Jump up ^ Zenou Yves, Boccard Nicolas Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities (1999)
107.Jump up ^ VI De Facto Segregation. Retrieved 9 January 2008.
108.Jump up ^ Bayer, Patrick; Fernando Ferreira; Robert McMillan (August 2007). "A Unified Framework for Measuring Preferences for Schools and Neighborhoods". Journal of Political Economy 115 (4): 588–638. doi:10.1086/522381.
109.Jump up ^ Cutler, David M.; Edward L. Glaeser; Jacob L. Vigdor (June 1999). "The Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto". Journal of Political Economy 107 (3): 455–506. doi:10.1086/250069.
110.Jump up ^ Kiel K.A., Zabel J.E. (1996). "Housing Price Differentials in U.S. Cities: Household and Neighborhood Racial Effects". Journal of Housing Economics 5 (2): 143. doi:10.1006/jhec.1996.0008.
111.Jump up ^ Massey D.S., Denton N. A. (1993). American Apartheid. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
112.Jump up ^ "Yemen: Akhdam people suffer history of discrimination". IRIN. 1 November 2005. Retrieved 9 January 2008.
References[edit]
Dobratz, Betty A. and Shanks-Meile, Stephanie L, White Power, White Pride: The White Separatist Movement in the United States, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001, 384 pages, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9.
Rural Face of White Supremacy: Beyond Jim Crow, by Mark Schultz. University of Illinois Press, 2005, ISBN 0-252-02960-7.
Yin, L. 2009. "The Dynamics of Residential Segregation in Buffalo: An Agent-Based Simulation" Urban Studies 46(13), pp2749–2770.
Further reading[edit]
Elliott, Mark (2006). Color-Blind Justice: Albion Tourgée and the Quest for Racial Equality from the Civil War to Plessy v. Ferguson. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-518139-5.
Tushnet, Mark (2008). I dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 69–80. ISBN 978-0-8070-0036-6.
Brook, Thomas (1997). Plessy v. Ferguson: A Brief History with Documents. Boston: Bedford Books.
Fireside, Harvey (2004). Separate and Unequal: Homer Plessy and the Supreme Court Decision That Legalized Racism. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1293-7.
Lofgren, Charles A. (1987). The Plessy Case: A Legal-Historical Interpretation.. New York: Oxford University Press.
Medley, Keith Weldon (2003). We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson. Gretna, LA: Pelican. ISBN 1-58980-120-2. Review
Chin, Gabriel J. (1996). "The Plessy Myth: Justice Harlan and the Chinese Cases". Iowa Law Review 82: 151. SSRN 1121505.
Nightengale, Carl H. (2012). Segregation: A Global History of Divided Cities. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-58074-6.
External links[edit]
A site dedicated to the life of MLK
Encyclopaedia Britannica: Article on Racial Segregation
A study of segregation
Constitutional Law and Race-Conscious Policies in K-12 Education
US racial segregation of proms continue


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Racial segregation

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"Segregationist" redirects here. For the short story by Isaac Asimov, see Segregationist (short story).

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Segregation is separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a public toilet, attending school, going to the movies, riding on a bus, or in the rental or purchase of a home.[1] Segregation itself is defined by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance as "the act by which a (natural or legal) person separates other persons on the basis of one of the enumerated grounds without an objective and reasonable justification, in conformity with the proposed definition of discrimination. As a result, the voluntary act of separating oneself from other persons on the basis of one of the enumerated grounds does not constitute segregation".[2] According to the UN Forum on Minority Issues, "The creation and development of classes and schools providing education in minority languages should not be considered impermissible segregation, if the assignment to such classes and schools is of a voluntary nature".[3]
Racial segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist de facto through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by Thomas Schelling's models of segregation and subsequent work.[4] Segregation may be maintained by means ranging from discrimination in hiring and in the rental and sale of housing to certain races to vigilante violence (such as lynchings) Generally, a situation that arises when members of different races mutually prefer to associate and do business with members of their own race would usually be described as separation or de facto separation of the races rather than segregation. In the United States, legal segregation was required in some states and came with "anti-miscegenation laws" (prohibitions against interracial marriage).[5] Segregation, however, often allowed close contact in hierarchical situations, such as allowing a person of one race to work as a servant for a member of another race. Segregation can involve spatial separation of the races, and mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races.


Contents  [hide]
1 Historical cases 1.1 Anglo-Saxons in England
1.2 English Settlers in Ireland
1.3 French Algeria
1.4 Germany
1.5 Imperial China 1.5.1 Tang dynasty
1.5.2 Qing dynasty
1.6 Italy
1.7 Jewish segregation
1.8 Latin America
1.9 Norway
1.10 Rhodesia
1.11 South Africa
1.12 United States
2 Contemporary segregation 2.1 Bahrain
2.2 Canada
2.3 Fiji
2.4 Israel
2.5 Malaysia
2.6 Mauritania
2.7 United Kingdom
2.8 United States
2.9 Yemen
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links

Historical cases[edit]
Wherever there have been multiracial communities, there has been racial segregation. Only areas with extensive miscegenation, or mixing, such as Hawaii and Brazil, despite some social stratification, seem to be exempt.[6]
Anglo-Saxons in England[edit]
Segregation may have existed in early Anglo-Saxon England, restricting intermarriage and resulting in the displacement of the native British population by Germanic incomers.[7] According to research led by the University College London, Anglo-Saxon settlers enjoyed substantial social and economic advantages over Celtic Britons.[8] However, Stephen Oppenheimer and Bryan Sykes argue that there was no population displacement, as the Anglo-Saxons had relatively little genetic impact on England.[9][10] In 2002, the BBC used the headline "English and Welsh are races apart" to report a genetic survey of test subjects from market towns in England and Wales.[11]
English Settlers in Ireland[edit]
The Statutes of Kilkenny were a series of thirty-five acts passed at Kilkenny in 1366. They forbade the intermarriage between the native Irish and the English settlers in Ireland, the English fostering of Irish children, the English adoption of Irish children and use of Irish names and dress.[12]
French Algeria[edit]
Following its conquest of Ottoman controlled Algeria in 1830, for well over a century France maintained colonial rule in the territory which has been described as "quasi-apartheid".[13] The colonial law of 1865 allowed Arab and Berber Algerians to apply for French citizenship only if they abandoned their Muslim identity; Azzedine Haddour argues that this established "the formal structures of a political apartheid".[14] Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that, "[i]n contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates", this "colonial apartheid society" was unique to Algeria.[15]
This "internal system of apartheid" met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection.[16]
Germany[edit]
Main article: Nur für Deutsche



Nur für Deutsche ("Only for Germans") on the tram number 8 in German-occupied Kraków, Poland.


 German warning in occupied Poland 1939 - "No entrance for Poles!"
In fourteenth-century north-east Germany, people of Wendish, i.e. Slavic, origin were not allowed to join some guilds.[17] According to Wilhelm Raabe, "down into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend."[18]
The ban on interracial marriage was a part of the Nuremberg Laws, which prohibited sexual relations and marriages between people classified as "Aryan" and "non-Aryan." Such relationships were called Rassenschande (race defilement). At first the laws were aimed primarily at Jews but were later extended to "Gypsies, Negroes and their bastard offspring".[19][20][21] Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a concentration camp, while non-Aryans could face the death penalty.[22] To preserve the so-called purity of the German blood, after the war began, the Nazis extended the race defilement law to include all foreigners (non-Germans).[23]
Under the General Government of occupied Poland in 1940, the Nazis divided the population into different groups, each with different rights, food rations, allowed housing strips in the cities, public transportation, etc. In an effort to split Polish identity they attempted to establish ethnic divisions of Kashubians and Gorals (Goralenvolk), based on these groups' alleged "Germanic component."



 Young Polish girl wearing Letter "P" patch.


 Women behind the barbed wire fence of the Lvov Ghetto in occupied Poland. Spring 1942
During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in Nazi-controlled states were made to wear yellow ribbons or stars of David, and were, along with Romas (Gypsies), discriminated against by the racial laws. Jewish doctors and professors were not allowed to treat Aryan (effectively, gentile) patients or teach Aryan pupils, respectively. The Jews were not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry, and were able to shop only from 3–5 pm in Jewish stores. After Kristallnacht ("The Night of Broken Glass"), the Jews were fined 1,000,000 marks for damages done by the Nazi troops and SS members.
Jews and Roma were subjected to genocide as "undesirable" "racial" groups in the Holocaust. The Nazis established ghettos to confine Jews and sometimes Romas into tightly packed areas of the cities of Eastern Europe, turning them into de facto concentration camps. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest of these ghettos, with 400,000 people. The Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000.[24]
Between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish citizens were transported to the Reich for forced labour (in all, about 12 million forced laborers were employed in the German war economy inside Nazi Germany).[25][26] Although Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe, Poles, along with other Eastern Europeans viewed as racially inferior,[27] were subject to deeper discriminatory measures. They were forced to wear a yellow with purple border and letter "P" (for Polen/Polish) cloth identifying tag sewn to their clothing, subjected to a curfew, and banned from public transportation.
While the treatment of factory workers or farm hands often varied depending on the individual employer, Polish laborers as a rule were compelled to work longer hours for lower wages than Western Europeans – in many cities, they were forced to live in segregated barracks behind barbed wire. Social relations with Germans outside work were forbidden, and sexual relations (Rassenschande or "racial defilement") were punishable by death.[28]
Imperial China[edit]
Tang dynasty[edit]
Several laws enforcing racial segregation of foreigners from Chinese were passed by the Han chinese during the Tang dynasty. In 779 the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uighurs to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese. Chinese disliked Uighurs because they practiced usury. The magristrate who issued the orders may have wanted to protect "purity" in Chinese custom. In 836, when Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton, he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage between Chinese and foreigners. Lu enforced separation, banning interracial marriages, and made it illegal for foreigners to own property. Lu Chun believed his principles were just and upright.[29] The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "Dark peoples" or "People of colour", which was used to describe foreigners, such as "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", among others.[30][31]
Qing dynasty[edit]
Main article: Eight Banners
The Qing Dynasty was founded not by the Han Chinese who form the majority of the Chinese population, but the Manchus, who are today an ethnic minority of China. The Manchus were keenly aware of their minority status, however, it was only later in the dynasty that they banned intermarriage.
Han defectors played a massive role in the Qing conquest of China. Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu were often given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Manchu leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General Li Yongfang after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618.[32][33] Jurchen (Manchu) women married most the Han Chinese defectors in Liaodong.[34] Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o), Geng Jimao (Keng Chi-mao), Shang Kexi (Shang K'o-hsi), and Wu Sangui (Wu San-kuei).[35]
A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.[32]
Geng Zhongming, a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong become court attendants under Shunzhi and get married to Aisin Gioro women, with Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong and Prince Abatai's (Hong Taiji) granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong.[36]
The Qing differentiated between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen were made out of Han Chinese who defected to the Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75%.[37][38][39] It was this multi-ethnic force in which Manchus were only a minority, which conquered China for the Qing.[40]
It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were responsible for the successful Qing conquest of China, they made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China after the conquest, stabilizing Qing rule.[41] Han Bannermen dominated the post of governor-general in the time of the Shunzhi and Kangxi Emperors, and also the post of governors, largely excluding ordinary Han civilians from the posts.[42]
To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Manchu Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners, it was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.[43][44]
The Qing implemented a policy of segregation between the Bannermen of the Eight Banners (Manchu Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, Han Bannermen) and Han Chinese civilians. This ethnic segregation had cultural and economic reasons: intermarriage was forbidden to keep up the Manchu heritage and minimize sinicization. Han Chinese civilians and Mongol civilians were banned from settling in Manchuria.[45] Han civilians and Mongol civilians were banned from crossing into each other's lands. Ordinary Mongol civilians in Inner Mongolia were banned from even crossing into other Mongol Banners. (A banner in Inner Mongolia was an administrative division and not related to the Mongol Bannermen in the Eight Banners)
These restrictions did not apply Han Bannermen, who were settled in Manchuria by the Qing. Han bannermen were differentiated from Han civilians by the Qing and treated differently.
The Qing Dynasty started colonizing Manchuria with Han Chinese later on in the dynasty's rule, but the Manchu area was still separated from modern-day Inner Mongolia by the Outer Willow Palisade, which kept the Manchu and the Mongols in the area separate.
The policy of segregation applied directly to the banner garrisons, most of which occupied a separate walled zone within the cities in which they were stationed. Manchu Bannermen, Han Bannermen, and Mongol Bannermen were separated from the Han civilian population. While the Manchus followed the governmental structure of the preceding Ming dynasty, their ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han Chinese civilian officials who had passed the highest levels of the state examinations, and because of the small number of Manchus, this insured that a large fraction of them would be government officials.
Italy[edit]
In 1938, the fascist regime led by Benito Mussolini, under pressure from the Nazis, introduced a series of laws instituting an official segregationist policy in the Italian Empire, especially aimed against Jews. This policy enforced various segregationist norms, like the prohibition for Jews to teach or study in ordinary schools and universities, to own industries reputed of major national interest, to work as journalists, to enter the military, and to wed non-Jews. Some of the immediate consequences of the introduction of the 'provvedimenti per la difesa della razza' (norms for the defence of the race) included many of the best Italian scientists leaving their job, or even Italy. Amongst these, world-renowned physicists Emilio Segrè, Enrico Fermi (whose wife was Jewish), Bruno Pontecorvo, Bruno Rossi, Tullio Levi-Civita, mathematicians Federigo Enriques and Guido Fubini and even the fascist propaganda director, art critic and journalist Margherita Sarfatti, who was one of Mussolini's mistresses. Rita Levi-Montalcini, who would successively win the Nobel Prize for Medicine, was forbidden to work at the university. Albert Einstein, upon approval of the racial law, resigned from honorary membership of the Accademia dei Lincei.
After 1943, when Northern Italy was occupied by the Nazis, Italian Jews were rounded up for the Holocaust.
Jewish segregation[edit]
Jews in Europe generally were forced, by decree or by informal pressure, to live in highly segregated ghettos and shtetls.[46] In 1204 the papacy required Jews to segregate themselves from Christians and to wear distinctive clothing.[47] Forced segregation of Jews spread throughout Europe during the 14th and 15th centuries.[48] In the Russian Empire, Jews were restricted to the so-called Pale of Settlement, the Western frontier of the Russian Empire corresponding roughly to the modern-day countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine.[49] By the early 20th century, the majority of European Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement.
Jewish population were confined to mellahs in Morocco beginning from the 15th century. In cities, a mellah was surrounded by a wall with a fortified gateway. In contrast, rural mellahs were separate villages inhabited solely by the Jews.[50]
In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews:

…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town…; for they are considered as unclean creatures… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt… For the same reason, they are prohibited to go out when it rains; for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them, which would sully the feet of the Mussulmans… If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he is subjected to the greatest insults. The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat him… unmercifully… If a Jew enters a shop for anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods… Should his hand incautiously touch the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them... Sometimes the Persians intrude into the dwellings of the Jews and take possession of whatever please them. Should the owner make the least opposition in defense of his property, he incurs the danger of atoning for it with his life... If... a Jew shows himself in the street during the three days of the Katel (Muharram)…, he is sure to be murdered.[51]
Latin America[edit]
Spanish colonists created caste systems in Latin American countries based on classification by race and race mixture. An extensive nomenclature developed, including the familiar terms "mulatto", "mestizo", and "zambo" (the latter the origin of "sambo"). The Spanish had practiced a form of caste system in Hispania before their expulsion of the Jews and Muslims. While many Latin American countries have long since rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, usually at the time of independence, prejudice based on degrees of perceived racial distance from European ancestry combined with one's socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the colonial caste system.[52][53]
Norway[edit]
On 16 May 1940 the Administrasjonsrådet asked Rikskommisariatet why radio receivers had been confiscated from Jews in Norway.[54] That Administrasjonsrådet thereafter "quietly" accepted[55] racial segregation between Norwegian citizens, has been claimed by Tor Bomann-Larsen. Furthermore, he claimed that this segregation "created a precedent. 2 years later (with NS-styret in the ministries of Norway) Norwegian police picked up those who had listened to the radios at the addresses where radios were previously confiscated from Jews. November 26, 1942 it was time for departure and extermination".[56]
Rhodesia[edit]
Following a dispute over the terms for the granting of full independence, the British self-governing colony of Rhodesia, governed by a predominantly white minority government, unilaterally declared independence in 1965. Led by Prime Minister Ian Smith, it endured as an unrecognized state under white rule for the next 14 years, with majority rule coming in 1979 with the Internal Settlement between Smith's government and moderate black nationalists, the associated multiracial elections and the reconstitution of the country as Zimbabwe Rhodesia, with Bishop Abel Muzorewa at the helm of a coalition cabinet comprising 12 blacks and five whites. This new order also failed to win legitimacy in the eyes of the world, and British control returned to the country in December 1979, following the Lancaster House Agreement. New elections were held in 1980, and Zimbabwe gained recognized independence in April 1980, with Robert Mugabe as prime minister.



 "Petty apartheid": sign on Durban beach in English, Afrikaans and Zulu languages
Laws enforcing segregation had been around before 1965, although many institutions simply ignored them. One highly publicized legal battle occurred in 1960 involving the opening of a new theatre that was to be open to all races; the proposed unsegregated public toilets at the newly built Reps Theatre in 1959 caused an argument called "The Battle of the Toilets".
South Africa[edit]
Main article: Apartheid
The apartheid system enacted a nationwide social policy "separate development" with the National Party victory in 1948, following the "colour bar"-discriminatory legislation dating back to the beginning of the Union of South Africa and the Boer republics before which, while repressive to black South Africans along with other minorities, had not gone nearly so far.
Apartheid laws can be generally divided into following acts. Firstly, the Population Registration Act in 1950 classified residents in South Africa into four racial groups: "black", "white", "Coloured", and "Indian" and noted their racial identities on their identifications. Secondly, the Group Areas Act in 1950 assigned different regions according to different races. People were forced to live in their corresponding regions and the action of passing the boundaries without a permit was made illegal, extending pass laws that had already curtailed black movement. Thirdly, under the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act in 1953, amenities in public area, like hospitals, universities and parks, were labeled separately according to particular races. In addition, the Bantu Education Act in 1953 segregated national education in South Africa as well. Additionally, the government of the time enforced the Pass laws, which deprived black South Africans of their right to travel freely within their own country. Under this system black people were severely restricted from urban areas, requiring authorisation from a white employer to enter.
Uprisings and protests against apartheid appeared immediately when apartheid arose. As early as 1949, the youth wing of the African National Congress (ANC) advocated the ending of apartheid and suggested fighting against racial segregation by various methods. During the following decades, hundreds of anti-apartheid actions occurred, including those of the Black Consciousness Movement, students' protests, labor strikes, and church group activism etc. In 1991, the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act was passed, repealing laws enforcing racial segregation, including the Group Areas Act. In 1994, Nelson Mandela won in the first multiracial democratic election in South Africa. His success fulfilled the ending of apartheid in South African history.
United States[edit]
Main article: Racial segregation in the United States
After laws were passed that segregated African Americans and Whites, the lives of those who were negatively affected saw no progress in their quest for equality. Racial segregation was not a new occurrence as most African Americans had been under slavery before the Civil War.[57] The laws passed segregated African Americans to Whites. Signs were used to show African Americans where they could, under legal protection, walk, talk, drink, rest or eat.[57] For those places that were racially mixed, African Americans had to wait until all other White customers were dealt with first.[57] Rules were also enforced that restricted African Americans from entering white stores.[57] The racial segregation affected the lives of African Americans significantly as they were not granted equality.
After the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in America, racial discrimination became regulated by the so-called Jim Crow laws, which mandated strict segregation of the races. Though such laws were instituted shortly after fighting ended in many cases, they only became formalized after the end of Republican-enforced Reconstruction in the 1870s and 80s during a period known as the nadir of American race relations. This legislation that mandated segregation lasted to the mid-1960s.



 An African-American youth at a segregated drinking fountain in Halifax, North Carolina, in 1938.
While the U.S. Supreme Court majority in 1896 Plessy explicitly upheld only "separate but equal" facilities (specifically, transportation facilities), Justice John Marshall Harlan in his dissent protested that the decision was an expression of white supremacy; he predicted that segregation would "stimulate aggressions … upon the admitted rights of colored citizens," "arouse race hate" and "perpetuate a feeling of distrust between [the] races. Feelings between whites and blacks were so tense, even the jails were segregated."[58]
Institutionalized racial segregation was ended as an official practice by the efforts of such civil rights activists as Clarence M. Mitchell, Jr., Rosa Parks, and Martin Luther King Jr., working during the period from the end of World War II through the passage of the Voting Rights Act and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 supported by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Many of their efforts were acts of non-violent civil disobedience aimed at disrupting the enforcement of racial segregation rules and laws, such as refusing to give up a seat in the black part of the bus to a white person (Rosa Parks), or holding sit-ins at all-white diners.
By 1968 all forms of segregation had been declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, and by 1970 support for formal legal segregation had dissolved. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954 outlawed segregation in public schools. The Fair Housing Act of 1968, administered and enforced by the Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity, prohibited discrimination in the sale and rental of housing on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, and disability. Formal racial discrimination was illegal in school systems, businesses, the American military, other civil services and the government. Separate bathrooms, water fountains and schools all disappeared and the civil rights movement had the public's support.
Contemporary segregation[edit]
Bahrain[edit]
See also: Human rights in Bahrain and Bandargate scandal
On 28 April 2007, the lower house of Bahraini Parliament passed a law banning unmarried migrant workers from living in residential areas. To justify the law MP Nasser Fadhala, a close ally of the government said "bachelors also use these houses to make alcohol, run prostitute rings or to rape children and housemaids".[59]
Sadiq Rahma, technical committee head, who is a member of Al Wefaq said: "The rules we are drawing up are designed to protect the rights of both the families and the Asian bachelors (..) these labourers often have habits which are difficult for families living nearby to tolerate (..) they come out of their homes half dressed, brew alcohol illegally in their homes, use prostitutes and make the neighbourhood dirty (..) these are poor people who often live in groups of 50 or more, crammed into one house or apartment," said Mr Rahma. "The rules also state that there must be at least one bathroom for every five people (..) there have also been cases in which young children have been sexually molested."[60]
Bahrain Centre for Human Rights issued a press release condemning this decision as discriminatory and promoting negative racist attitudes towards migrant workers.[59][61] Nabeel Rajab, then BCHR vice president, said: "It is appalling that Bahrain is willing to rest on the benefits of these people's hard work, and often their suffering, but that they refuse to live with them in equality and dignity. The solution is not to force migrant workers into ghettos, but to urge companies to improve living conditions for workers – and not to accommodate large numbers of workers in inadequate space, and to improve the standard of living for them."[59][61]
Canada[edit]
Until 1948, the Canadian Government systematically forced First Nations children to attend Canadian Indian residential school system in order to disconnect them from their indigenous language and culture.
Parts of Canada, particularly British Columbia were highly racialized and featured segregation. Ending in the 1950s and 60s - First Nations were segregated; denied entry to restaurants, made to use separate bathrooms, use different train cars and ride steerage on steamships. Segregation also affected immigrants from China, Japan and India (despite its status as a Dominion).
Since the 1970s, there has been a concern expressed by some academics that major Canadian cities are becoming more segregated on income and ethnic lines. Reports have indicated that the inner suburbs of post-merger Toronto[62] and the southern bedroom communities of Greater Vancouver[62] have become steadily more immigrant and visible minority dominated communities and have lagged behind other neighbourhoods in average income. A CBC panel in Vancouver in 2012 discussed the growing public fear that the proliferation of ethnic enclaves in Greater Vancouver (such as Han Chinese in Richmond and Punjabis in Surrey) amounted to a type of self-segregation. In response to these fears, many minority activists have pointed out that most Canadian neighbourhoods remain predominately White, and yet Whites are never accused of "self-segregation".
The Mohawk tribe of Kahnawake has been criticized for evicting non-Mohawks from the Mohawk reserve.[63] Mohawks who marry outside of their race lose their right to live in their homelands.[64][65] The Mohawk government claims that its policy of racially exclusive membership is for the preservation of its identity,[66] but there is no exemption for those who adopt Mohawk language or culture.[64] The policy is based on a 1981 moratorium which was made law in 1984.[67] All interracial couples are sent eviction notices regardless of how long they have lived on the reserve.[65] The only exemption is for interracial couples married before the 1981 moratorium.
Although some concerned Mohawk citizens contested the racially-exclusive membership policy, the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal ruled that the Mohawk government may adopt policies it deems necessary to ensure the survival of its people.[66]
A long-standing practice of segregation has also been imposed upon the commercial salmon fishery in British Columbia since 1992 when separate commercial fisheries were created for select aboriginal groups on three B.C. river systems. Canadians of other races who fish in the separate fisheries have been arrested, jailed and prosecuted. Although the fishermen who were prosecuted were successful at trial (see the decision in R. v. Kapp),[68] the decision was overturned on appeal.[69] On final appeal, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in favour of the program on the grounds that segregation of this workplace is a step towards equality in Canada.[citation needed] Affirmative action programs in Canada are protected from equality rights challenges by s. 15(2) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Segregation continues today, but more than 35%of the fishermen in the BC commercial fishery are of aboriginal ancestry, yet Canadians of aboriginal ancestry comprise less than 4% of BC's population.[citation needed]
Fiji[edit]


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Two military coups in Fiji in 1987 removed a democratically elected government led by an Indo Fijian,.[70] The coup was supported principally by the Ethnic Fijian population. A new constitution was promulgated in 1990, establishing Fiji as a republic, with the offices of President, Prime Minister, two-thirds of the Senate, and a clear majority of the House of Representatives reserved for ethnic Fijians, Ethnic Fijian ownership of the land was also entrenched in the constitution.[71]
Fiji's case is a situation of de facto ethnic segregation.[72] Fiji has a long complex history with more than 3500 years as a divided tribal nation. Unification under the British rule as a colony for 96 years brought other racial groups, particularly immigrants from the Indian subcontinent.
Israel[edit]
See also: Racism in Israel and Israel and the apartheid analogy



 A barrier gate at Bil'in, West Bank, 2006
Israeli Declaration of Independence proclaims equal rights to all citizens regardless of ethnicity, denomination or race. Israel has a substantial list of laws that demand racial equality (such as prohibition of discrimination, equality in Employment, libel based on race or ethnicity.[73]).
In 2010, the Israeli supreme court sent a message against racial segregation in a case involving the Slonim Hassidic sect of the Ashkenazi Jews, ruling that segregation between Ashkenazi and Sephardi students in a school is illegal.[74] They argue that they seek "to maintain an equal level of religiosity, not from racism."[75] Responding to the charges, the Slonim Haredim invited Sephardi girls to school, and added in a statement: "All along, we said it's not about race, but the High Court went out against our rabbis, and therefore we went to prison."[76]
Due to many cultural differences, and animosity towards a minority perceived to wish to annihilate Israel, a system of passively co-existing communities, segregated along ethnic lines has emerged in Israel, with Arab-Israeli minority communities being left "marooned outside the mainstream". A 2007 poll commissioned by the Center Against Racism (2008) found a worsening of Jewish citizens' perceptions of their Arab counterparts:[77] For instance, 75% of Israeli Jews would not agree to live in a building with Arab residents, 60% would not accept any Arab visitors at their homes, 40% believed that Arabs should be stripped of their right to vote, and 59% believe that the culture of Arabs is primitive.[77] In 2012, a public opinion poll showed that 53% of the polled Israeli Jews said they would not object to an Arab living in their building, while 42% said they would. Asked whether they would object to Arab children being in their child's class in school, 49% said they would not, 42% said they would.[78][79] The secular Israeli public was found to be the most tolerant, while the religious and Haredi respondents were most discriminatory in their opinions.[79]
Malaysia[edit]
Main articles: Bumiputra and Ketuanan Melayu
Malaysia has an article in its constitution which distinguishes the ethnic Malays and indigenous peoples of Malaysia—i.e. bumiputra—from the non-Bumiputra such as ethnic Chinese and Indians under the social contract, of which by law would guarantee the former certain special rights and privileges. To question these rights and privileges however is strictly prohibited under the Internal Security Act, legalised by the 10th Article(IV) of the Constitution of Malaysia.[80] The privileges mentioned herein covers—few of which—the economical and education aspects of Malaysians, e.g. the Malaysian New Economic Policy; an economic policy recently criticised by Thierry Rommel—who headed a European Commission's delegation to Malaysia—as an excuse for "significant protectionism"[81][82] and a quota maintaining higher access of Malays into public universities.
While legal racial segregation in daily life is not practiced, self-segregation does exist.
Mauritania[edit]
Slavery in Mauritania was finally criminalized in August 2007[83] It was already abolished in 1980 though it was still affecting the descendants of black Africans abducted into slavery before generations, who live now in Mauritania as "black Moors" or haratin and who partially still serve the "white Moors", or bidhan (the name means literally white-skinned people), as slaves. The number of slaves in the country was not known exactly, but it was estimated to be up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population.[84][85]
For centuries, the so-called Haratin lower class, mostly poor black Africans living in rural areas, have been considered natural slaves by white Moors of Arab/Berber ancestry. Many descendants of the Arab and Berber tribes today still adhere to the supremacist ideology of their ancestors. This ideology has led to oppression, discrimination and even enslavement of other groups in the region of Sudan and Western Sahara.[86][87] In certain villages in Mauritania there are mosques for lighter-skinned nobles and mosques for black slaves, who are still buried in separate cemeteries.[88]
United Kingdom[edit]
The United Kingdom has no legally sanctioned system of racial segregation and has a substantial list of laws that demand racial equality.[89] However, due to many cultural differences between the pre-existing system of passively co-existing communities, segregation along racial lines has emerged in parts of the United Kingdom, with minority communities being left "marooned outside the mainstream".[90]
The affected and 'ghettoised' communities are often largely representative of Pakistanis, Indians and other Sub-Continentals, and has been thought to be the basis of ethnic tensions, and a deterioration of the standard of living and levels of education and employment among ethnic minorities in poorer areas. These factors are considered by some to have been a cause of the 2001 race riots in Bradford, Oldham and Burnley in the north of England which have large Asian communities.[91][92] Most British commentators claim it is false that the riots were due to a breakdown of multiculturalism alone, and instead claim that it is more likely to have been caused by other factors such as disillusioned youth, high unemployment by a sizeable proportion of the youth, across all ethnicities, of the United Kingdom.[citation needed]
There may be some indication that such segregation, particularly in residential terms, seems to be the result of the unilateral 'steering' of ethnic groups into particular areas as well as a culture of vendor discrimination and distrust of ethnic minority clients by some estate agents and other property professionals.[93] This may be indicative of a market preference amongst the more wealthy to reside in areas of less ethnic mixture; less ethnic mixture being perceived as increasing the value and desirability of a residential area. This is likely as other theories such as "ethnic self segregation" have sometimes been shown to be baseless, and a majority of ethnic respondents to a few surveys on the matter have been in favour of wider social and residential integration.[92]
United States[edit]
De facto segregation in the United States has increased since the civil rights era in the United States.[94] The Supreme Court ruled in Milliken v. Bradley (1974) that de facto racial segregation was acceptable, as long as schools were not actively making policies for racial exclusion; since then, schools have been segregated due to myriad indirect factors.[94]
Redlining is the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking, insurance, access to jobs,[95] access to health care,[96] or even supermarkets[97] to residents in certain, often racially determined,[98] areas. The most devastating form of redlining, and the most common use of the term, refers to mortgage discrimination. Over the next twenty years, a succession of further court decisions and federal laws, including the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act and measure to end mortgage discrimination in 1975, would completely invalidate de jure racial segregation and discrimination in the U.S., although de facto segregation and discrimination have proven more resilient. According to the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, the actual de facto desegregation of U.S. public schools peaked in the late 1980s; since that time, the schools have, in fact, become more segregated mainly due to the ethnic segregation of the nation with whites dominating the suburbs and minorities the urban centers. According to Rajiv Sethi, an economist at Columbia University, black-white segregation in housing is slowly declining for most metropolitan areas in the US[99] Racial segregation or separation can lead to social, economic and political tensions.[100] Thirty years (the year 2000) after the civil rights era, the United States remained in many areas a residentially segregated society, in which blacks, whites and Hispanics inhabit different neighborhoods of vastly different quality.[101][102][103]
Dan Immergluck writes that in 2002 small businesses in black neighborhoods still received fewer loans, even after accounting for businesses density, businesses size, industrial mix, neighborhood income, and the credit quality of local businesses.[104] Gregory D. Squires wrote in 2003 that it is clear that race has long affected and continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance industry.[105] Workers living in American inner cities have a harder time finding jobs than suburban workers.[106]
The desire of many whites to avoid having their children attend integrated schools has been a factor in white flight to the suburbs.[107] A 2007 study in San Francisco showed that groups of homeowners of all races tended to self-segregate in order to be with people of the same education level and race.[108] By 1990, the legal barriers enforcing segregation had been mostly replaced by decentralized racism, where whites pay more than blacks to live in predominantly white areas.[109] Today, many whites are willing, and are able, to pay a premium to live in a predominantly white neighborhood. Equivalent housing in white areas commands a higher rent.[110] These higher rents are largely attributable to exclusionary zoning policies that restrict the supply of housing. Regulations ensure that all housing units are expensive enough to prevent access by undesirable groups. By bidding up the price of housing, many white neighborhoods effectively shut out blacks, because blacks are unwilling, or unable, to pay the premium to buy entry into these expensive neighborhoods. Conversely, equivalent housing in black neighborhoods is far more affordable to those who are unable or unwilling to pay a premium to live in white neighborhoods. Through the 1990s, residential segregation remained at its extreme and has been called "hypersegregation" by some sociologists or "American Apartheid".[111]
In February 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Johnson v. California 543 U.S. 499 (2005) that the California Department of Corrections' unwritten practice of racially segregating prisoners in its prison reception centers – which California claimed was for inmate safety (gangs in California, as throughout the U.S., usually organize on racial lines)— is to be subject to strict scrutiny, the highest level of constitutional review.
Yemen[edit]
See also Castes in Yemen
In Yemen, the Arab elite practices a form of discrimination against the lower class Akhdam people based on their racial system.[112]
See also[edit]
Affirmative Action
African American
Apartheid
Asian American
Bantustan
Caste
Chinatowns
Class conflict
Eagle feather law
Elitism
Endogamy
English as a foreign or second language
Enclave
Ethnic autonomous regions
Forsyth County, Georgia v. The Nationalist Movement
Genocide
 Ghetto
Group Areas Act
Housing Segregation
Jim Crow laws
Judenhut
Ku Klux Klan
Hispanic and Latino Americans (i.e. Mexican American and Chicano)
Mortgage Discrimination
Multiculturalism
Muslim Mosque, Inc.
Nation of Islam
National Alliance (United States)
Nuremberg laws
Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity
One drop rule
 Online segregation
Pass Law
Racial equality proposal
Race card
Redlining
Religious segregation
Residential Segregation
Second-class citizen
segregation academies
Separate but equal
Separatism
Texas (History of Texas, like Tejanos)
Underground Railroad
Xenophobia
Yellow badge

Notes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Principles to Guide Housing Policy at the Beginning of the Millennium, Michael Schill & Susan Wachter, Cityscape
2.Jump up ^ ECRI General Policy Recommendation N°7: National legislation to combat racism and racial discrimination — Explanatory memorandum, Para. 16
3.Jump up ^ Recommendations of the Forum on Minority Issues A/HRC/10/11/Add.1 — para. 27
4.Jump up ^ Thomas C. Schelling (1969) "Models of segregation", American Economic Review, 1969, 59(2), 488–493.
5.Jump up ^ E.g., Virginia Racial Integrity Act, Virginia Code § 20–58 and § 20–59
6.Jump up ^ Racial segregation. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
7.Jump up ^ "Ancient Britain Had Apartheid-Like Society, Study Suggests". News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
8.Jump up ^ Thomas, Mark G. et al. Evidence for a segregated social structure in early Anglo-Saxon England. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 273(1601): 2651–2657.
9.Jump up ^ "Gene Expression: Blood of the Wakas Wakas". Scienceblogs.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
10.Jump up ^ "Special report: 'Myths of British ancestry' by Stephen Oppenheimer | Prospect Magazine October 2006 issue 127". Prospect-magazine.co.uk. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
11.Jump up ^ "English and Welsh are Races Apart", BBC, 30 June 2002
12.Jump up ^ Simms, Katherine (2005). "Gaelicization". In Seán Duffy. Medieval Ireland: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-94824-5.
13.Jump up ^ "Algeria was in fact a colony but constitutionally was a part of France and not thought of in the 1950s (even by many on the left) as a colony. It was a society of nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians who were dominated by the million settlers of diverse origins (but fiercely French) who maintained a quasi-apartheid regime." Bell, David Scott. Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France, Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 36.
14.Jump up ^ "[the] senatus-consulte of 1865 stipulated that all the colonised indigenous were under French jurisdiction, i.e., French nationals subjected to French laws, but it restricted citizenship only to those who renounced their Muslim religion and culture. There was an obvious split in French legal discourse: a split between nationality and citizenship which established the formal structures of a political apartheid encouraging the existence of 'French subjects' disenfranchised, without any rights to citizenship, treated as objects of French law and not citizens". Debra Kelly. Autobiography And Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French, Liverpool University Press, 2005, p. 43.
15.Jump up ^ "In contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates, Algeria was made an integral part of France and became a colony of settlement for more than one million Europeans... under colonial rule, Algerians encountered France's 'civilising mission' only through the plundering of lands and colonial apartheid society..." Bonora-Waisman, Camille. France and the Algerian Conflict: Issues in Democracy and Political Stability, 1988–1995, Ashgate Publishing, 2003, p. 3.
16.Jump up ^ "As a settler colony with an internal system of apartheid, administered under the fiction that it was part of metropolitan France, and endowed with a powerful colonial lobby that virtually determined the course of French politics with respect to its internal affairs, it experienced insurrection in 1954 on the part of its Muslim population." Wall, Irwin M. France, the United States, and the Algerian War, University of California Press, 2001, p. 262.
17.Jump up ^ "The Situation with the Sorbs in the Past and Present" (pdf).
18.Jump up ^ Raabe, p. 189.
19.Jump up ^ S. H. Milton (2001). ""Gypsies" as social outsiders in Nazi Germany". In Robert Gellately and Nathan Stoltzfus. Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany. Princeton University Press. pp. 216, 231. ISBN 9780691086842.
20.Jump up ^ Michael Burleigh (7 November 1991). The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-521-39802-2.
21.Jump up ^ The Laws for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour (15 September 1935), section 1. "Marriages between Jews and citizens of German or kindred blood are forbidden. Marriages concluded in defiance of this law are void, even if, for the purpose of evading this law, they were concluded abroad."
22.Jump up ^ Leila J. Rupp, Mobilizing Women for War, p 125, ISBN 0-691-04649-2
23.Jump up ^ Diemut Majer (2003). "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939-1945. JHU Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-8018-6493-3.
24.Jump up ^ "Holocaust Timeline: The Ghettos". Fcit.usf.edu. 23 November 1939. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
25.Jump up ^ Michael Marek (nda). "Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers". Dw-world.de. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
26.Jump up ^ "Forced Labor at Ford Werke AG during the Second World War". Summeroftruth.org. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
27.Jump up ^ "Hitler's Plans". Dac.neu.edu. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
28.Jump up ^ "Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era". Holocaust-trc.org. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
29.Jump up ^ Edward H. Schafer (1963). The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics. University of California Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-520-05462-8. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
30.Jump up ^ Mark Edward Lewis (2009). China's cosmopolitan empire: the Tang dynasty. Harvard University Press. p. 170. ISBN 0-674-03306-X. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
31.Jump up ^ Jacques Gernet (1996). A history of Chinese civilization. Cambridge University Press. p. 294. ISBN 0-521-49781-7. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
32.^ Jump up to: a b ed. Walthall 2008, p. 148.
33.Jump up ^ Wakeman 1977, p. 79.
34.Jump up ^ Crossley, 2010, p. 95.
35.Jump up ^ eds. Watson, Ebrey 1991, pp. 179-180.
36.Jump up ^ Wakeman 1986, p. 1017.
37.Jump up ^ Naquin 1987, p. 141.
38.Jump up ^ Fairbank, Goldman 2006, p. 2006.
39.Jump up ^ Summing up Naquin/Rawski, chapters 1&2
40.Jump up ^ eds. Watson, Ebrey 1991, p. 175.
41.Jump up ^ Spencer 1990, p. 41.
42.Jump up ^ Spence 1988, pp. 4-5.
43.Jump up ^ Wang 2004, pp. 215-216 & 219-221.
44.Jump up ^ Walthall 2008, p. 140-141.
45.Jump up ^ "From Ming to Qing". Darkwing.uoregon.edu. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
46.Jump up ^ Wirth, Louis. The Ghetto. Transaction Publishers (1997), pp. 29–40. ISBN 1-56000-983-7.
47.Jump up ^ "A Short History of the Jewish Tradition". .kenyon.edu. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
48.Jump up ^ Ghetto. Encyclopædia Britannica.
49.Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. "Anti-Semitism in modern Europe". Britannica.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
50.Jump up ^ "The Jews of Morocco, by Ralph G. Bennettett". Sefarad.org. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
51.Jump up ^ Lewis (1984), pp. 181–183
52.Jump up ^ Soong, Roland. "Racial Classifications in Latin America", 1999.
53.Jump up ^ Cline, Howard F., "Review", The American Historical Review, Vol. 76, No. 5 (Dec. 1971), 1626–1628.
54.Jump up ^ "Population, Führer and acquittal. Racial segregation between Norwegian citizens quietly accepted May 17, 1940
55.Jump up ^ http://www.aftenposten.no/meninger/kronikker/Folk-frer-og-frifinnelse-6730068.html
56.Jump up ^ "Saken dannet presedens. Drøye to år senere (og nå med NS-styret på plass i departementene) rykket norske politimyndigheter ut på ny, denne gang for å hente lytterne på de samme adresser som radioapparatene. 26. november 1942 var det tid for avreise og utradering. Men politifolkene hadde altså vært ute en vårdag før. Raseskillet mellom norske borgere var blitt stilltiende akseptert den 17. mai 1940."
57.^ Jump up to: a b c d Leon Litwack, Jim Crow Blues, Magazine of History (OAH Publications, 2004)
58.Jump up ^ "Brown at 50". Thenation.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
59.^ Jump up to: a b c Staff writer (28 April 2007). "Parliament's law to ban migrant workers who are unmarried from living in residential areas is discriminatory attitudes". Bahrain Centre for Human Rights. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
60.Jump up ^ Tariq Kkonji (23 January 2006). "'No go' rule for bachelor labourers". Gulf Daily News. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
61.^ Jump up to: a b Staff writer (28 April 2007). "Bahraini parliament moves to segregate migrants from citizens". Migrant rights. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
62.^ Jump up to: a b Mendelson, Rachel (12 March 2012). "Vancouver Income Inequality Study Shows City Segregating Along Racial, Income Lines". Huffington Post. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
63.Jump up ^ "Natives only, please: A look into the eviction of non-natives from the Kahnawake reserve". National Post. Canada. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
64.^ Jump up to: a b "Mohawk role model faces eviction over non-native fiancé". National Post. Canada. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
65.^ Jump up to: a b Brennan, Richard (21 February 2010). "Evicting 26 non-natives splits reserve". The Star (Toronto).
66.^ Jump up to: a b "Not native? Then leave reserve, Mohawks say". National Post. Canada. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
67.Jump up ^ "The Agenda – The Agenda Blogs – Behind The Headlines". Tvo.org. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
68.Jump up ^ "R. v. Kapp et al – Reasons for Judgment". Provincialcourt.bc.ca. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
69.Jump up ^ "2004 BCSC 958 R. v. Kapp et al". Courts.gov.bc.ca. 12 July 2004. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
70.Jump up ^ "Country profile: Fiji". BBC News. 22 December 2009. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
71.Jump up ^ Tom Cockrem. "Fiji: History". Lonelyplanet.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
72.Jump up ^ on 9 April 2006 UTC (9 April 2006). "UN seminar highlights concern in Fiji over ethnic segregation". Rnzi.com. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
73.Jump up ^ "Section 1 of the Israeli 'Libel Law 1965' defines libel as a publication that may humiliate a person (individual or corporation) in the eyes of people, or to deem him/her/it object of hatred, contempt or ridicule their part; degrade a person for the acts, conduct or attributed qualities; damage ones job, whether public office or another job, damage ones business, trade, profession; degrade a person because of race, national origin, religion, place of residence, gender or sexual orientation.".
74.Jump up ^ "The Jewish Religious Conflict Tearing at Israel". Time. 2010-06-17.
75.Jump up ^ Discrimination claimed in Modiin Illit haredi schools – Israel News, Ynetnews. Ynetnews.com (1995-06-20). Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
76.Jump up ^ Hassidim invite Sephardi girls to school. Jpost.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
77.^ Jump up to: a b "יותר ממחצית היהודים: נישואים לערבי הם בגידה – חדשות היום". ynet.co.il. 27 March 2007. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
78.Jump up ^ [1]
79.^ Jump up to: a b Gabe Fisher. Controversial survey ostensibly highlights widespread anti-Arab attitudes in Israel. Times of Israel, 2012
80.Jump up ^ Constitution of Malaysia, Article 10
81.Jump up ^ "Asia-Pacific". BBC News. 25 June 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
82.Jump up ^ "Infernal ramblings". Infernal ramblings. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
83.Jump up ^ Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law by BBC News
84.Jump up ^ Corrigan, T. (6 September 2007). "Mauritania made slavery illegal last month". The East African. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
85.Jump up ^ The Abolition season on BBC World Service
86.Jump up ^ "Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance". Irinnews.org. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
87.Jump up ^ "War and Genocide in Sudan". Iabolish.org. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
88.Jump up ^ "Mauritania: The real beginning of the end of slavery?". Irinnews.org. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
89.Jump up ^ [2]
90.Jump up ^ "Britons warned over 'segregation'". BBC News. 22 September 2005.
91.Jump up ^ "Race 'segregation' caused riots". BBC News. 11 December 2001.
92.^ Jump up to: a b [3]
93.Jump up ^ PHILLIPS, D. (2002) Movement to opportunity? South Asian relocation in northern cities. End of Award report, ESRC R000238038. School of Geography, University of Leeds. Pg.7.
94.^ Jump up to: a b Kozol, Jonathan (2005). The Shame of the Nation. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-5245-5.
95.Jump up ^ "Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities" (PDF). Retrieved 18 January 2010.
96.Jump up ^ See: Race and health
97.Jump up ^ In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition, Elizabeth Eisenhauer, GeoJournal Volume 53, Number 2 / February 2001
98.Jump up ^ How East New York Became a Ghetto by Walter Thabit. ISBN 0-8147-8267-1. Page 42.
99.Jump up ^ Inequality and Segregation R Sethi, R Somanathan – Journal of Political Economy, 2004
100.Jump up ^ Keating William Dennis The Suburban Racial Dilemma: Housing and Neighborhoods (1994) Temple University Press. ISBN 1-56639-147-4
101.Jump up ^ "Myth of the Melting Pot: America's Racial and Ethnic Divides". Washington post.com. 22 February 1998. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
102.Jump up ^ Massey Douglas S. Segregation and stratification: A bio-social perspective Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race (2004), 1: 7–25 Cambridge University Press
103.Jump up ^ Inequality and Segregation Rajiv Sethi and Rohini Somanathan Journal of Political Economy, volume 112 (2004), pages 1296–1321
104.Jump up ^ "Redlining Redux". Urban Affairs Review 38 (1): 22–41. 2002. doi:10.1177/107808702401097781.
105.Jump up ^ Squires, Gregory D. (2003). "Racial Profiling, Insurance Style: Insurance Redlining and the Uneven Development of Metropolitan Areas". Journal of Urban Affairs 25 (4): 391–410. doi:10.1111/1467-9906.t01-1-00168.
106.Jump up ^ Zenou Yves, Boccard Nicolas Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities (1999)
107.Jump up ^ VI De Facto Segregation. Retrieved 9 January 2008.
108.Jump up ^ Bayer, Patrick; Fernando Ferreira; Robert McMillan (August 2007). "A Unified Framework for Measuring Preferences for Schools and Neighborhoods". Journal of Political Economy 115 (4): 588–638. doi:10.1086/522381.
109.Jump up ^ Cutler, David M.; Edward L. Glaeser; Jacob L. Vigdor (June 1999). "The Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto". Journal of Political Economy 107 (3): 455–506. doi:10.1086/250069.
110.Jump up ^ Kiel K.A., Zabel J.E. (1996). "Housing Price Differentials in U.S. Cities: Household and Neighborhood Racial Effects". Journal of Housing Economics 5 (2): 143. doi:10.1006/jhec.1996.0008.
111.Jump up ^ Massey D.S., Denton N. A. (1993). American Apartheid. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
112.Jump up ^ "Yemen: Akhdam people suffer history of discrimination". IRIN. 1 November 2005. Retrieved 9 January 2008.
References[edit]
Dobratz, Betty A. and Shanks-Meile, Stephanie L, White Power, White Pride: The White Separatist Movement in the United States, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001, 384 pages, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9.
Rural Face of White Supremacy: Beyond Jim Crow, by Mark Schultz. University of Illinois Press, 2005, ISBN 0-252-02960-7.
Yin, L. 2009. "The Dynamics of Residential Segregation in Buffalo: An Agent-Based Simulation" Urban Studies 46(13), pp2749–2770.
Further reading[edit]
Elliott, Mark (2006). Color-Blind Justice: Albion Tourgée and the Quest for Racial Equality from the Civil War to Plessy v. Ferguson. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-518139-5.
Tushnet, Mark (2008). I dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 69–80. ISBN 978-0-8070-0036-6.
Brook, Thomas (1997). Plessy v. Ferguson: A Brief History with Documents. Boston: Bedford Books.
Fireside, Harvey (2004). Separate and Unequal: Homer Plessy and the Supreme Court Decision That Legalized Racism. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1293-7.
Lofgren, Charles A. (1987). The Plessy Case: A Legal-Historical Interpretation.. New York: Oxford University Press.
Medley, Keith Weldon (2003). We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson. Gretna, LA: Pelican. ISBN 1-58980-120-2. Review
Chin, Gabriel J. (1996). "The Plessy Myth: Justice Harlan and the Chinese Cases". Iowa Law Review 82: 151. SSRN 1121505.
Nightengale, Carl H. (2012). Segregation: A Global History of Divided Cities. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-58074-6.
External links[edit]
A site dedicated to the life of MLK
Encyclopaedia Britannica: Article on Racial Segregation
A study of segregation
Constitutional Law and Race-Conscious Policies in K-12 Education
US racial segregation of proms continue


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White supremacy

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White supremacy or white supremacism is a form of racism centered upon the belief, and promotion of the belief, that white people are superior in certain characteristics, traits, and attributes to people of other racial backgrounds and that therefore whites should politically, economically and socially rule non-whites. The term is also typically used to describe a political ideology that perpetuates and maintains the social, political, historical and/or industrial domination by white people (as evidenced by historical and contemporary sociopolitical structures like the Atlantic Slave Trade, colonization of the Global South, Jim Crow laws in the United States, and miscegenation laws in settler colonies and former settler colonies like the United States, South Africa, Australia, and Madagascar, for example).[1] Different forms of white supremacism put forth different conceptions of who is considered white, and different white supremacists identify various racial and cultural groups as their primary enemy.[2]
In academic usage, the term "white supremacy" can also refer to a system where whites enjoy a structural advantage (privilege) over other ethnic groups, both at a collective and an individual level (ceteris paribus, i. e., when individuals are compared that do not relevantly differ except in ethnicity).


Contents  [hide]
1 History of white supremacy 1.1 United States
1.2 Germany
1.3 South Africa
1.4 Ukraine
2 Academic use of the term
3 Ideologies and movements
4 Alliances with black supremacist groups
5 See also
6 Footnotes
7 Further reading
8 External links

History of white supremacy[edit]
White supremacy has ideological foundations that at least date back to 17th-century scientific racism, the predominant paradigm of human variation that helped shape international and intra-national relations from the latter part of the Age of Enlightenment (in European history) through the late 20th century (marked by the end of Apartheid in South Africa in 1994, one of the last explicitly White supremacist sociopolitical structures to exist).
United States[edit]
See also: Category:White supremacy in the United States.
White supremacy was dominant in the United States before the American Civil War and for decades after Reconstruction.[3] In large areas of the United States, this included the holding of non-whites (specifically African Americans) in chattel slavery. The outbreak of the Civil War saw the desire to uphold white supremacy cited as a cause for state secession[4] and the formation of the Confederate States of America.[5]
In some parts of the United States, many people who were considered non-white were disenfranchised, barred from government office, and prevented from holding most government jobs well into the second half of the 20th century. Many U.S. states banned interracial marriage through anti-miscegenation laws until 1967, when these laws were declared unconstitutional. Additionally, white leaders often viewed Native Americans as obstacles to economic and political progress with respect to the natives' claims to land and rights.
Germany[edit]
Nazism promoted the idea of a superior Aryan race in Germany during the early 20th century. Notions of white supremacy and Aryan racial superiority combined in the 19th century, with white supremacists maintaining that white people were members of an Aryan "master race" which is superior to other races, and particularly the Jews described as the "Semitic race", Slavs and Gypsies, which they associated with "cultural sterility". Arthur de Gobineau, a French racial theorist and aristocrat, blamed the fall of the ancient régime in France on racial degeneracy caused by racial intermixing, which he argued destroyed the purity of the Aryan race. Gobineau's theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany, emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan and Jewish cultures.[6]
In order to preserve the Aryan race, the Nazis introduced in 1935 the Nuremberg racial laws which forbade sexual relations and marriages between Germans and Jews, and later between Germans and Romani and Slavic peoples.
Nazis used the Mendelian inheritance theory to demonstrate the inheritance of social traits, claiming a racial nature of certain general traits such as inventiveness or criminal behaviour.[7]
Many of the modern-day white supremacist groups around the world re-use German Nazi symbolism, including the swastika, to represent their beliefs.
According to the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (Verfassungsschutz) for 2012, at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6000 neo-Nazis.[8]
South Africa[edit]
White supremacy was also dominant in South Africa under apartheid, which it maintained until 1994.[9][10]
Ukraine[edit]
In June 2015, Democratic Representative John Conyers and his Republican colleague Ted Yoho offered bipartisan amendments to block the U.S. military training of Ukraine's Azov Battalion of the Ukrainian National Guard.[11] Some members of the battalion are openly white supremacists.[12] Andriy Biletsky, the commander of the Azov Battalion and leader of the neo-Nazi political groups Social-National Assembly and Patriots of Ukraine,[13] is member of the Ukrainian Parliament.[11] The First Deputy Chairman of the Ukrainian Parliament, Andriy Parubiy,[14] is co-founder of the neo-Nazi Social-National Party of Ukraine.[15]
Academic use of the term[edit]
The term white supremacy is used in academic studies of racial power to denote a system of structural or societal racism which privileges white people over others, regardless of the presence or absence of racial hatred. Legal scholar Frances Lee Ansley explains this definition as follows:
By "white supremacy" I do not mean to allude only to the self-conscious racism of white supremacist hate groups. I refer instead to a political, economic and cultural system in which whites overwhelmingly control power and material resources, conscious and unconscious ideas of white superiority and entitlement are widespread, and relations of white dominance and non-white subordination are daily reenacted across a broad array of institutions and social settings.[16][17]
This and similar definitions are adopted or proposed by Charles Mills,[18] bell hooks,[19] David Gillborn,[20] and Neely Fuller Jr.[21] Some anti-racist educators, such as Betita Martinez and the Challenging White Supremacy workshop, also use the term in this way. The term expresses historic continuities between a pre-Civil Rights era of open white supremacism and the current racial power structure of the United States. It also expresses the visceral impact of structural racism through "provocative and brutal" language that characterizes racism as "nefarious, global, systemic, and constant."[22] Academic users of the term sometimes prefer it to racism because it allows for a disconnection between racist feelings and white racial advantage or privilege.[23][24]
Ideologies and movements[edit]
Supporters of Nordicism consider the Nordic peoples to be a superior race.[citation needed] By the early-19th century white supremacy was attached to emerging theories of racial hierarchy. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer attributed civilisational primacy to the White race:

The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmans, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate.[25]



 Members of the second Ku Klux Klan at a rally in 1923.


 A swastika, the symbol of the Nazi party (NSDAP) led by Adolf Hitler.
The eugenicist Madison Grant argued that the Nordic race had been responsible for most of humanity's great achievements, and that admixture was "race suicide".[26] In Grant's 1916 book, The Passing of the Great Race, Europeans who are not of Germanic origin, but have Nordic characteristics such as blonde/red hair and blue/green/gray eyes, were considered to be a Nordic admixture and suitable for Aryanization.[27]
In the United States, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the group most associated with the white supremacist movement. Many white supremacist groups are based on the concept of preserving genetic purity, and they do not focus solely on discrimination by skin color.[28] The KKK's reasons for supporting racial segregation are not primarily based on religious ideals, but some Klan groups are openly Protestant. The KKK and other white supremacist groups like Aryan Nations, The Order and the White Patriot Party are considered Anti-Semitic.[28]



The Good Citizen 1926 Published by Pillar of Fire Church
Nazi Germany promulgated supremacy in the belief that the Aryan race, or the Germans, was the master race. It was combined with a eugenics programme that aimed for racial hygiene by using compulsory sterilizations of sick individuals and extermination of the Untermenschen (or "sub-humans"), Slavs, Jews and Gypsies which eventually culminated in the Holocaust.[29][30][31][32][33]
Christian Identity is another movement closely tied to white supremacy. Some white supremacists identify themselves as Odinists, although many Odinists reject white supremacy. Some white supremacist groups, such as the South African Boeremag, conflate elements of Christianity and Odinism. The World Church of the Creator (now called the Creativity Movement) is atheistic and it denounces the Christian religion and other theistic religions.[34][35] Aside from this, its ideology is similar to many Christian Identity groups, in their belief that there is a Jewish conspiracy in control of governments, the banking industry and the media. Matthew F. Hale, founder of the World Church of the Creator has published articles stating that all races other than white are "mud races," which the religion teaches.[28]
The white supremacist ideology has become associated with a racist faction of the skinhead subculture, despite the fact that when the skinhead culture first developed in the United Kingdom in the late 1960s, it was heavily influenced by black fashions and music, especially Jamaican reggae and ska, and African American soul music[36][37][38] By the 1980s, a sizable and vocal white power skinhead faction had formed.[citation needed]
White supremacist recruitment activities are conducted primarily at a grassroots level and on the Internet. Widespread access to the Internet has led to a dramatic increase in white supremacist websites.[39] The Internet provides a venue to openly express white supremacist ideas at little social cost, because people who post the information are able to remain anonymous.
Alliances with black supremacist groups[edit]
In February 1962 George Lincoln Rockwell, the leader of the American Nazi Party, spoke at a Nation of Islam rally in Chicago, where he was applauded by Elijah Muhammed as he pronounced: "I am proud to stand here before black men. I believe Elijah Muhammed is the Adolf Hitler of the black man!"[40] Rockwell had attended, but did not speak at, an earlier NOI rally in June 1961 in Washington, D.C.[41] and even once donated $20 to the NOI.[42] In 1965, after breaking with the Nation of Islam and denouncing its separatist doctrine, Malcolm X told his followers that the Nation of Islam under Elijah Muhammad had made secret agreements with the American Nazi Party and the Ku Klux Klan.[41]
Rockwell and other white supremacists (e.g. Willis Carto) also supported less well-known black supremacist groups, such as Hassan Jeru-Ahmed's Blackman's Army of Liberation, in reference to which Rockwell told Los Angeles Times reporter Michael Drosnin in 1967 that "Any Negro wants to go back to Africa, I'll carry him piggy-back."[43]
More recently, Tom Metzger, erstwhile Ku Klux Klan leader from California, spoke at an NOI rally in Los Angeles in September 1985 and donated $100 to the group.[44] In October of that same year a collection of over 200 prominent white supremacists met at former Klan leader Robert E. Miles's farm to discuss an alliance with Louis Farrakhan, head of the NOI.[42] In attendance were Edward Reed Fields of the National States' Rights Party, Richard Girnt Butler of Aryan Nations, Don Black, Roy Frankhouser, and Metzger, who said that "America is like a rotting carcass. The Jews are living off the carcass like the parasites they are. Farrakhan understands this."[42]
See also[edit]
Afrocentrism
Anti-miscegenation laws
Aryan Brotherhood
Black supremacy
Eurocentrism
Hate group
Heroes of the Fiery Cross (book)
Institutional racism
Jim Crow laws
Master race
Race and intelligence
Scientific racism
Frances Cress Welsing
"The White Man's Burden" (poem)
White power music
Superiority complex
Footnotes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Wildman, Stephanie M. (1996). Privilege Revealed: How Invisible Preference Undermines America. NYU Press. p. 87. ISBN 0-8147-9303-7.
2.Jump up ^ Flint, Colin (2004). Spaces of Hate: Geographies of Discrimination and Intolerance in the U.S.A. Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 0-415-93586-5. "Although white racist activists must adopt a political identity of whiteness, the flimsy definition of whiteness in modern culture poses special challenges for them. In both mainstream and white supremacist discourse, to be white is to be distinct from those marked as non-white, yet the placement of the distinguishing line has varied significantly in different times and places."
3.Jump up ^ Fredrickson, George (1981). White Supremacy. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-19-503042-7.
4.Jump up ^ A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union: "We hold as undeniable truths that the governments of the various States, and of the confederacy itself, were established exclusively by the white race, for themselves and their posterity; that the African race had no agency in their establishment; that they were rightfully held and regarded as an inferior and dependent race, and in that condition only could their existence in this country be rendered beneficial or tolerable. That in this free government all white men are and of right ought to be entitled to equal civil and political rights; that the servitude of the African race, as existing in these States, is mutually beneficial to both bond and free, and is abundantly authorized and justified by the experience of mankind, and the revealed will of the Almighty Creator, as recognized by all Christian nations; while the destruction of the existing relations between the two races, as advocated by our sectional enemies, would bring inevitable calamities upon both and desolation upon the fifteen slave-holding states."
5.Jump up ^ The "Cornerstone Speech", Alexander H. Stephens (Vice President of the Confederate States), March 21, 1861, Savannah, Georgia: "Our new government is founded upon exactly the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery--subordination to the superior race--is his natural and normal condition."
6.Jump up ^ Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia: Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, Inc, 2006. p. 62.
7.Jump up ^ Henry Friedlander. The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. p. 5.
8.Jump up ^ http://www.verfassungsschutz.de/de/oeffentlichkeitsarbeit/publikationen/verfassungsschutzberichte/vsbericht-2012
9.Jump up ^ "abolition of the White Australia Policy". Australian Government. November 2010. Retrieved October 13, 2011.
10.Jump up ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannia, South Africa the Apartheid Years". Encyclopaedia Britannia. Retrieved October 13, 2011.
11.^ Jump up to: a b "Ukraine's Neo-Nazis Won't Get U.S. Money". Bloomberg. 12 June 2015.
12.Jump up ^ "Ukraine crisis: the neo-Nazi brigade fighting pro-Russian separatists". The Daily Telegraph. 11 August 2014.
13.Jump up ^ "Ukraine conflict: 'White power' warrior from Sweden". BBC News. 16 July 2014.
14.Jump up ^ "Deputy Chairman of Ukraine's parliament in Washington to present list of weapons Ukraine needs". Ukraine Today. 25 February 2015.
15.Jump up ^ "How the far-right took top posts in Ukraine's power vacuum". Channel 4. 5 March 2014.
16.Jump up ^ Ansley, Frances Lee (1989). "Stirring the Ashes: Race, Class and the Future of Civil Rights Scholarship". Cornell Law Review 74: 993ff.
17.Jump up ^ Ansley, Frances Lee (1997-06-29). "White supremacy (and what we should do about it)". In Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic (eds.). Critical white studies: Looking behind the mirror. Temple University Press. p. 592. ISBN 978-1-56639-532-8.
18.Jump up ^ Mills, C.W. (2003). "White supremacy as sociopolitical system: A philosophical perspective". White out: The continuing significance of racism: 35–48.
19.Jump up ^ Hooks, Bell (2000). Feminist theory: From margin to center. Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-1663-5.
20.Jump up ^ Gillborn, David (2006-09-01). "Rethinking White Supremacy Who Counts in ‘WhiteWorld’". Ethnicities 6 (3): 318–340. doi:10.1177/1468796806068323. ISSN 1468-7968. Retrieved 2012-03-14.
21.Jump up ^ Fuller, Neely (1984). The united-independent compensatory code/system/concept: A textbook/workbook for thought, speech, and/or action, for victims of racism (white supremacy). SAGE. p. 334. ASIN B0007BLCWC.
22.Jump up ^ Davidson, Tim (2009-02-23). "bell hooks, white supremacy, and the academy". In Jeanette Davidson and George Yancy (eds.). Critical perspectives on Bell Hooks. Taylor & Francis US. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-415-98980-0.
23.Jump up ^ "Why is it so difficult for many white folks to understand that racism is oppressive not because white folks have prejudicial feelings about blacks (they could have such feelings and leave us alone) but because it is a system that promotes domination and subjugation?" hooks, bell (2009-02-04). Black Looks: Race and Representation. Turnaround Publisher Services Limited. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-873262-02-3.
24.Jump up ^ Grillo and Wildman cite hooks to argue for the term racism/white supremacy: "hooks writes that liberal whites do not see themselves as prejudiced or interested in domination through coercion, and do not acknowledge the ways they the ways they contribute to and benefit from the system of white privilege." Grillo, Trina; Stephanie M. Wildman (1997-06-29). "The implications of making comparisons between racism and sexism (or other isms)". In Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic (eds.). Critical white studies: Looking behind the mirror. Temple University Press. p. 620. ISBN 978-1-56639-532-8.
25.Jump up ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur (1851). Parerga and Paralipomena. Vol. 2, Section 92.
26.Jump up ^ Grant, Madison (1921). The Passing of the Great Race (4 ed.). C. Scribner's sons. p. xxxi.
27.Jump up ^ Grant, Madison (1916). The Passing of the Great Race. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.
28.^ Jump up to: a b c http://law.jrank.org/pages/11302/White-Supremacy-Groups.html White Supremacy Groups
29.Jump up ^ Gumkowski, Janusz; Leszczynski, Kazimierz; Robert, Edward (translator) (1961). Hitler's Plans for Eastern Europe (PAPERBACK). Poland Under Nazi Occupation (First ed.) (Polonia Pub. House). p. 219. ASIN B0006BXJZ6. Retrieved March 12, 2014. at Wayback machine.
30.Jump up ^ Peter Longerich (15 April 2010). Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-19-280436-5.
31.Jump up ^ "Close-up of Richard Jenne, the last child killed by the head nurse at the Kaufbeuren-Irsee euthanasia facility.". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved July 29, 2011.
32.Jump up ^ Ian Kershaw, Hitler: A Profile in Power, Chapter VI, first section (London, 1991, rev. 2001)
33.Jump up ^ Snyder, S. & D. Mitchell. Cultural Locations of Disability. University of Michigan Press. 2006.
34.Jump up ^ The new white nationalism in America: its challenge to integration. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2011-03-27. "For instance, Ben Klassen, founder of the atheistic World Church of the Creator and the author of The White Man's Bible, discusses Christianity extensively in his writings and denounces religion that has brought untold horror into the world and divided the white race."
35.Jump up ^ The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved 2011-03-27. "A competing atheistic or panthestic white racist movement also appeared, which included the Church of the Creator/ Creativity (Gardell 2003: 129–134)."
36.Jump up ^ Smiling Smash: An Interview with Cathal Smyth, a.k.a. Chas Smash, of Madness at the Wayback Machine (archived February 19, 2001).
37.Jump up ^ Special Articles.
38.Jump up ^ Old Skool Jim. Trojan Skinhead Reggae Box Set liner notes. London: Trojan Records. TJETD169.
39.Jump up ^ 1Adams, Josh; Roscigno, Vincent J. (20 November 2009). "White Supremacists, Oppositional Culture and the World Wide Web". University on North Carolina Press 84 (2005): 759-788.
40.Jump up ^ George Thayer (1967). The Farther Shore of Politics: The American Political Fringe Today. Allen Lane. pp. 25–6.
41.^ Jump up to: a b Mattias Gardell (7 October 1996). In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and The Nation of Islam. Duke University Press. pp. 273–4. ISBN 0-8223-1845-8.
42.^ Jump up to: a b c Wayne King (October 12, 1985). "White Supremacists Voice Support of Farrakhan". New York Times. p. 12.
43.Jump up ^ Michael Drosnin (June 5, 1967). "U.S. Negro Group Plans Own Nation in Africa: 'Blackman's Army'". Los Angeles Times. p. 29.
44.Jump up ^ "Bedfellows: The Klan Connection". New York Times. October 6, 1985. p. E20.
Further reading[edit]
Dobratz, Betty A. and Shanks-Meile, Stephanie. "White power, white pride!": The white separatist movement in the United States (JHU Press, 2000) ISBN 978-0-8018-6537-4
Lincoln Rockwell, George. White Power (John McLaughlin, 1996)
MacCann, Ronnarae. White Supremacy in Children's Literature (Routledge, 2000)
External links[edit]
Heart of Whiteness documentary film about what it means to be white in South Africa
Voices on Antisemitism Interview with Frank Meeink from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum


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White supremacy

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White supremacy or white supremacism is a form of racism centered upon the belief, and promotion of the belief, that white people are superior in certain characteristics, traits, and attributes to people of other racial backgrounds and that therefore whites should politically, economically and socially rule non-whites. The term is also typically used to describe a political ideology that perpetuates and maintains the social, political, historical and/or industrial domination by white people (as evidenced by historical and contemporary sociopolitical structures like the Atlantic Slave Trade, colonization of the Global South, Jim Crow laws in the United States, and miscegenation laws in settler colonies and former settler colonies like the United States, South Africa, Australia, and Madagascar, for example).[1] Different forms of white supremacism put forth different conceptions of who is considered white, and different white supremacists identify various racial and cultural groups as their primary enemy.[2]
In academic usage, the term "white supremacy" can also refer to a system where whites enjoy a structural advantage (privilege) over other ethnic groups, both at a collective and an individual level (ceteris paribus, i. e., when individuals are compared that do not relevantly differ except in ethnicity).


Contents  [hide]
1 History of white supremacy 1.1 United States
1.2 Germany
1.3 South Africa
1.4 Ukraine
2 Academic use of the term
3 Ideologies and movements
4 Alliances with black supremacist groups
5 See also
6 Footnotes
7 Further reading
8 External links

History of white supremacy[edit]
White supremacy has ideological foundations that at least date back to 17th-century scientific racism, the predominant paradigm of human variation that helped shape international and intra-national relations from the latter part of the Age of Enlightenment (in European history) through the late 20th century (marked by the end of Apartheid in South Africa in 1994, one of the last explicitly White supremacist sociopolitical structures to exist).
United States[edit]
See also: Category:White supremacy in the United States.
White supremacy was dominant in the United States before the American Civil War and for decades after Reconstruction.[3] In large areas of the United States, this included the holding of non-whites (specifically African Americans) in chattel slavery. The outbreak of the Civil War saw the desire to uphold white supremacy cited as a cause for state secession[4] and the formation of the Confederate States of America.[5]
In some parts of the United States, many people who were considered non-white were disenfranchised, barred from government office, and prevented from holding most government jobs well into the second half of the 20th century. Many U.S. states banned interracial marriage through anti-miscegenation laws until 1967, when these laws were declared unconstitutional. Additionally, white leaders often viewed Native Americans as obstacles to economic and political progress with respect to the natives' claims to land and rights.
Germany[edit]
Nazism promoted the idea of a superior Aryan race in Germany during the early 20th century. Notions of white supremacy and Aryan racial superiority combined in the 19th century, with white supremacists maintaining that white people were members of an Aryan "master race" which is superior to other races, and particularly the Jews described as the "Semitic race", Slavs and Gypsies, which they associated with "cultural sterility". Arthur de Gobineau, a French racial theorist and aristocrat, blamed the fall of the ancient régime in France on racial degeneracy caused by racial intermixing, which he argued destroyed the purity of the Aryan race. Gobineau's theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany, emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan and Jewish cultures.[6]
In order to preserve the Aryan race, the Nazis introduced in 1935 the Nuremberg racial laws which forbade sexual relations and marriages between Germans and Jews, and later between Germans and Romani and Slavic peoples.
Nazis used the Mendelian inheritance theory to demonstrate the inheritance of social traits, claiming a racial nature of certain general traits such as inventiveness or criminal behaviour.[7]
Many of the modern-day white supremacist groups around the world re-use German Nazi symbolism, including the swastika, to represent their beliefs.
According to the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (Verfassungsschutz) for 2012, at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6000 neo-Nazis.[8]
South Africa[edit]
White supremacy was also dominant in South Africa under apartheid, which it maintained until 1994.[9][10]
Ukraine[edit]
In June 2015, Democratic Representative John Conyers and his Republican colleague Ted Yoho offered bipartisan amendments to block the U.S. military training of Ukraine's Azov Battalion of the Ukrainian National Guard.[11] Some members of the battalion are openly white supremacists.[12] Andriy Biletsky, the commander of the Azov Battalion and leader of the neo-Nazi political groups Social-National Assembly and Patriots of Ukraine,[13] is member of the Ukrainian Parliament.[11] The First Deputy Chairman of the Ukrainian Parliament, Andriy Parubiy,[14] is co-founder of the neo-Nazi Social-National Party of Ukraine.[15]
Academic use of the term[edit]
The term white supremacy is used in academic studies of racial power to denote a system of structural or societal racism which privileges white people over others, regardless of the presence or absence of racial hatred. Legal scholar Frances Lee Ansley explains this definition as follows:
By "white supremacy" I do not mean to allude only to the self-conscious racism of white supremacist hate groups. I refer instead to a political, economic and cultural system in which whites overwhelmingly control power and material resources, conscious and unconscious ideas of white superiority and entitlement are widespread, and relations of white dominance and non-white subordination are daily reenacted across a broad array of institutions and social settings.[16][17]
This and similar definitions are adopted or proposed by Charles Mills,[18] bell hooks,[19] David Gillborn,[20] and Neely Fuller Jr.[21] Some anti-racist educators, such as Betita Martinez and the Challenging White Supremacy workshop, also use the term in this way. The term expresses historic continuities between a pre-Civil Rights era of open white supremacism and the current racial power structure of the United States. It also expresses the visceral impact of structural racism through "provocative and brutal" language that characterizes racism as "nefarious, global, systemic, and constant."[22] Academic users of the term sometimes prefer it to racism because it allows for a disconnection between racist feelings and white racial advantage or privilege.[23][24]
Ideologies and movements[edit]
Supporters of Nordicism consider the Nordic peoples to be a superior race.[citation needed] By the early-19th century white supremacy was attached to emerging theories of racial hierarchy. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer attributed civilisational primacy to the White race:

The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmans, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate.[25]



 Members of the second Ku Klux Klan at a rally in 1923.


 A swastika, the symbol of the Nazi party (NSDAP) led by Adolf Hitler.
The eugenicist Madison Grant argued that the Nordic race had been responsible for most of humanity's great achievements, and that admixture was "race suicide".[26] In Grant's 1916 book, The Passing of the Great Race, Europeans who are not of Germanic origin, but have Nordic characteristics such as blonde/red hair and blue/green/gray eyes, were considered to be a Nordic admixture and suitable for Aryanization.[27]
In the United States, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the group most associated with the white supremacist movement. Many white supremacist groups are based on the concept of preserving genetic purity, and they do not focus solely on discrimination by skin color.[28] The KKK's reasons for supporting racial segregation are not primarily based on religious ideals, but some Klan groups are openly Protestant. The KKK and other white supremacist groups like Aryan Nations, The Order and the White Patriot Party are considered Anti-Semitic.[28]



The Good Citizen 1926 Published by Pillar of Fire Church
Nazi Germany promulgated supremacy in the belief that the Aryan race, or the Germans, was the master race. It was combined with a eugenics programme that aimed for racial hygiene by using compulsory sterilizations of sick individuals and extermination of the Untermenschen (or "sub-humans"), Slavs, Jews and Gypsies which eventually culminated in the Holocaust.[29][30][31][32][33]
Christian Identity is another movement closely tied to white supremacy. Some white supremacists identify themselves as Odinists, although many Odinists reject white supremacy. Some white supremacist groups, such as the South African Boeremag, conflate elements of Christianity and Odinism. The World Church of the Creator (now called the Creativity Movement) is atheistic and it denounces the Christian religion and other theistic religions.[34][35] Aside from this, its ideology is similar to many Christian Identity groups, in their belief that there is a Jewish conspiracy in control of governments, the banking industry and the media. Matthew F. Hale, founder of the World Church of the Creator has published articles stating that all races other than white are "mud races," which the religion teaches.[28]
The white supremacist ideology has become associated with a racist faction of the skinhead subculture, despite the fact that when the skinhead culture first developed in the United Kingdom in the late 1960s, it was heavily influenced by black fashions and music, especially Jamaican reggae and ska, and African American soul music[36][37][38] By the 1980s, a sizable and vocal white power skinhead faction had formed.[citation needed]
White supremacist recruitment activities are conducted primarily at a grassroots level and on the Internet. Widespread access to the Internet has led to a dramatic increase in white supremacist websites.[39] The Internet provides a venue to openly express white supremacist ideas at little social cost, because people who post the information are able to remain anonymous.
Alliances with black supremacist groups[edit]
In February 1962 George Lincoln Rockwell, the leader of the American Nazi Party, spoke at a Nation of Islam rally in Chicago, where he was applauded by Elijah Muhammed as he pronounced: "I am proud to stand here before black men. I believe Elijah Muhammed is the Adolf Hitler of the black man!"[40] Rockwell had attended, but did not speak at, an earlier NOI rally in June 1961 in Washington, D.C.[41] and even once donated $20 to the NOI.[42] In 1965, after breaking with the Nation of Islam and denouncing its separatist doctrine, Malcolm X told his followers that the Nation of Islam under Elijah Muhammad had made secret agreements with the American Nazi Party and the Ku Klux Klan.[41]
Rockwell and other white supremacists (e.g. Willis Carto) also supported less well-known black supremacist groups, such as Hassan Jeru-Ahmed's Blackman's Army of Liberation, in reference to which Rockwell told Los Angeles Times reporter Michael Drosnin in 1967 that "Any Negro wants to go back to Africa, I'll carry him piggy-back."[43]
More recently, Tom Metzger, erstwhile Ku Klux Klan leader from California, spoke at an NOI rally in Los Angeles in September 1985 and donated $100 to the group.[44] In October of that same year a collection of over 200 prominent white supremacists met at former Klan leader Robert E. Miles's farm to discuss an alliance with Louis Farrakhan, head of the NOI.[42] In attendance were Edward Reed Fields of the National States' Rights Party, Richard Girnt Butler of Aryan Nations, Don Black, Roy Frankhouser, and Metzger, who said that "America is like a rotting carcass. The Jews are living off the carcass like the parasites they are. Farrakhan understands this."[42]
See also[edit]
Afrocentrism
Anti-miscegenation laws
Aryan Brotherhood
Black supremacy
Eurocentrism
Hate group
Heroes of the Fiery Cross (book)
Institutional racism
Jim Crow laws
Master race
Race and intelligence
Scientific racism
Frances Cress Welsing
"The White Man's Burden" (poem)
White power music
Superiority complex
Footnotes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Wildman, Stephanie M. (1996). Privilege Revealed: How Invisible Preference Undermines America. NYU Press. p. 87. ISBN 0-8147-9303-7.
2.Jump up ^ Flint, Colin (2004). Spaces of Hate: Geographies of Discrimination and Intolerance in the U.S.A. Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 0-415-93586-5. "Although white racist activists must adopt a political identity of whiteness, the flimsy definition of whiteness in modern culture poses special challenges for them. In both mainstream and white supremacist discourse, to be white is to be distinct from those marked as non-white, yet the placement of the distinguishing line has varied significantly in different times and places."
3.Jump up ^ Fredrickson, George (1981). White Supremacy. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-19-503042-7.
4.Jump up ^ A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union: "We hold as undeniable truths that the governments of the various States, and of the confederacy itself, were established exclusively by the white race, for themselves and their posterity; that the African race had no agency in their establishment; that they were rightfully held and regarded as an inferior and dependent race, and in that condition only could their existence in this country be rendered beneficial or tolerable. That in this free government all white men are and of right ought to be entitled to equal civil and political rights; that the servitude of the African race, as existing in these States, is mutually beneficial to both bond and free, and is abundantly authorized and justified by the experience of mankind, and the revealed will of the Almighty Creator, as recognized by all Christian nations; while the destruction of the existing relations between the two races, as advocated by our sectional enemies, would bring inevitable calamities upon both and desolation upon the fifteen slave-holding states."
5.Jump up ^ The "Cornerstone Speech", Alexander H. Stephens (Vice President of the Confederate States), March 21, 1861, Savannah, Georgia: "Our new government is founded upon exactly the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery--subordination to the superior race--is his natural and normal condition."
6.Jump up ^ Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia: Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, Inc, 2006. p. 62.
7.Jump up ^ Henry Friedlander. The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. p. 5.
8.Jump up ^ http://www.verfassungsschutz.de/de/oeffentlichkeitsarbeit/publikationen/verfassungsschutzberichte/vsbericht-2012
9.Jump up ^ "abolition of the White Australia Policy". Australian Government. November 2010. Retrieved October 13, 2011.
10.Jump up ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannia, South Africa the Apartheid Years". Encyclopaedia Britannia. Retrieved October 13, 2011.
11.^ Jump up to: a b "Ukraine's Neo-Nazis Won't Get U.S. Money". Bloomberg. 12 June 2015.
12.Jump up ^ "Ukraine crisis: the neo-Nazi brigade fighting pro-Russian separatists". The Daily Telegraph. 11 August 2014.
13.Jump up ^ "Ukraine conflict: 'White power' warrior from Sweden". BBC News. 16 July 2014.
14.Jump up ^ "Deputy Chairman of Ukraine's parliament in Washington to present list of weapons Ukraine needs". Ukraine Today. 25 February 2015.
15.Jump up ^ "How the far-right took top posts in Ukraine's power vacuum". Channel 4. 5 March 2014.
16.Jump up ^ Ansley, Frances Lee (1989). "Stirring the Ashes: Race, Class and the Future of Civil Rights Scholarship". Cornell Law Review 74: 993ff.
17.Jump up ^ Ansley, Frances Lee (1997-06-29). "White supremacy (and what we should do about it)". In Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic (eds.). Critical white studies: Looking behind the mirror. Temple University Press. p. 592. ISBN 978-1-56639-532-8.
18.Jump up ^ Mills, C.W. (2003). "White supremacy as sociopolitical system: A philosophical perspective". White out: The continuing significance of racism: 35–48.
19.Jump up ^ Hooks, Bell (2000). Feminist theory: From margin to center. Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-1663-5.
20.Jump up ^ Gillborn, David (2006-09-01). "Rethinking White Supremacy Who Counts in ‘WhiteWorld’". Ethnicities 6 (3): 318–340. doi:10.1177/1468796806068323. ISSN 1468-7968. Retrieved 2012-03-14.
21.Jump up ^ Fuller, Neely (1984). The united-independent compensatory code/system/concept: A textbook/workbook for thought, speech, and/or action, for victims of racism (white supremacy). SAGE. p. 334. ASIN B0007BLCWC.
22.Jump up ^ Davidson, Tim (2009-02-23). "bell hooks, white supremacy, and the academy". In Jeanette Davidson and George Yancy (eds.). Critical perspectives on Bell Hooks. Taylor & Francis US. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-415-98980-0.
23.Jump up ^ "Why is it so difficult for many white folks to understand that racism is oppressive not because white folks have prejudicial feelings about blacks (they could have such feelings and leave us alone) but because it is a system that promotes domination and subjugation?" hooks, bell (2009-02-04). Black Looks: Race and Representation. Turnaround Publisher Services Limited. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-873262-02-3.
24.Jump up ^ Grillo and Wildman cite hooks to argue for the term racism/white supremacy: "hooks writes that liberal whites do not see themselves as prejudiced or interested in domination through coercion, and do not acknowledge the ways they the ways they contribute to and benefit from the system of white privilege." Grillo, Trina; Stephanie M. Wildman (1997-06-29). "The implications of making comparisons between racism and sexism (or other isms)". In Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic (eds.). Critical white studies: Looking behind the mirror. Temple University Press. p. 620. ISBN 978-1-56639-532-8.
25.Jump up ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur (1851). Parerga and Paralipomena. Vol. 2, Section 92.
26.Jump up ^ Grant, Madison (1921). The Passing of the Great Race (4 ed.). C. Scribner's sons. p. xxxi.
27.Jump up ^ Grant, Madison (1916). The Passing of the Great Race. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.
28.^ Jump up to: a b c http://law.jrank.org/pages/11302/White-Supremacy-Groups.html White Supremacy Groups
29.Jump up ^ Gumkowski, Janusz; Leszczynski, Kazimierz; Robert, Edward (translator) (1961). Hitler's Plans for Eastern Europe (PAPERBACK). Poland Under Nazi Occupation (First ed.) (Polonia Pub. House). p. 219. ASIN B0006BXJZ6. Retrieved March 12, 2014. at Wayback machine.
30.Jump up ^ Peter Longerich (15 April 2010). Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-19-280436-5.
31.Jump up ^ "Close-up of Richard Jenne, the last child killed by the head nurse at the Kaufbeuren-Irsee euthanasia facility.". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved July 29, 2011.
32.Jump up ^ Ian Kershaw, Hitler: A Profile in Power, Chapter VI, first section (London, 1991, rev. 2001)
33.Jump up ^ Snyder, S. & D. Mitchell. Cultural Locations of Disability. University of Michigan Press. 2006.
34.Jump up ^ The new white nationalism in America: its challenge to integration. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2011-03-27. "For instance, Ben Klassen, founder of the atheistic World Church of the Creator and the author of The White Man's Bible, discusses Christianity extensively in his writings and denounces religion that has brought untold horror into the world and divided the white race."
35.Jump up ^ The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved 2011-03-27. "A competing atheistic or panthestic white racist movement also appeared, which included the Church of the Creator/ Creativity (Gardell 2003: 129–134)."
36.Jump up ^ Smiling Smash: An Interview with Cathal Smyth, a.k.a. Chas Smash, of Madness at the Wayback Machine (archived February 19, 2001).
37.Jump up ^ Special Articles.
38.Jump up ^ Old Skool Jim. Trojan Skinhead Reggae Box Set liner notes. London: Trojan Records. TJETD169.
39.Jump up ^ 1Adams, Josh; Roscigno, Vincent J. (20 November 2009). "White Supremacists, Oppositional Culture and the World Wide Web". University on North Carolina Press 84 (2005): 759-788.
40.Jump up ^ George Thayer (1967). The Farther Shore of Politics: The American Political Fringe Today. Allen Lane. pp. 25–6.
41.^ Jump up to: a b Mattias Gardell (7 October 1996). In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and The Nation of Islam. Duke University Press. pp. 273–4. ISBN 0-8223-1845-8.
42.^ Jump up to: a b c Wayne King (October 12, 1985). "White Supremacists Voice Support of Farrakhan". New York Times. p. 12.
43.Jump up ^ Michael Drosnin (June 5, 1967). "U.S. Negro Group Plans Own Nation in Africa: 'Blackman's Army'". Los Angeles Times. p. 29.
44.Jump up ^ "Bedfellows: The Klan Connection". New York Times. October 6, 1985. p. E20.
Further reading[edit]
Dobratz, Betty A. and Shanks-Meile, Stephanie. "White power, white pride!": The white separatist movement in the United States (JHU Press, 2000) ISBN 978-0-8018-6537-4
Lincoln Rockwell, George. White Power (John McLaughlin, 1996)
MacCann, Ronnarae. White Supremacy in Children's Literature (Routledge, 2000)
External links[edit]
Heart of Whiteness documentary film about what it means to be white in South Africa
Voices on Antisemitism Interview with Frank Meeink from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum


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Miscegenation

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Miscegenation (/mɪˌsɛdʒɨˈneɪʃən/; from the Latin miscere "to mix" + genus "kind") is the mixing of different racial groups through marriage, cohabitation, sexual relations, or procreation.[1]
The term miscegenation has been used since the 19th century to refer to interracial marriage and interracial sexual relations,[1] and more generally to the process of genetic admixture. Historically, the term has been used in the context of laws banning interracial marriage and sex, known as anti-miscegenation laws.[2] The Latin term entered historical records during European colonialism and the Age of Discovery, but societies such as China and Japan also had restrictions on marrying with peoples whom they considered to be of a different race.


Contents  [hide]
1 Usage
2 Etymological history
3 The concept of miscegenation
4 Laws banning miscegenation
5 History of ethnoracial admixture and attitudes towards miscegenation 5.1 Africa 5.1.1 Mauritius
5.1.2 Réunion
5.1.3 Madagascar
5.2 Americas 5.2.1 United States 5.2.1.1 Hawaii
5.2.2 Latin America 5.2.2.1 Peru
5.2.2.2 Cuba
5.2.2.3 Costa Rica
5.2.2.4 West Indies
5.2.2.5 Mexico
5.2.2.6 Venezuela
5.2.2.7 Argentina
5.2.2.8 Guatemala
5.2.2.9 El Salvador
5.2.2.10 Bolivia
5.2.2.11 Jamaica and Haiti

5.3 Asia 5.3.1 Central Asia
5.3.2 Caucasus
5.3.3 China
5.3.4 Taiwan
5.3.5 Hong Kong
5.3.6 Macao
5.3.7 Indian subcontinent
5.3.8 Japan
5.3.9 Korea
5.3.10 Vietnam
5.3.11 Malaysia and Singapore
5.3.12 Burma
5.3.13 Philippines
5.4 Europe 5.4.1 Germany
5.4.2 Hungary
5.4.3 Iberian Peninsula
5.4.4 Italian Peninsula
5.4.5 Russia
5.4.6 Southeastern and Eastern Europe
5.4.7 United Kingdom
5.5 Middle East 5.5.1 Israel
5.5.2 United Arab Emirates
5.6 Oceania 5.6.1 Australia
5.6.2 New Zealand
5.7 Portuguese colonies
6 Demographics of ethnoracial admixture 6.1 U.S.
6.2 Brazil
7 Genetic admixture 7.1 Admixture in the United States
7.2 Admixture in Latin America 7.2.1 Background
7.2.2 Recent studies
7.3 Admixture in the Philippines
7.4 Admixture among the Romani people
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 Bibliography
11 Other sources
12 External links

Usage
In the present day, the word miscegenation is avoided by many scholars, because the term suggests a concrete biological phenomenon, rather than a categorization imposed on certain relationships. The term's historical use in contexts that typically implied disapproval is also a reason why more unambiguously neutral terms such as interracial, interethnic or cross-cultural are more common in contemporary usage.[3] The term remains in use among scholars when referring to past practices concerning multiraciality, such as anti-miscegenation laws that banned interracial marriages.[4]
In Spanish, Portuguese and French, the words used to describe the mixing of races are mestizaje, mestiçagem and métissage. These words, much older than the term miscegenation, are derived from the Late Latin mixticius for "mixed", which is also the root of the Spanish word mestizo. Portuguese also uses miscigenação, derived from the same Latin root as the English word. These non-English terms for "race-mixing" are not considered as offensive as "miscegenation", although they have historically been tied to the caste system (Casta) that was established during the colonial era in Spanish-speaking Latin America. Some groups in South America, however, consider the use of the word mestizo offensive because it was used during the times of the colony to refer specifically to the mixing between the conquistadores and the indigenous people.
Today, the mixes among races and ethnicities are diverse, so it is considered preferable to use the term "mixed-race" or simply "mixed" (mezcla). In Portuguese-speaking Latin America (i.e., Brazil), a milder form of caste system existed, although it also provided for legal and social discrimination among individuals belonging to different races, since slavery for blacks existed until the late 19th century. Intermarriage occurred significantly from the very first settlements, with their descendants achieving high rank in government and society.[citation needed] To this day, the Brazilian class system is drawn mostly around socio-economic lines, not racial ones (in a manner similar to other former Portuguese colonies).
The concept of miscegenation is tied to concepts of racial difference. As the different connotations and etymologies of miscegenation and mestizaje suggest, definitions of race, "race mixing" and multiraciality have diverged globally as well as historically, depending on changing social circumstances and cultural perceptions. Mestizo are people of mixed white and indigenous, usually Amerindian ancestry, who do not self-identify as indigenous peoples or Native Americans. In Canada, however, the Métis, who also have partly Amerindian and partly white, often French-Canadian, ancestry, have identified as an ethnic group and are a constitutionally recognized aboriginal people.
The differences between related terms and words which encompass aspects of racial admixture show the impact of different historical and cultural factors leading to changing social interpretations of race and ethnicity. Thus the Comte de Montlosier, in exile during the French Revolution, equated class difference in 18th-century France with racial difference. Borrowing Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", he showed his contempt for the lowest social class, the Third Estate, calling it "this new people born of slaves ... mixture of all races and of all times".[citation needed]
Etymological history
Miscegenation comes from the Latin miscere, "to mix" and genus, "kind". The word was coined in the U.S. in 1863, and the etymology of the word is tied up with political conflicts during the American Civil War over the abolition of slavery and over the racial segregation of African-Americans. The reference to genus was made to emphasize the supposedly distinct biological differences between whites and non-whites, though all humans belong to the same genus, Homo, and the same species, Homo sapiens.
The word was coined in an anonymous propaganda pamphlet published in New York City in December 1863, during the American Civil War. The pamphlet was entitled Miscegenation: The Theory of the Blending of the Races, Applied to the American White Man and Negro.[5] It purported to advocate the intermarriage of whites and blacks until they were indistinguishably mixed, as a desirable goal, and further asserted that this was the goal of the Republican Party. The pamphlet was a hoax, concocted by Democrats, to discredit the Republicans by imputing to them what were then radical views that offended against the attitudes of the vast majority of whites, including those who opposed slavery. There was already much opposition to the war effort.
The pamphlet and variations on it were reprinted widely in both the north and south by Democrats and Confederates. Only in November 1864 was the pamphlet exposed as a hoax. The hoax pamphlet was written by David Goodman Croly, managing editor of the New York World, a Democratic Party paper, and George Wakeman, a World reporter.
By then, the word miscegenation had entered the common language of the day as a popular buzzword in political and social discourse. The issue of miscegenation, raised by the opponents of Abraham Lincoln, featured prominently in the election campaign of 1864.
In the United States, miscegenation has referred primarily to the intermarriage between whites and non-whites, especially blacks.
Before the publication of Miscegenation, the word amalgamation, borrowed from metallurgy, had been in use as a general term for ethnic and racial intermixing. A contemporary usage of this metaphor was that of Ralph Waldo Emerson's private vision in 1845 of America as an ethnic and racial smelting-pot, a variation on the concept of the melting pot. Opinions in the U.S on the desirability of such intermixing, including that between white Protestants and Irish Catholic immigrants, were divided. The term miscegenation was coined to refer specifically to the intermarriage of blacks and whites, with the intent of galvanising opposition to the war.[6]
The concept of miscegenation
Franz Boas (considered to be the father of American cultural anthropology) as well as many of his students, such as Ashley Montagu, considered race to be an invalid concept.[7] From this point of view, if the concept of race is invalid, then miscegenation as the crossing of races is equally invalid. This is because of the fact that there is only one race—that of human.[citation needed] All differences in various people(s) are superficial. These ideas are pursued in greater depth in Ashley Montagu's books on the subject.[8][9]
Laws banning miscegenation

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Main article: Anti-miscegenation laws
Laws banning "race-mixing" were enforced in certain U.S. states from 1691[10] until 1967 (though still on the books in some states till 2000),[11] in Nazi Germany (the Nuremberg Laws) from 1935 until 1945, and in South Africa during the early part of the Apartheid era (1949–1985). All these laws primarily banned marriage between persons of different racially or ethnically defined groups, which was termed "amalgamation" or "miscegenation" in the U.S. The laws in Nazi Germany and many of the U.S. states, as well as South Africa, also banned sexual relations between such individuals.
In the United States, the various state laws prohibited the marriage of whites and blacks, and in many states also the intermarriage of whites with Native Americans or Asians.[12] In the U.S., such laws were known as anti-miscegenation laws. From 1913 until 1948, 30 out of the then 48 states enforced such laws.[13] Although an "Anti-Miscegenation Amendment" to the United States Constitution was proposed in 1871, in 1912–1913, and in 1928,[14][15] no nation-wide law against racially mixed marriages was ever enacted. In 1967, the United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled in Loving v. Virginia that anti-miscegenation laws are unconstitutional. With this ruling, these laws were no longer in effect in the remaining 16 states that still had them.
The Nazi ban on interracial sexual relations and marriages was enacted in September 1935 as part of the Nuremberg Laws, the Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre (The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour). The Nuremberg Laws classified Jews as a race, and forbade extramarital sexual relations and marriage between persons classified as "Aryan" and "non-Aryan". Violation of this was condemned as Rassenschande (lit. "race-disgrace") and could be punished by imprisonment (usually followed by deportation to a concentration camp) and even by death.
The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act in South Africa, enacted in 1949, banned intermarriage between different racial groups, including between whites and non-whites. The Immorality Act, enacted in 1950, also made it a criminal offense for a white person to have any sexual relations with a person of a different race. Both laws were repealed in 1985.
History of ethnoracial admixture and attitudes towards miscegenation
Africa



Jean Ping the Deputy Prime Minister of Gabon who has a Chinese father and a black Gabonese mother was elected as Chairperson of the Commission of the African Union on 1 February 2008.


 Jerry John Rawlings, the ex-President of Ghana is the son of a Scottish father and a black Ghanaian mother.
Africa has a long history of interracial mixing with male Arab and European explorers, traders and soldiers having sexual relations with black African women as well as taking them as wives. Arabs played a big role in the African slave trade and unlike the trans-atlantic slave trade most of the black African slaves in the Arab slave trade were women. Most of them were used as sexual slaves by the Arab men and some were even taken as wives.[16]
Sir Richard Francis Burton writes during his expedition to Africa about relationships between black women and white men. He writes, "The women are well disposed toward strangers of fair complexion, apparently with the permission of their husbands." There are several mulatto populations throughout Africa mostly the results of interracial relationships between Arab and European men and black women. In South Africa there are big mulatto communities like the Coloureds and Griqua formed by White colonists taking native African wives. In Namibia there is a community called the Rehoboth Basters formed by the interracial marriage of Dutch/German men and black African women.
In the former Portuguese Africa (now known as Angola, Mozambique and Cape Verde) racial mixing between white Portuguese and black Africans was fairly common, especially in Cape Verde where the majority of the population is of mixed descent.
There have been some recorded cases of Chinese merchants and labourers taking African wives throughout Africa as many Chinese workers were employed to build railways and other infrastructural projects in Africa. These labour groups were made up completely of men with very few Chinese women coming to Africa.
In West Africa, especially Nigeria there are many cases of Lebanese men taking African women. Many of their offsprings have gained prominent positions in Africa. Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings, who has a Scottish father and a black Ghanaian mother became the President and Head of State of Ghana. Jean Ping, the son of a Chinese trader and a black Gabonese mother, became the Deputy Prime Minister as well as the Foreign minister of Gabon and was the Chairperson of the Commission of the African Union from 2009 to 2012. Current President of Botswana, Ian Khama, is the son of Botswana's first president, Seretse Khama and a white (British) woman, Ruth Williams.
Indian men, who have long been traders in East Africa, at times married among local African women. The British Empire brought many Indian workers into East Africa to build the Uganda Railway. Indians eventually populated South Africa, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Rwanda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Zaire in small numbers. These interracial unions were mostly unilateral marriages between Indian men and East African women.[17]
Mauritius
In the late 19th to early 20th century, Chinese men in Mauritius married Indian women due to both a lack of Chinese women and the availability of Indian women on the island.[18][19] The 1921 census in Mauritius counted that Indian women there had a total of 148 children with Chinese men.[20][21][22]
Réunion
The majority of the population of Réunion is defined as mixed race. In the last 350 years, various ethnic groups (Africans, Chinese, English, French, Gujarati Indians, Tamil Indians) have arrived and settled on the island. There have been mixed race people on the island since its first permanent inhabitation in 1665.
Madagascar
There was frequent intermixing between the Austronesian and Bantu-speaking populations of Madagascar. A large number of the Malagasy today are the result of admixture between Austronesians and Africans. This is most evident in the Mikea, who are also the last known Malagasy population to still practice a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Additional information is that most of the African admixture is patrilineal while most of the Austronesian admixture is matrilineal. This means that the majority of the intermixing were between black African males and Austronesian females.[23][24] Maximum-likelihood estimates favour a scenario in which Madagascar was settled approximately 1200 years ago by a very small group of women (approx. 30)[25] with an even smaller number of men. In the study of "The Dual Origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from Maternal and Paternal Lineages" shows the African Maternal origin to be 38% and Paternal 51% while the Asian Paternal to be 34% and Maternal 62%.[26] In the study of Malagasy Autosomal DNA shows the highlanders ethnic group like Merina are almost an even mixture of Asian and African origin, while the Coastal ethnic group have much higher African mixture in their autosomal DNA suggesting they are mixture of new African migrants and the already established highlander ethnic group. Inter-mixture dated back to the small founding population of Madagascar.
Intermarriage between Chinese men and native Malagasy women was not uncommon.[27] Several thousand Cantonese men intermarried and cohabited with Malagasy women. 98% of the Chinese traced their origin from Guangdong—more specifically, the Cantonese district of Shunde. For example, the 1954 census found 1,111 "irregular" Chinese-Malagasy unions and 125 legitimate, i.e., legally married. Children were registered by their mothers under a Malagasy name.[clarification needed] Intermarriage between French men and Native Malagasy women was not uncommon either.
Americas
United States
See also: Race in the United States and Multiracial American



 US President Barack Obama is the son of a white American mother and a black Kenyan father.
Historically, "race mixing" between black and white people was taboo in the United States. So-called anti-miscegenation laws, barring blacks and whites from marrying or having sex, were established in colonial America as early as 1691.[10] The 1691 Virginia law was amended in 1705 to remove "Indian-white" from the prohibition. Thomas Jefferson's policy proposal for dealing with Native Americans was "to let our settlements and theirs meet and blend together, to intermix, and become one people."[28]
The taboo among American whites surrounding white-black can be seen as a historical consequence of the oppression and racial segregation of African-Americans.[29][30] In many U.S. states interracial marriage was already illegal when the term miscegenation was invented in 1863. The first laws banning interracial marriage were introduced in the late 17th century in the slave-holding colonies of Virginia (1691) and Maryland (1692). Later these laws also spread to colonies and states where slavery did not exist.
It has also been argued[by whom?] that the first laws banning interracial marriage were a response by the planter elite to the problems they were facing due to the socio-economic dynamics of the plantation system in the Southern colonies. The bans in Virginia and Maryland were established at a time when slavery was not yet fully institutionalized. At the time, most forced laborers on the plantations were indentured servants, and they were mostly white. Some historians have suggested that the at-the-time unprecedented laws banning interracial marriage were originally invented by planters as a divide and rule tactic after the uprising of servants in Bacon's Rebellion. According to this theory, the ban on interracial marriage was issued to split up the racially mixed, increasingly mixed-race labour force into whites, who were given their freedom, and blacks, who were later treated as slaves rather than as indentured servants. By forbidding interracial marriage, it became possible to keep these two new groups separated and prevent a new rebellion.[31]



 U.S States, by the date of repeal of anti-miscegenation laws:
  No laws passed
  Before 1887
  1948 to 1967
  12 June 1967
In 1918, there was considerable controversy in Arizona when an Asian Indian farmer B. K. Singh married the sixteen-year-old daughter of one of his white tenants.[32] During and after slavery, most American whites regarded interracial marriage between whites and blacks as taboo. However, during slavery many white American men and women did conceive children with black partners. These children automatically became slaves if the mother was a slave or were born free if the mother was free, as slavery was matrilineal.[citation needed] Some children were freed by their slave-holding fathers or bought to be emancipated if the father was not the owner. Many children of these unions formed enclaves under names such as Colored and Gens de couleur, etc.[citation needed] Most mixed-raced descendants merged into the African-American ethnic group during Jim Crow.
Genetic research suggests that a considerable minority of white Americans (estimated at 1/3 of the population by some geneticists such as Mark Shriver) has some distant African-American ancestry,[citation needed] and that the majority of black Americans have some European ancestry.[citation needed] After the Civil War and the abolition of slavery in 1865, the marriage of white and black Americans continued to be taboo, especially but not only in the former slave states.
The Motion Picture Production Code of 1930, also known as Hays Code, explicitly stated that the depiction of "miscegenation... is forbidden."[citation needed] One important strategy intended to discourage the marriage of white Americans and Americans of partly African descent was the promulgation of the one-drop theory, which held that any person with any known African ancestry, however remote, must be regarded as "black." This definition of blackness was encoded in the anti-miscegenation laws of various U.S. states, such as Virginia's Racial Integrity Act of 1924. The plaintiffs in Loving v. Virginia, Mildred Jeter and Richard Loving became the historically most prominent interracial couple in the US through their legal struggle against this act.



Robert De Niro and his wife Grace Hightower. Census data showed 117,000 black wife-white husband couples in 2006.[33]
Throughout American history, there has been frequent mixing between Native Americans and black Africans. When Native Americans invaded the European colony of Jamestown, Virginia in 1622, they killed the Europeans but took the African slaves as captives, gradually integrating them. Interracial relationships occurred between African Americans and members of other tribes along coastal states. During the transitional period of Africans becoming the primary race enslaved, Native Americans were sometimes enslaved with them. Africans and Native Americans worked together, some even intermarried and had mixed children. The relationship between Africans and Native-Americans was seen as a threat to Europeans and European-Americans, who actively tried to divide Native-Americans and Africans and put them against each other.[34]
During the 18th Century, some Native American women turned to freed or runaway African men due to a major decline in the male population in Native American villages. At the same time, the early slave population in America was disproportionately male. Records show that some Native American women bought African men as slaves. Unknown to European sellers, the women freed and married the men into their tribe. Some African men chose Native American women as their partners because their children would be free, as the child's status followed that of the mother. The men could marry into some of the matrilineal tribes and be accepted, as their children were still considered to belong to the mother's people. As European expansion increased in the Southeast, African and Native American marriages became more numerous.[35]
From the mid 19th to 20th centuries, many black people and ethnic Mexicans intermarried with each other in the Lower Rio Grande Valley in South Texas (mostly in Cameron County and Hidalga County). In Cameron County, 38% of black people were interracially married (7/18 families) while in Hidalgo County the number was 72% (18/25 families). These two counties had the highest rates of interracial marriages involving at least one black spouse in the United States. The vast majority of these marriages involved black men marrying ethnic Mexican women or first generation Tejanas (Texas-born women of Mexican descent). Since ethnic Mexicans were considered white by Texas officials and the U.S. government, such marriages were a violation of the state's anti-miscegenation laws. Yet, there is no evidence that anyone in South Texas was prosecuted for violating this law. The rates of this unusual interracial marriage dynamic can be traced back to when black men moved into the Lower Rio Grande Valley after the Civil War ended. They married into ethnic Mexican families and joined other black people who found sanctuary on the U.S./Mexico border.[36]
In the mid 19th to 20th centuries, the Chinese that migrated were almost entirely of Cantonese origin. Hundreds of thousands of Chinese men in the U.S, mostly of Cantonese origin from Taishan migrated to the United States. Anti-miscegenation laws in many states prohibited Chinese men from marrying white women.[37] After the Emancipation Proclamation, many intermarriages in some states were not recorded and historically, Chinese American men married African American women in high proportions to their total marriage numbers due to few Chinese American women being in the United States. After the Emancipation Proclamation, many Chinese Americans immigrated to the Southern states, particularly Arkansas, to work on plantations. For example, in 1880, the tenth US Census of Louisiana alone counted 57% of interracial marriages between these Chinese Americans to be with African Americans and 43% to be with European American women.[38] Between 20 and 30 percent of the Chinese who lived in Mississippi married black women before 1940.[39] In a genetic study of 199 samples from African American males found one belong to haplogroup O2a ( or 0.5% )[40] It was discovered by historian Henry Louis Gates, Jr in the African American Lives documentary miniseries that NASA astronaut Mae Jemison has a significant (above 10%) genetic East Asian admixture. Gates speculated that the intermarriage/relations between migrant Chinese workers during the 19th century and black, or African-American slaves or ex-slaves may have contributed to her ethnic genetic make-up. In the mid 1850s, 70 to 150 Chinese were living in New York City and 11 of them married Irish women. In 1906 the New York Times (6 August) reported that 300 white women (Irish American) were married to Chinese men in New York, with many more cohabited. In 1900, based on Liang research, of the 120,000 men in more than 20 Chinese communities in the United States, he estimated that one out of every twenty Chinese men (Cantonese) was married to white women.[41] In the 1960s census showed 3500 Chinese men married to white women and 2900 Chinese women married to white men.[42]
Accusations of support for miscegenation were commonly made by slavery defenders against Abolitionists before the Civil War. After the war, similar charges were used by white segregationists against advocates of equal rights for African Americans. They were said to be secretly plotting the destruction of the white race through miscegenation. In the 1950s, segregationists alleged a Communist plot funded by the Soviet Union with that goal. In 1957, segregationists cite the anti-semitic hoax A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century as evidence for these claims.
Bob Jones University banned interracial dating until 2000.[43]
Asians were specifically included in some state laws. California continued to ban Asian/white marriages until the Perez v. Sharp decision in 1948.



Tiger Woods refers to his ethnic make-up as "Cablinasian" (Caucasian, black, Indian and Asian) to describe the racial mixture he inherited from his African-American father and Thai mother.[44]
In the United States, segregationists, including modern Christian Identity groups, have claimed that several passages in the Bible,[45] for example the stories of Phinehas and of the so-called "curse of Ham," should be understood as referring to miscegenation and that certain verses expressly forbid it. Most theologians read these verses and references as forbidding interreligious marriage, rather than interracial marriage.[46]
Interracial marriage has become increasingly accepted in the United States since the Civil Rights movement and up to the present day.[47] Approval of mixed marriages in national opinion polls has risen from 4% in 1958, 20% in 1968 (at the time of the SCOTUS decision), 36% in 1978, to 48% in 1991, 65% in 2002, 77% in 2007 and 86% in 2011.[48][49] The most notable American of mixed race is the current President of the United States, Barack Obama, who is the product of a mixed marriage between a black father and white mother. Nevertheless, as late as 2009, a Louisiana justice of the peace refused to issue a marriage license to an interracial couple, justifying the decision on grounds of concern for any children the couple might have.[50]
Hawaii
The majority of Hawaiian Chinese were Cantonese migrants from Guangdong with a minority from Hakka. If all people with Chinese ancestry in Hawaii (including the Chinese-Hawaiians) are included, they form about 1/3 of Hawaii's entire population. Many thousands of them married women of Hawaiian, Hawaiian/European and European origin. A large percentage of the Chinese men married Hawaiian and Hawaiian/European women. The 12,592 Asiatic-Hawaiians enumerated in 1930 were the result of Chinese men intermarrying with Hawaiian and part Hawaiian/European. Most Asiatic-Hawaiians men also married Hawaiians and European women (and vice versa). On the census some Chinese with little native blood would be classified as Chinese, not as Asiatic-Hawaiians due to dilution of native blood. Intermarriage started to decline in the 1920s.[51][52] Portuguese and other Caucasian women often married Chinese men.[53][54] These unions between Chinese men and Portuguese women resulted in children of mixed Chinese Portuguese parentage, called Chinese-Portuguese. For two years ending 30 June 1933, 38 of these children were born; they were classified as pure Chinese because their fathers were Chinese.[51] A large amount of mingling took place between Chinese and Portuguese, Chinese men married Portuguese, Spanish, Hawaiian, Caucasian-Hawaiian, etc.[55][56][57][58] Only one Chinese man was recorded marrying an American woman.[59][60] Chinese men in Hawaii also married Puerto Rican, Portuguese, Japanese, Greek, and half -white women.[61][62]
Latin America



Free Women of Color with their Children and Servants, oil painting by Agostino Brunias, Dominica, c.1764-1796


 A Brazilian family each generation becoming "whiter" (black grandmother, mulatto mother and white child), 1895
About 300,000 Cantonese coolies and migrants (almost all males) were shipped during 1849–1874 to Latin America; many of them intermarried and cohabited with the Black, Mestizo, and European population of Cuba, Peru, Guyana, and Trinidad.
In addition, Latin American societies also witnessed growth in both Church-sanctioned and common law marriages between Africans and the non colored.[63]
Peru
About 100,000 Cantonese coolies (almost all males) during 1849–1874 migrated to Peru and intermarried with Peruvian women of Mestizo, European, Ameridian, European/Mestizo, African and mulatto origin. Thus, many Peruvian Chinese today are of mixed Chinese, Spanish, African, or Ameridian ancestry. One estimate for Chinese-Peruvian mixture is about 1.3–1.6 millions. Asian Peruvians are estimated to be 3% of the population, but one source places the number of citizens with some Chinese ancestry at 4.2 million, which equates to 15% of the country's total population.[64]
Cuba
120,000 Cantonese coolies (all males) entered Cuba under contract for 80 years. Most did not marry, but Hung Hui (1975:80) states there was a frequency of sexual activity between black women and Cantonese coolies. According to Osberg, (1965:69) the Chinese often bought slave women and freed them, expressly for marriage. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Chinese men (Cantonese) engaged in sexual activity with white and black Cuban women, and from such relations many children were born. (For a British Caribbean model of Chinese cultural retention through procreation with black women, see Patterson, 322-31).[65] In the 1920s an additional 30000 Cantonese and small groups of Japanese arrived; both immigrations were exclusively male, and there was rapid mingling with white, black, and mulato populations.[66][67] In the CIA World Factbook: Cuba (15 May 2008) the authors estimated 114,240 people with Chinese-Cuban ancestry and only 300 pure Chinese.[68] In the study of genetic origin, admixture, and asymmetry in maternal and paternal human lineages in Cuba, 35 Y-chromosome SNPs were typed in the 132 male individuals of the Cuban sample. The study did not include any people with some Chinese ancestry. All the samples were white and black Cubans. 2 out of 132 male samples belong to East Asian Haplogroup O2 which is found in significant frequencies among Cantonese people.[69]
Costa Rica
The Chinese in Costa Rica originated from Cantonese male migrants. Pure Chinese make up only 1% of the Costa Rican population but, according to Jacqueline M. Newman, as much as ten percent of the people in Costa Rica are Chinese, if we count the people who are Chinese, married to a Chinese, or of mixed Chinese descent. Ten percent of three and a half million is a sizable number.[70] Most Chinese immigrants since then have been Cantonese, but in the last decades of the 20th century, a number of immigrants have also come from Taiwan. Many men came alone to work, married Costa Rican women, and speak Cantonese. However, the majority of the descendants of the first Chinese immigrants no longer speak Cantonese and think of themselves as full Costa Ricans.[71] They married Tican women (who are a blend of European, Castizo, Mestizo, Indian, Black).[72] A Tican is also a white person with small amount of non-white blood, like Castizo. The 1989 census shows about 98% of Costa Ricans were either White, Castizo, Mestizos, with 80% being White or Castizo.
Many Africans in Costa Rica also intermarried with other races. In late colonial Cartago, 33% of 182 married African males and 7% of married African females were married to a spouse of another race. The figures were even more striking in San Jose' where 55% of the 134 married African males and 35% of the 65 married African females were married to another race (mostly mestizos). In Cartago itself, two African males were enumerated with Spanish wives and three with Indian wives, while nine African females were married to Indian males. Spaniards rarely cohabited with mulatto women except in the cattle range region bordering Nicaragua to the north. There as well, two Spanish women were living with African males.[63]



 Mulatto child of a white father and black mother, Mexico, 18th century
West Indies
Around 20,000 mostly Cantonese (and some Hakka) coolies migrated to Jamaica, Guyana, Trinidad. Many of them intermarried with black and East Indian women due to Chinese women being in short supply. Unlike in Trinidad Tobago and Guyana who were predominantly Cantonese men who intermarried with Black women and East Indian women. The Chinese who migrated to Jamaica and married Black women were mostly Hakka. According to the 1946 Census from Jamaica and Trinidad alone, 12,394 Chinese were found. 5,515 of those who lived in Jamaica were Chinese-Jamaicans, and another 3,673 were Chinese-Trinidadians living in Trinidad 4,061 local born, 5,515 Chinese colored (one Chinese parent). In Trinidad, there were 9,314: 2,366 China-born, 2,926 local born, 349 born abroad (from other colonies), 3,673 Chinese colored.[38] In Jamaica and other Caribbean nations as well, over time, many Chinese males took up African wives, gradually assimilating or absorbing many Chinese descendants into the African Caribbean community or the overall mixed-race community.[73] In Guyana, the Chinese were mostly Cantonese men. Because almost all of the Chinese indentured immigrants were men, they tended to intermarry with both East Indians and Africans, and thus the Chinese of Guyana did not remain as physically distinct as other groups.[74] Their offspring also tended to intermarry with the local African and East Indian Guyanese rather than with the Chinese colored; as a result some Guyanese who have little Chinese ancestry are not included in the Census, and some may not know about their Chinese ancestry.
Mexico



Castas painting showing the various race combinations of Colonial Mexico.
In Mexico, the concept of mestizaje (or the cultural and racial amalgamation) is an integral part of the country's identity. While frequently seen as a mixture of the indigenous and Spanish, Mexico has had a notable admixture of African and Asian heritage since the Colonial era. Many black men sought conjugal companionship with the local Amerindian women due to a shortage of black women (there were three times as many male slaves as female ones). Black men, both free and slave, kept Amerindian concubines. Although this was discouraged by the Spanish, it did not deter black men from pursuing Amerindian women. Even if a black man was a slave, by having children with Amerindian women (who were considered free subjects) their offspring would be free. Black male slaves who took Amerindian concubines were in effect circumventing the class stratification of colonial society. As time went on, black men (free or slave) were allowed to marry Amerindian women. However, their offspring would have to pay tribute to the Spanish government. Mixing between black men and Amerindian women led to the process of endoacculturation.[75]
Since there was also a shortage of Spanish women, Spanish men also kept black women (slave or free) as concubines. In the beginning, this was also discouraged by the Spanish government, who tried to prevent these unions. However, whenever these unions had mixed children they would become slaves, thus increasing the number of slaves in the colony. However, some Spaniards were willing to buy these children and grant them freedom after purchase. Although reluctant at first, the Spanish government eventually legalized interracial marriage (which applied to all unions). Such relationships were still not accepted by the church however. Black female slaves also did not gain any freedom from such unions.[75]
The Chinese who migrated to Mexico in the 19th to 20th centuries were almost entirely Cantonese men. They married Mexican women, which led to sentiments against Chinese; many were expelled, while those who were allowed to stay intermarried with the Mexican population. The Mexicali officials estimate that slightly more than 2,000 are full-blooded Chinese and about 8,000 are mixed-blood Chinese-Mexicans. Other estimates claim 50,000 residents—more than thought—who are of Chinese descent.[76] Today, marriage of these people with the general Mexican population is common.[76] Chinese Mexicans in Mexicali consider themselves equally "cachanilla," a term used for locals, as any other resident of the city, even if they speak Cantonese in addition to Spanish. The sentiment against Chinese men was due to (and almost all Chinese immigrants in Mexico were men) stealing employment and Mexican women from Mexican men who had gone off to fight in the Revolution or in World War I.[77] In San Luis Potosí, tests reveal 3.45% of O-M175, which is common marker among Chinese, East Asian, Southeast Asian and Central Asian.[78]
Venezuela
See also: Chinese Venezuelan



 Ethnic mix: German mother (left), Venezuelan father—of German ancestry—(right) and their German Venezuelan daughter (center)
Marriages between European, Mestizo, Amerindians, Africans was not uncommon in the past. Several thousand Chinese from Enping resided in the country, the Chinese were still largely viewed as a foreign population that married foreign brides but seldom integrated into Venezuelan society.[79]
Argentina
In Buenos Aires in 1810, only 2.2 percent of African men and 2.5 percent of African women were married to the non colored (white). In 1827, the figures increased to 3.0 percent for men and 6.0 percent for women. Racial mixing increased even further as more African men began enlisting in the army. Between 1810 and 1820 only 19.9% of African men were enlisted in the army. Between 1850 and 1860, this number increased to 51.1%. This led to a sexual imbalance between African men and women in Argentine. Unions between African women and non-colored men became more common in the wake of massive Italian immigration to the country. This led one African male editorial commentator to quip that, given to the sexual imbalance in the community, black women who "could not get bread would have to settle for pasta".[63]
Guatemala
There were many instances when black and mulatto men would intermarry with Mayan and other native women in Guatemala. These unions were more common in some regions than others. In Escuintla (called Escuintepeque at the time), the Pipil-speaking natives who lived at higher elevations tended to live away from the lowland coastal hot lands where black and mulatto men were concentrated. Yet, as black men grew in number during this period (1671–1701), a tendency developed for them to marry native women. In Zapotitlán (also known as Suchitepéquez), Spaniards were proportionately more significant than in Escuintla. Thus the smaller African population had less opportunity for endogamy and was disappearing by the early 18th Century as blacks married Mayans and mulattoes married mestizos and lower-ranking Spaniards. Finally in Guazacapán, a Pipil district that was 10% non native, church marriages between Mayas or Pipils and free mulattoes were rare. But black men frequently married Mayan women in informal unions, which resulted in a significant population of mestizaje here and throughout the coastal region. In the Valle de las Vacas, black male slaves also intermarried with Mayan women.[80]
El Salvador
In El Salvador, there was frequent intermarriage between black male slaves and Amerindian women. Many of these slaves intermarried with Amerindian women in hopes of gaining freedom (if not for themselves, then their offspring). Many mixed African and Amerindian children resulted from these unions. The Spanish tried to prevent such Afro-Amerindian unions, but the mixing of the two groups could not be prevented. Slaves continued to pursue natives with the prospect of freedom. According to Richard Price's book Maroon Societies (1979), it is documented that during the colonial period that Amerindian women would rather marry black men than Amerindian men, and that black men would rather marry Amerindian women than black women so that their children will be born free. Price quoted this from a history by H.H. Bancroft published in 1877 referring to colonial Mexico. El Salvador's African population lived under similar circumstances, and the mixing between black men and native women was common during colonial times.[81]
Bolivia
During the colonial period, many black people often intermarried with the native population (mostly Aymara). The result of these relationships was the blending between the two cultures (Aymara and Afro-Bolivian).
After Bolivia's Agrarian Reform of 1953, black people (like indigenous people) migrated from their agricultural villages to the cities of La Paz, Cochabamba, and Santa Cruz in search of better educational and employment opportunities. Related to this, black individuals began intermarrying with people of a lighter skin coloring such as blancos (whites) and mestizos. This was done as a means of better integration for themselves, and especially their children, into Bolivian society.[82]
Jamaica and Haiti
By some estimates, 80,000 North American and European women (most of them over the age of 40) visit Jamaica and Haiti every year for sex with young men (mostly in their 20s).[83] They're called "milk bottles."[84] While HIV/AIDS infection rates in the Caribbean are much higher than in Canada or the U.S., female sex tourists often ignore the risk and fail to use condoms.[85] Many thousands of Chinese men (mostly Hakka) and Indian men married local Jamaican women. In the study of "Y-chromosomal diversity in Haiti and Jamaica: Contrasting levels of sex-biased gene flow." shows the paternal Chinese haplogroup O-M175 at a frequency of 3.8% in local Jamaicans (non-Chinese Jamaicans) including the Indian H-M69 (0.6%) and L-M20 (0.6%) in local Jamaicans.[86] Among the country's most notable Afro-Asians are reggae singers Sean Paul, Tami Chynn and Diana King.
Asia
Inter-ethnic marriage in Southeast Asia dates back to the spread of Indian culture, Hinduism and Buddhism to the region. From the 1st century onwards, mostly male traders and merchants from the Indian subcontinent frequently intermarried with the local female populations in Cambodia, Burma, Champa, central Siam, the Malay Peninsula, and Malay Archipelago. Many Indianized kingdoms arose in Southeast Asia during the Middle Ages.[87]
From the 9th century onwards, a large number of mostly male Arab traders from the Middle East settled down in the Malay Peninsula and Malay Archipelago, and they intermarried with the local Malay, Indonesian and female populations in the islands later called the Philippines. This contributed to the spread of Islam in Southeast Asia.[88] From the 14th to the 17th centuries, many Chinese, Indian and Arab traders settled down within the maritime kingdoms of Southeast Asia and intermarried with the local female populations. This tradition continued among Portuguese traders who also intermarried with the local populations.[89] In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese people also travelled to Southeast Asia and intermarried with the local women there.[90]
From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou (Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing multiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions".[91] Multiple women originating from the Persian Gulf lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter, they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦 Po-ssu-fu or Bosifu).[92] Some scholars did not differentiate between Persian and Arab, and some say that the Chinese called all women coming from the Persian Gulf "Persian Women".[93]
Some 100,000 Amerasians stayed in Vietnam after the fall of Saigon.[94] During and after the Indonesian National Revolution (1945–1965) around 300,000 people, pre-dominantly Eurasians, left Indonesia to go to the Netherlands.[95]
In the 19th century and early 20th century, there was a network of small numbers of Chinese and Japanese prostitutes being trafficked across Asia, in countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Singapore and British India, in what was then known as the ’Yellow Slave Traffic’. There was also a network of prostitutes from continental Europe being trafficked to India, Ceylon, Singapore, China and Japan at around the same time, in what was then known as the ’White Slave Traffic’.[96]



Rangoon, Burma. 8 August 1945. A young ethnic Chinese woman who was in one of the Imperial Japanese Army's "comfort stations" is interviewed by an Allied officer.
During World War II, Japanese soldiers engaged in war rape during their invasions across East Asia and Southeast Asia. The term "comfort women" is a euphemism for the estimated 200,000, mostly Korean and Chinese, women who were forced into prostitution in Japanese military brothels during World War II. Some Indo Dutch women, captured in Dutch colonies in Asia, were also forced into sexual slavery.[97] More than 20,000 Indonesian women[98] and nearly 300 Dutch women were so treated.[99]
Sex tourism has emerged in the late 20th century as a controversial aspect of Western tourism and globalization. Sex tourism is typically undertaken internationally by tourists from wealthier countries. Author Nils Ringdal alleges that three out of four men between the ages of 20 and 50 who have visited Asia or Africa have paid for sex.[100]
Female sex tourism also emerged in the late 20th century in Bali. Tens of thousands of single women throng the beaches of Bali in Indonesia every year. For decades, young Balinese men have taken advantage of the louche and laid-back atmosphere to find love and lucre from female tourists—Japanese, European and Australian for the most part—who by all accounts seem perfectly happy with the arrangement.[101]
Central Asia
Today Central Asians are a mixture of various peoples, such as Mongols, Turks and Iranians. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia in the 13th century resulted in the massacre of the mostly Iranic population and other Indo-European people with intermarriage and assimilation. Modern genetic studies show that Central Asian Turkic people and Hazara are an mixture of Northeast Asians and Indo-European people. Caucasian ancestry is prevalent in almost all central Asian Turkic people. Kazakhs, Hazara, Karakalpaks, and Crimean Tatars have more Caucasian maternal Mtdna than Caucasian paternal Y-dna while Kyrgyz have more European Y-dna with substantial Caucasian Mtdna. Other Turkic people like Uyghurs, Uzbeks, have mostly Caucasian Y-DNA but also high percentages of Caucasian Mtdna. Turkmen have predominately Caucasian Y-dna and Mtdna.[102]
Caucasus
The Nogais who live in Southern Russia/North Caucasus are a mixture of Mongoloid and Caucasoid and also have high frequencies of mongoloid paternal y-dna. Some North Caucasus ethnic groups also contain low to moderate frequencies of Mongolian paternal DNA such as haplogroup C-M217.[103][104]
China
There have been various periods in the history of China where a number of Arabs, Persians and Turks from the western regions (Central Asia and West Asia) migrated to China, beginning with the arrival of Islam during the Tang Dynasty in the 7th century. Due to the majority of these immigrants being male, some decided to intermarry with local Chinese females. Intermarriage was initially discouraged by the Tang Dynasty. In 836 Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton, he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage between Chinese and foreigners. Lu enforced separation, banning interracial marriages, and made it illegal for foreigners to own property. Lu Chun believed his principles were just and upright.[105] The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "dark peoples" or "people of colour", which was used to describe foreigners, such as "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", among others.[106][107] The Song Dynasty allowed third-generation immigrants with official titles to intermarry with Chinese imperial princesses.[108]
Iranian, Arab and Turkic women also occasionally migrated to China and mixed with Chinese.[108] From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou (Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing multiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions".[91][109] Multiple women originating from the Persian Gulf lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter; they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦; Po-szu-fu or Bosifu).[110] Iranian female dancers were in demand in China during this period. During the Sui dynasty, ten young dancing girls were sent from Persia to China. During the Tang dynasty bars were often attended by Iranian or Sogdian waitresses who performed dances for clients.[105][111][112][113]
During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (Wudai) (907–960), there are examples of Persian women marrying Chinese emperors. Some Chinese officials from the Song Dynasty era also married women from Dashi (Arabia).[114]
Of the Han Chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, married a Persian or an Arab girl, and brought her back to Quanzhou. He then converted to Islam. Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.[115][116][117]
By the 14th century, the total population of Muslims in China had grown to 4 million.[118] After Mongol rule had been ended by the Ming Dynasty in 1368, this led to a violent Chinese backlash against West and Central Asians. In order to contain the violence, the Ming administration instituted a policy where all West and Central Asian males were required to intermarry with native Chinese females, hence assimilating them into the local population. Their descendants are today known as the Hui people.[108] 6.7% of Hui people's maternal genetics have a Caucasian origin, while slightly over 30% of paternal genetics also have a Caucasian origin.[119]
Han women who married Hui men became Hui, and Han men who married Hui women also became Hui.[120][121][122]
In the frontier districts of Sichuan, numerous half Chinese-Tibetans were found. Tibetan women were glad to marry Chinese traders and soldiers.[123] Some Chinese traders married Tibetan girls.[124] Traders and officials in ancient times were often forbidden to bring Chinese women with them to Tibet, so they tended to marry Tibetan women; the male offspring were considered Chinese and female offspring as Tibetan.[125][126][127] Special names were used for these children of Chinese fathers and Tibetan mothers.[128] They often assimilated into the Tibetan population.[129] Chinese and Nepalese in Tibet married Tibetan women.[130]
In Qinghai, premarital sex between Tibetan girls and Han Chinese men was common; some Tibetan girls boasted of their sexual conquests of Han Chinese boys.[131]
Chinese men also married Turkic Uyghur women in Xinjiang from 1880 to 1949. Sometimes poverty influenced Uyghur women to marry Chinese. These marriages were not recognized by local mullahs since Muslims women were not allowed to marry non-Muslim men under Islamic law. This did not stop the women because they enjoyed advantages, such as not being subject to Islamic law and they were not subjected to certain taxes. Uyghur women married to Chinese also did not have to wear a veil and they received their husband's property upon his death. These women were forbidden from being buried in Muslim graves. The children of Chinese men and Uyghur women were considered as Uyghur. Some Chinese soldiers had Uyghur women as temporary wives, and after the man's military service was up, the wife was left behind or sold, and if it was possible, sons were taken, and daughters were sold.[132]
European travellers noted that many Han Chinese in Xinjiang married Uyghur (who were called turki) women and had children with them. A Chinese was spotted with a "young" and "good looking" Uyghur wife and another Chinese left behind his Uyghur wife and child in Khotan.[133][134][135][136]
After 1950, some intermarriage between Han and Uyghur peoples continued. A Han married a Uyghur woman in 1966 and had three daughters with her, and other cases of intermarriage also continued.[137][138]
Ever since the 1960s, African students were allowed by the Chinese government to study in China as friendly relations with Africans and African-related people was important to CCP's "Third World" coalition. Many African male students began to intermingle with the local Chinese women. Relationships between black men and Chinese women often led to numerous clashes between Chinese and African students in the 1980s as well as grounds for arrest and deportation of African students. The Nanjing anti-African protests of 1988 were triggered by confrontations between Chinese and Africans. New rules and regulations were made in order to stop African men from consorting with Chinese women. Two African men who were escorting Chinese women on a Christmas Eve party were stopped at the gate and along with several other factors escalated. The Nanjing protests lasted from Christmas Eve of 1988 to January 1989. Many new rules were set after the protests ended, including one where black men could only have one Chinese girlfriend at a time whose visits were limited to the lounge area.[139]
There is a small but growing population of mixed marriages between male African (mostly Nigerian) traders and local Chinese women in the city of Guangzhou where it is estimated that in 2013 there are 400 African-Chinese families.[140] The rise in mixed marriages has not been without controversy. The state, fearing fraud marriages, has strictly regulated matters. In order to obtain government-issued identification (which is required to attend school), the children must be registered under the Chinese mother's family name. Many African fathers, fearing that in doing so, they would relinquish their parental rights, have instead chosen to not send their children to school. There are efforts to open an African-Chinese school but it would first require government authorization.[140]
Taiwan
During the Siege of Fort Zeelandia in which Chinese Ming loyalist forces commanded by Koxinga besieged and defeated the Dutch East India Company and conquered Taiwan, the Chinese took Dutch women and children prisoner. Koxinga took Hambroek's teenage daughter as a concubine,[141][142][143] and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives.In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.[144]
Some Dutch physical looks like auburn and red hair among people in regions of south Taiwan are a consequence of this episode of Dutch women becoming concubines to the Chinese commanders.[145]
Hong Kong
Many Tanka women conceived children with foreign men. Ernest John Eitel mentioned in 1889 how an important change had taken place among Eurasian girls, the offspring of illicit connections: instead of becoming concubines, they were commonly brought up respectably and married to Hong Kong Chinese husbands. Many Hong Kong born Eurasians were assimilated into the Hong Kong society by intermarriage with the Cantonese population. A good example of a Cantonese Eurasian is Nancy Kwan, a Hollywood sex symbol. Kwan was of Eurasian origin, born in 1939 in Hong Kong to a father who was a Cantonese architect and mother who is a model of British and Scottish descent. The martial artist Bruce Lee had a Cantonese father and a Eurasian mother.
Main article: Tanka people
Ernest John Eitel controversially claimed that most "half caste" people in Hong Kong were descended exclusively from Europeans having relationship with Tanka women. The theory that most of the Eurasian mixed race Hong Kong people are descended only from Tanka women and European men, and not ordinary Cantonese women, has been backed up by other researchers who pointed out that Tanka women freely consorted with foreigners due to the fact that they were not bound by the same Confucian traditions as the Cantonese, and having a relationship with a European man was advantageous for Tanka women, but Lethbridge criticized it as "a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community". Carl Smith's study in late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, to support Ernest John Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans. The ordinary Cantonese women did not sleep with European men, thus the Eurasian population was formed mostly from Tanka and European admixture.[146][147][148][149]

They invaded Hongkong the moment the settlement was started, living at first on boats in the harbour with their numerous families, gradually settling on shore. They have maintained ever since almost a monopoly of the supply of pilots and ships' crews, of the fish trade and the cattle trade, but unfortunately also of the trade in girls and women. Strange to say, when the settlement was first started, it was estimated that some 2,000 of these Tan-ka people had flocked to Hongkong, but at the present time they are abont the same number, a tendency having set in among them to settle on shore rather than on the water and to disavow their Tan-ka extraction in order to mix on equal terms with the mass of the Chinese community. The half-caste population in Hongkong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuous re-absorption into the mass of the Chinese residents of the Colony.[150]
South Asians have been living in Hong Kong throughout the colonial period, before the independence in 1947 into the nations of India and Pakistan. They migrated to Hong Kong and worked as police officers as well as army officers during colonial rule. 25,000 of the Muslims in Hong Kong trace their roots back to what is now Pakistan. Around half of them belong to 'local boy' families, Muslims of mixed Chinese and South Asian ancestry, descended from early Indian/Pakistani Muslim immigrants who took local Chinese wives and brought their children up as Muslims.[151][152]
Macao
The early Macanese ethnic group was formed from Portuguese men intermarrying with Malay, Japanese and Indian women.[153] The Portuguese encouraged Chinese migration to Macao, and most Macanese in Macao were formed from intermarriages between Portuguese and Chinese. In 1810, the total population of Macao was about 4,033, of which 1,172 were white men, 1,830 were white women, 425 were male slaves, and 606 were female slaves. In 1830, the population increased to 4,480 and the breakdown was 1,202 white men, 2,149 white women, 350 male slaves and 779 female slaves. There is reason to speculate that large numbers of white women were involved in some forms of prostitution which would probably explain the abnormality in the ratio between men and women among the white population.[154]
Rarely did Chinese women marry Portuguese; initially, mostly Goans, Ceylonese (from today's Sri Lanka), Indo China, Malay, and Japanese women were the wives of the Portuguese men in Macau.[155][156][157][158][159] Japanese girls would be purchased in Japan by Portuguese men.[160] Many Chinese became Macanese simply by converting to Catholicism, and had no ancestry from Portuguese, having assimilated into the Macanese people.[161] The majority of the early intermarriages of people from China with Portuguese were between Portuguese men and women of Tanka origin, who were considered the lowest class of people in China and had relations with Portuguese settlers and sailors, or low class Chinese women.[162][163][164] Western men were refused by high class Chinese women, who did not marry foreigners.[165] In fact, in those days, the matrimonial context of production was usually constituted by Chinese women of low socio-economic status who were married to or concubies of Portuguese or Macanese men. Very rarely did Chinese women of higher status agree to marry a Westerner. As Deolinda argues in one of her short stories, "even should they have wanted to do so out of romantic infatuation, they would not be allowed to. Macanese men and women also married with the Portuguese and Chinese; as a result some Macanese became indistinguishable from the Chinese or Portuguese population. Because the majority of the Chinese population who migrated to Macao was Cantonese, Macao became a Cantonese speaking society, and other ethnic groups became fluent in Cantonese. Most Macanese had paternal Portuguese heritage until 1974.[163] It was in the 1980s that Macanese and Portuguese women began to marry men who defined themselves ethnically as Chinese, which resulted in many Macanese with Cantonese paternal ancestry.[165]
Literature in Macao was written about love affairs and marriage between the Tanka women and Portuguese men, like "A-Chan, A Tancareira", by Henrique de Senna Fernandes.[166][167][168]
After the handover of Macao to China in 1999 many Macanese migrated to other countries. Of the Portuguese and Macanese women who stayed in Macao, many married with local Cantonese men, and so many Macanese also now have Cantonese paternal heritage. There are between 25,000–46,000 Macanese, but only 5,000–8,000 live in Macao, while most live in Latin America, America, Portugal. Unlike the Macanese of Macao who are strictly of Chinese and Portuguese heritage, many Macanese living abroad are not entirely of Portuguese and Chinese ancestry. Many Macanese men and women intermarried with the local population of America and Latin America and have only partial Macanese heritage.
Indian subcontinent



 The Indian actress Katrina Kaif is the daughter of an Indian father and a British (English) mother.


 "Lakmé", the Opera deals with the romantic relationship between a British Officer and an Indian Brahmin woman.


 An oil painting of Khair-un-Nissa by George Chinnery. c. 1805. Begum Khair-un-Nissa was a Muslim Indian Hyderabadi noblewoman who fell in love and married the British Lieutenant Colonel James Achilles Kirkpatrick.
The Indian subcontinent has a long history of inter-ethnic marriage dating back to ancient history. Various groups of people have been intermarrying for millennia in South Asia, including speakers of the Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages.
The origins and affinities of the approximately 1 billion people living on the subcontinent of India have long been contested. This is owing, in part, to the many different waves of immigrants that have influenced the genetic structure of India. In the most recent of these waves, Indo-European-speaking nomadic groups from the Near East, Anatolia and the Caucasus migrated to India.[169] According to 19th-century British historians, it was these "Aryans" who established the caste system, an elitist form of social organization that separated the "light-skinned" Indo-Aryan conquerors from the "conquered dark-skinned" indigenous Dravidian population through enforcement of "racial endogamy". Much of this was simply conjecture, fueled by British imperialism;[170] British policies of divide and rule as well as enumeration of the population into rigid categories during the tenure of British rule in India contributed towards the hardening of these segregated caste identities.[171] Since the independence of India from British rule, the British fantasy of an "Aryan Invasion and subjugation of the dark skinned Dravidians in India" has become a staple polemic in South Asian geopolitics, including the propaganda of Indophobia in Pakistan.[172] There is no decisive theory as to the origins of the caste system in India, and globally renowned historians and archaeologists like Jim Shaffer, J.P. Mallory, Edwin Bryant, and others, have disputed the claim of "Aryan Invasion".[173]
Some researchers claim that genetic similarities to Europeans were more common in members of the higher ranks.[174] Their findings, published in Genome Research, supported the idea that members of higher castes are more closely related to Europeans than are the lower castes.[175] According to the research, invading European populations were predominantly male who intermarried with local females and formed the upper castes, i.e., the local females had upward mobility in caste which was denied to local males. However, other researchers have criticized and contradicted this claim.[176] A study by Joanna L. Mountain et al. of Stanford University concluded that there was "no clear separation into three genetically distinct groups along caste lines", although "an inferred tree revealed some clustering according to caste affiliation".[177] A 2006 study by Ismail Thanseem et al. of Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (India) concluded that the "lower caste groups might have originated with the hierarchical divisions that arose within the tribal groups with the spread of Neolithic agriculturalists, much earlier than the arrival of Aryan speakers", and "the Indo-Europeans established themselves as upper castes among this already developed caste-like class structure within the tribes."[178] A 2006 genetic study by the National Institute of Biologicals in India, testing a sample of men from 32 tribal and 45 caste groups, concluded that the Indians have acquired very few genes from Indo-European speakers.[179] More recent studies have also debunked the claims that so-called "Aryans" and "Dravidians" have a "racial divide". A study conducted by the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology in 2009 (in collaboration with Harvard Medical School, Harvard School of Public Health and the Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT) analyzed half a million genetic markers across the genomes of 132 individuals from 25 ethnic groups from 13 states in India across multiple caste groups.[180] The study establishes, based on the impossibility of identifying any genetic indicators across caste lines, that castes in South Asia grew out of traditional tribal organizations during the formation of Indian society, and were not the product of any Aryan invasion and subjugation of Dravidian people.
In Goa, a Portuguese colony in India, during the late 16th century and 17th century, there was a community of over thousand Japanese slaves and traders, who were either Japanese Christians fleeing persecution in Japan,[181] or young Japanese women and girls brought or captured as sexual slaves by Portuguese traders and their South Asian lascar crew members from Japan.[182] In both cases, they often intermarried with the local population in Goa.[181]
One example of an interracial liaison during colonial times involved Hyderabadi noblewoman Khair-un-Nissa and her relationship to Scottish resident James Achilles Kirkpatrick.
The 600,000-strong Anglo-Indian community was formed by British and Indian relationships. Such relationships have had an influence on the arts. Lakmé, an opera by the Frenchman Léo Delibes, deals with the romantic relationship between the British officer Gérald and the daughter of a Hindu high priest Lakmé (Laxmi in Sanskrit).
In Ceylon (present day Sri Lanka), interracial relationships between Dutch, British and Portuguese men and local women were common. The 65,000-strong Burgher community was formed by the interracial marriages of Dutch and Portuguese men with local Sinhalese and Tamil women. In addition to intermarriage, inter-ethnic prostitution in India was also fairly common at the time, when British officers would frequently visit Indian nautch dancers. In the mid-19th century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers but fewer than 2,000 British officials present in India.[183] Many British and other European officers had their own harems made up of Indian women similar to those the Nawabs and kings of India had. In the 19th century and early 20th century, thousands of women and girls from continental Europe were also trafficked into British India (and Ceylon), where they worked as prostitutes servicing both British soldiers and local Indian (and Ceylonese) men.[96][184][185]
As British females began arriving in British India in large numbers from the early-to-mid-19th century, interracial marriage became increasingly uncommon in India. Interracial relationships were also despised after the events of India's First War of Independence, where Indian sepoys rebelled against the British East India Company.
The idea of protecting British female chastity from the "lustful Indian male" had a significant influence on the policies of the British Raj in order to prevent racial miscegenation between the British females and the native Indian male population. While some restrictive policies were imposed on British females in order to protect them from miscegenation, most of these policies were directed against native Indian males.[186][187]
For example, the 1883 Ilbert Bill, which would have granted Indian judges the right to judge British offenders, was opposed by many British colonialists on the grounds that Indian judges cannot be trusted in dealing with cases involving British females.[188] In the aftermath of the 1919 Amritsar Massacre, the long-held stereotype of Indian males as dark-skinned rapists lusting after white British females was challenged by several novels such as A Passage to India (1924) and The Jewel in the Crown (1966), both of which involve an Indian male being wrongly accused of raping a British female.[189]
When Burma was ruled under the administration of British India, millions of Indians, mostly Muslim, migrated there. The small population of mixed descendants of Indian males and local Burmese females are called "Zerbadees", often in a pejorative sense implying mixed race.[190]
In Assam, local Assamese women married several waves of Chinese migrants during British colonial times, to the point where it became hard to physically differentiate Chinese in Assam from locals during the time of their internment during the 1962 war, and the majority of these Chinese in Assam were married to Assamese women.[191]
In the 19th century, when the British Straits Settlement shipped Chinese convicts to be jailed in India, the Chinese men then settled in the Nilgiri mountains near Naduvattam after their release and married Tamil Paraiyan women, having mixed Chinese-Tamil children with them. They were documented by Edgar Thurston.[192][193] Paraiyan is also anglicized as "pariah".
Thurston described the colony of the Chinese men with their Tamil pariah wives and children: "Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of ' marriage ' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating coffee on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs."[194][195] Thurston further describe a specific family: "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones."[196][197][198][199] Thurston's description of the Chinese-Tamil families were cited by others, one mentioned "an instance mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female"[200][201] A 1959 book described attempts made to find out what happened to the colony of mixed Chinese and Tamils.[202]
Japan
See also: Comfort women, Eugenics in Japan and Slavery_in_Japan § Portuguese_trade_in_Japanese_slaves



 Europeans accompanied by Japanese courtesans in Dejima, the Dutch trading colony in the harbor of Nagasaki, early 19th century.
Inter-ethnic marriage in Japan dates back to the 7th century, when Chinese and Korean immigrants began intermarrying with the local Japanese population. In the 1590s, over 50,000 Koreans were forcibly brought to Japan during Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea, where they intermarried with the local population. In the 16th and 17th centuries, around 58,000 Japanese travelled abroad, many of whom intermarried with the local women in Southeast Asia.[90] During the anti-Christian persecutions in 1596, many Japanese Christians fled to Macau and other Portuguese colonies such as Goa, where there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders by the early 17th century. Intermarriage with the local populations in these Portuguese colonies also took place.[181] Portuguese traders in Japan also intermarried with the local Christian women.[203]
From the 15th century, Chinese, Korean and other Far Eastern visitors frequented brothels in Japan.[204] This practice later continued among visitors from the "Western Regions", mainly European traders.[182] This began with the arrival of Portuguese ships to Japan in the 16th century. Portuguese visitors and their South Asian (and sometimes African) crewmembers often engaged in slavery in Japan, where they bought Japanese slaves who were then taken to Macau and other Portuguese colonies in Southeast Asia, the Americas,[182] and India.[181] Later European East India companies, including those of the Dutch and British, also engaged in prostitution in Japan.[205] Marriage and sexual relations between European merchants and Japanese women was usual during this period.[206]
A large-scale slave trade developed in which Portuguese purchased Japanese as slaves in Japan and sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal itself, throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[207][208] Many documents mention the large slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased large amounts of Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church in 1555. King Sebastian feared that it was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization since the slave trade in Japanese was growing to massive proporations, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571.[209][210]
Japanese slave women were even sold as concubines to black African crewmembers, along with their European counterparts serving on Portuguese ships trading in Japan, mentioned by Luis Cerqueira, a Portuguese Jesuit, in a 1598 document.[211] Japanese slaves were brought by the Portuguese to Macau, where some of them not only ended up being enslaved to Portuguese, but as slaves to other slaves, with the Portuguese owning Malay and African slaves, who in turn owned Japanese slaves of their own.[212][213]
In the early part of the Shōwa era, Japanese governments executed a eugenic policy to limit the birth of children with inferior traits, as well as aiming to protect the life and health of mothers.[214] Family Center staff also attempted to discourage marriage between Japanese women and Korean men who had been recruited from the peninsula as laborers following its annexation by Japan in 1910. In 1942, a survey report argued that "the Korean laborers brought to Japan, where they have established permanent residency, are of the lower classes and therefore of inferior constitution...By fathering children with Japanese women, these men could lower the caliber of the Yamato minzoku."
In 1928, journalist Shigenori Ikeda promoted 21 December as the blood-purity day (junketsu de) and sponsored free blood tests at the Tokyo Hygiene laboratory. By the early 1930s, detailed "eugenic marriage" questionnaires were printed or inserted in popular magazines for public consumption. Promoters like Ikeda were convinced that these marriage surveys would not only ensure the eugenic fitness of spouses but also help avoid class differences that could disrupt and even destroy marriage. The goal was to create a database of individuals and their entire households which would enable eugenicists to conduct in-depth surveys of any given family's genealogy.[215]
To prevent venereal diseases and rape by Japanese soldiers and to provide comfort to soldiers and head off espionage, the Imperial Japanese Army established "comfort stations" in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere where around 200,000 women, mostly from Korea and China, were recruited or kidnapped by the Kempeitai or the Tokeitai as comfort women.[216]
One of the last eugenic measures of the Shōwa regime was taken by the Higashikuni government. On 19 August 1945, the Home Ministry ordered local government offices to establish a prostitution service for Allied soldiers to preserve the "purity" of the "Japanese race". The official declaration stated that: "Through the sacrifice of thousands of "Okichis" of the Shōwa era, we shall construct a dike to hold back the mad frenzy of the occupation troops and cultivate and preserve the purity of our race long into the future...."[217]
According to Peter Schrijvers in "The GI War against Japan: American Soldiers in Asia and the Pacific during World War II",[218] rape "reflects a burning need to establish total dominance of the enemy". According to Xavier Guillaume, US soldiers' rape of Japanese women was "general practice". Schrijvers states regarding rapes on Okinawa that "The estimate of one Okinawan historian for the entire three-month period of the campaign exceeds 10,000. A figure that does not seem unlikely when one realizes that during the first 10 days of the occupation of Japan there were 1,336 reported cases of rape of Japanese women by American soldiers in Kanagawa prefecture alone".[218]
However, despite being told by the Japanese military that they would suffer rape, torture and murder at the hands of the Americans, Japanese civilians "were often surprised at the comparatively humane treatment they received from the American enemy."[219][220] According to Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power by Mark Selden, the Americans "did not pursue a policy of torture, rape, and murder of civilians as Japanese military officials had warned."[221]
Japanese society, with its ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally been intolerant of ethnic and other differences.[222] Men or women of mixed ancestry, foreigners, and members of minority groups face discrimination in a variety of forms. In 2005, a United Nations report expressed concerns about racism in Japan and that government recognition of the depth of the problem was not realistic.[223][224] In 2005, Japanese Minister Taro Aso called Japan a "one race" nation.[225]
The Japanese public was thus astounded by the sight of some 45,000 so-called "pan pan girls" (prostitutes) fraternizing with American soldiers during the occupation.[226] In 1946, the 200 wives of U.S. officers landing in Japan to visit their husbands also had a similar impact when many of these reunited couples were seen walking hand in hand and kissing in public.[227] Both prostitution and marks of affection had been hidden from the public until then, and this "democratization of eroticism" was a source of surprise, curiosity, and even envy. The occupation set new relationship models for Japanese men and women: the practice of modern "dating" spread, and activities such as dancing, movies, and coffee were not limited to "pan pan girls" and American troops anymore, and became popular among young Japanese couples.[228]
Korea
Inter-ethnic marriage in Korea dates back to the arrival of Muslims in Korea during the Middle Ages, when Persian and Turkic navigators, traders and slaves settled in Korea and married local Korean people. Some assimilation into Buddhism and Shamanism eventually took place, owing to Korea's geographical isolation from the Muslim world.[229]
There are several Korean clans that are descended from such intermarriages. For example, the Deoksu Jang clan, claiming some 30,000 Korean members, views Jang Sunnyong, a Central Asian who married a Korean female, as their ancestor.[230] Another clan, Gyeongju Seol, claiming at least 2,000 members in Korea, view a Central Asian (probably an Uyghur) named Seol Son as their ancestor.[231][232]
There are even cases of Korean kings marrying princesses from abroad. For example, the Korean text Samguk Yusa about the Gaya kingdom (it was absorbed by the kingdom of Silla later), indicate that in 48 AD, King Kim Suro of Gaya (the progenitor of the Gimhae Kim clan) took a princess (Princess Heo) from the "Ayuta nation" (which is the Korean name for the city of Ayodhya in North India) as his bride and queen. Princess Heo belonged to the Mishra royal family of Ayodhya. According to the Samguk Yusa, the princess had a dream about a heavenly fair handsome king from a far away land who was awaiting heaven's anointed ride. After Princess Heo had the dream, she asked her parents, the king and queen of Ayodhya, for permission to set out and seek the foreign prince, which the king and queen urged with the belief that God orchestrated the whole fate. That king was no other than King Kim Suro of the Korean Gaya kingdom.
6,423 Korean women married US military personnel as war brides during and immediately after the Korean War. The average number of Korean women marrying US military personnel each year was about 1,500 per year in the 1960s and 2,300 per year in the 1970s.[233] Since the beginning of the Korean War in 1950, nearly 100,000 Korean women have immigrated to the United States as the wives of American soldiers. Based on extensive oral interviews and archival research, Beyond the Shadow of the Camptowns tells the stories of these women, from their presumed association with U.S. military camptowns and prostitution to their struggles within the intercultural families they create in the United States.[234]
International marriages now make up 13% of all marriages in South Korea. Most of these marriages are unions between a Korean male and a foreign female[235] usually from China, Japan, Vietnam, the Philippines, United States, Mongolia, Thailand, or Russia. On the other hand, Korean females have married foreign males from Japan, China, the United States, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Philippines, and Nepal. Between 1990 and 2005, there have been 159,942 Korean males and 80,813 Korean females married to foreigners.[236][237]
South Korea is among the world's most ethnically homogeneous nations.[238] Koreans have traditionally valued an unmixed blood as the most important feature of Korean identity. The term "Kosian", referring to someone who has a Korean father and a non-Korean mother, is considered offensive by some who prefer to identify themselves or their children as Korean.[239][240] Moreover, the Korean office of Amnesty International has claimed that the word "Kosian" represents racial discrimination.[241][242] Kosian children, like those of other mixed-race backgrounds in Korea, often face discrimination.[243] There are an estimated 35,000 mixed-raced South Koreans, most of them half Caucasian, according to the Pearl Buck Foundation. Discrimination is far worse against those who have African American fathers.[244]
Vietnam
Main articles: Bụi đời and Women in Vietnam § European rule
Much of the business conducted with foreign men in Southeast Asia was done by the local women, who served engaged in both sexual and mercantile intercourse with foreign male traders. A Portuguese and Malay speaking Vietnamese woman who lived in Macao for an extensive period of time was the person who interpreted for the first diplomatic meeting between Cochin-China and a Dutch delegation, she served as an interpreter for three decades in the Cochin-China court with an old woman who had been married to three husbands, one Vietnamese and two Portuguese.[245][246][247] The cosmopolitan exchange was facilitated by the marriage of Vietnamese women to Portuguese merchants. Those Vietnamese woman were married to Portuguese men and lived in Macao which was how they became fluent in Malay and Portuguese.[248]
Alexander Hamilton said that "The Tonquiners used to be very desirous of having a brood of Europeans in their country, for which reason the greatest nobles thought it no shame or disgrace to marry their daughters to English and Dutch seamen, for the time they were to stay in Tonquin, and often presented their sons-in-law pretty handsomely at their departure, especially if they left their wives with child; but adultery was dangerous to the husband, for they are well versed in the art of poisoning."[249]
Malaysia and Singapore
In West Malaysia and Singapore, the majority of inter-ethnic marriages are between Chinese and Indians. The offspring of such marriages are informally known as "Chindian", although the Malaysian government only classifies them by their father's ethnicity. As the majority of these intermarriages usually involve an Indian groom and Chinese bride, the majority of Chindians in Malaysia are usually classified as "Indian" by the Malaysian government. As for the Malays, who are predominantly Muslim, legal restrictions in Malaysia make it uncommon for them to intermarry with either the Indians, who are predominantly Hindu, or the Chinese, who are predominantly Buddhist and Taoist.[250] Non-Muslims are required to convert to Islam in order to marry Muslims. However, this has not entirely stopped intermarriage between the Malays and the Chinese and Indians. The Muslim Chinese community is small and has only a negligible impact on the socio-economy and demography of the region.
It is common for Arabs in Singapore and Malaysia to take local Malay and Jawi Peranakan wives, due to a common Islamic faith.[88] The Chitty people, in Singapore and the Malacca state of Malaysia, are a Tamil people with considerable Malay descent, which was due to the first Tamil settlers taking local wives, since they did not bring along any of their own women with them. According to government statistics, the population of Singapore as of September 2007 was 4.68 million, of whom multiracial people, including Chindians and Eurasians, formed 2.4%.
In the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, there have been many incidents of intermarriage between Chinese and native tribes such as the Murut and Dusun in Sabah, and the Iban and Bisaya in Sarawak. This phenomenon has resulted in a potpourri of cultures in both states where many people claiming to be of native descent have some Chinese blood in them, and many Chinese have native blood in them. The offspring of these mixed marriages are called 'Sino-(name of tribe)', e.g. Sino-Dusun. Normally, if the father is Chinese, the offspring will adopt Chinese culture and if the father is native then native culture will be adopted, but this is not always the case. These Sino-natives are usually fluent in Malay and English. A smaller number are able to speak Chinese dialects and Mandarin, especially those who have received education in vernacular Chinese schools.
Burma
Burmese Muslims are the descendants of Bengalis, Indian Muslims, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Pathans, Chinese Muslims and Malays who settled and intermarried with the local Burmese population and other Burmese ethnic groups such as the Rakhine, Shan, Karen, and Mon.[251][252]
The oldest Muslim group in Burma (Myanmar) are the Rohingya people, who some believe are descended from Bengalis who intermarried with the native females in the Rakhine State after the 7th century, but this is just a theory. When Burma was ruled by the British India administration, millions of Indians, mostly Muslim, migrated there. The small population of mixed descendants of Indian males and local Burmese females are called "Zerbadees", often in a pejorative sense implying mixed race. The Panthays, a group of Chinese Muslims descended from West Asians and Central Asians, migrated from China and also intermarried with local Burmese females.[190]
In addition, Burma has an estimated 52,000 Anglo-Burmese people, descended from British and Burmese people. Anglo-Burmese people frequently intermarried with Anglo-Indian immigrants, who eventually assimilated into the Anglo-Burmese community.
Philippines



 A Filipina bride and Nigerian groom walk down the aisle.
Historically, admixture has been an ever present and pervasive phenomenon in the Philippines. The Philippines were originally settled by Australoid peoples called Negritos (different from other australoid groups) which now form the country's aboriginal community. Some admixture may have occurred between this earlier group and the mainstream Malayo-Polynesian population.[253]
A considerable number of the population in the town of Cainta, Rizal, are descended from Indian soldiers who mutinied against the British Indian Army when the British briefly occupied the Philippines in 1762–63. These Indian soldiers, called Sepoy, settled in towns and intermarried with native women. Cainta residents of Indian descent are very visible today, particularly in Barrio Dayap near Brgy. Sto Niño.
There has been a Chinese presence in the Philippines since the 9th century. However, large-scale migrations of Chinese to the Philippines only started during the Spanish colonial era, when the world market was opened to the Philippines. It is estimated that among Filipinos, 10%–20% have some Chinese ancestry and 1.5% are "full-blooded" Chinese.[254]
According to the American anthropologist Dr. H. Otley Beyer, the ancestry of Filipinos is 2% Arab. This dates back to when Arab traders intermarried with the local Malay Filipina female populations during the pre-Spanish history of the Philippines.[88] Major Arab migration to the Philippines coincided with the spread of Islam in the region. Filipino-Muslim royal families from the Sultanate of Sulu and the Sultanate of Maguindanao claim Arab descent even going as far as claiming direct lineage from Muhammad.[255] Such intermarriage mostly took place around the Mindanao island area, but the arrival of Spanish Conquistadors to the Philippines abruptly halted the spread of Islam further north into the Philippines. Intermarriage with Spanish people later became more prevalent after the Philippines was colonized by the Spanish Empire.
When the Spanish colonized the Philippines, a significant portion of the Filipino population mixed with the Spanish. When the United States took the Philippines from Spain during the Spanish–American War, much intermixing of Americans, both white and black, took place on the island of Luzon where the US had a Naval Base and Air Force Base, even after the USA gave the Philippines independence after World War II. First children and descendants of male Filipino population with Spanish surnames who intermarried with white American female population may be considered Spanish mestizos. The descendants of Filipinos and Europeans are today known as mestizos, following the term used in other former Spanish colonies.
Much mixing with the Japanese also took place due to the war rapes of Filipina women during World War II. Today there is an increasing number of Japanese men marrying Filipina woman and fathering children by them whose family remain behind in the Philippines and are financially supported by their Japanese fathers who make regular visits to the Philippines. Today mixed-race marriages have a mixed perception in the Philippines. Most urban centers like Manila and Cebu are more willing to accept interracial marriages than rural areas.
Europe
Germany
Main articles: Anti-miscegenation laws § Nazi Germany and Rassenschande



 Poster of the Nazi paper Der Stürmer (1935)


 Chart used to explain the Nuremberg race laws


 1940 poster in German and Polish describing "Obligations of Polish workers in Germany" including death sentence to every man and woman from Poland for sex with a German.
During the years following World War I, the French Army occupied the Rhineland, utilising African soldiers amongst their forces. Their children were known as "Rhineland Bastards".
Beginning in 1933, the mainstream Nazi anti-Semitism considered the Jews as being a group of people bound by close, so-called genetic (blood) ties, to form a unit, which one could not join or secede from. The influence of Jews had been declared to have a detrimental impact on Germany, in order to justify the discriminations and persecutions of Jews. To be spared from those, one had to prove one's affiliation with the group of the Aryan race, as conceived by the Nazis.
It was paradoxical that neither genetic tests nor allegedly racial outward features in one's physiognomy determined one's affiliation, although the Nazis talked a lot about physiognomy, but only the records of the religious affiliations of one's grandparents decided it. However, while earlier the grandparents had still been able to choose their religion, their grandchildren in the Nazi era were compulsorily categorised as Jews, thus non-Aryans, if three or four grandparents had been enrolled as members of a Jewish congregation, regardless of whether the persecuted themselves were Jews according to the Halachah (roughly meaning: Jewish by birth from a Jewish mother or by conversion), apostates, irreligionists or Christians.
The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 forbade persons racially regarded as so-called Aryans and non-Aryans to marry; this included all marriages where at least one partner was a German citizen. Non-Aryans comprised mostly Jewish Germans and Gentile Germans of Jewish descent. Although the laws at first were primarily against Jews, they were later extended to the "Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring".[256][257] The official definition of "Aryan" classified all non-Jewish White Europeans as Aryans,[258] sexual relations between Aryans and non-Aryans now became punishable as Rassenschande or "racial shame".[256] At the bottom of the Nazi racial hierarchy of non-Aryans were Jews, Slavs, Romani, and blacks.[259]
Eventually children—whenever born—within a mixed marriage, as well as children from extramarital mixed relationships born until 31 July 1936, were discriminated against as Mischlinge or crossbreed. However, children later born to mixed parents, not yet married as at the passing of the Nuremberg Laws, were to be discriminated against as Geltungsjuden, regardless of whether the parents had meanwhile married abroad or remained unmarried. Eventually children who were enrolled in a Jewish congregation were also subject to discrimination as Geltungsjuden.
Geltungsjuden were subjected to varying degrees of forced labour in 1940, partly ordered for all Jewish-classified spouses, either only for Jewish-classified husbands or only exempting Jewish-classified wives taking care of minor children. No documents indicate the exemption of a mixed marriage and especially of its Jewish-classified spouse from some persecutions.[260]
Systematic deportations of Jewish Germans and Gentile Germans of Jewish descent started on 18 October 1941.[261] German Jews and German Gentiles of Jewish descent living in mixed marriages were in fact mostly spared from deportation.[262] In the event that a mixed marriage ended by the death of the so-called Aryan spouse or the divorce of the Jewish-classified spouse, the Jewish-classified spouse residing within Germany was usually deported soon after unless the couple still had minor children not counted as Geltungsjuden.[263]
In March 1943 an attempt to deport the Berlin-based Jews and Gentiles of Jewish descent, living in non-privileged mixed marriages, failed due to public protest by their in-laws of so-called Aryan kinship (see Rosenstraße protest). Also the Aryan-classified husbands and Mischling-classified children (starting at the age of 16) from mixed marriages were taken by the Organisation Todt for forced labour, starting in autumn 1944.
A last attempt, undertaken in February/March 1945, ended because the extermination camps were already liberated. However, 2,600 from all over the Reich were deported to Theresienstadt, of whom most survived the last months until their liberation.[264]
After the war began, the race defilement law was extended to include all foreigners.[265] The Gestapo harshly persecuted sexual relations between Germans and workers from Eastern Europe on the grounds of "risk for the racial integrity of the German nation".[265] A decree dated on 7 December 1942 stated any "authorized sexual intercourse" would result in the death penalty.[266] Foreign workers brought to Nazi Germany were treated as a danger to German blood.[267] Particularly with the OST-Arbeiters—Poles, Ukrainians, or Russians, all sexual relations were severely punished.[268] During the war, hundreds of Polish and Russian men were executed for their relations with German women.[269][270]



 Boris Becker with Barbara Feltus in 1992
With the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945 the laws banning so-called mixed marriages were lifted again. If couples who had already lived together during the Nazi era had remained unmarried due to the legal restrictions then got married after the war, their date of marriage was legally retroactively backdated if they wished it to the date they formed a couple.[271] Even if one spouse was already dead, the marriage could be retroactively recognised. In the West German Federal Republic of Germany 1,823 couples applied for recognition, which was granted in 1,255 cases.
It is estimated that up to 7,000 postwar German children with black GI fathers and white German mothers were adopted by Americans.[272]
Hungary
The Hungarians are thought to have originated in an ancient Finno-Ugric population that originally inhabited the forested area between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains.[273] At the time of the Magyar migration in the 10th century, the present-day Hungary was inhabited by Slavs, numbering about 200,000,[274] who were either assimilated or enslaved by the Magyars.[274]
During the Russian campaign in the 13th century, the Mongols drove some 40,000 Cuman families, a nomadic tribe, west of the Carpathian Mountains.[275] The Iranian Jassic people came to Hungary together with the Cumans after they were defeated by the Mongols. Over the centuries they were fully assimilated into the Hungarian population.[276]
Iberian Peninsula



Hadith Bayad wa Riyad (12th century) was an Arabic love story about an Andalusian female and a foreign Damascene male.
In ancient history, the Iberian Peninsula was frequently invaded by foreigners who intermarried with the native population. One of the earliest foreign groups to arrive in the region were the Indo-European Celts who intermarried with the pre-Indo-European Iberians in prehistoric Iberia. They were later followed by the Semitic Phoenicians and Carthaginians and the Indo-European Romans who intermarried with the pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula during Classical Antiquity.
They were in turn followed by the Germanic Visigoths, Suebi and Vandals and the Iranian Sarmatians and Alans who also intermarried with the local population in Hispania during late Antiquity. In the 6th century, the region was reconquered by the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire), when Byzantine Greeks also settled there, before the region was lost again to the Visigothic Kingdom less than a century later.
The offspring of marriages between Arabs and non-Arabs in Iberia (Berbers or local Iberians) were known as Muladi or Muwallad, an Arabic term still used in the modern Arab world to refer to people with Arab fathers and non-Arab mothers.[277] Some sources consider this term the origin for the Spanish word Mulatto.[278][279] However, the Real Academia Española does not endorse such etymology.[280] This is because the term was mainly used during the time period of al-Andalus to refer to local Iberians (Christians and pagans) who converted to Islam or whose ancestors had converted. An example is the Banu Qasi, a Muslim dynasty of Basque origin. In addition, many Muladi were also descended from Saqaliba (Slavic) slaves taken from Eastern Europe via the Arab slave trade. Collectively, Christian Europeans named all the Muslims of Iberia, "Moors", regardless of ethnic origin.
After the Reconquista, which was completed in 1492, most of the Moors were forced to either flee to Islamic territories or convert to Christianity. The ones who converted to Christianity were known as Moriscoes, and they were often persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition as suspects of heresy on the basis of the Limpieza de sangre ("Cleanliness of blood") doctrine, under which anti-miscegenation laws were implemented in the Iberian Peninsula.[281]
Anyone whose ancestors had miscegenated with the Moors or Jews were suspected of secretly practicing Islam or Judaism, so were often particularly monitored by the Inquisition. The claim to universal hidalguía (lowest nobility) of the Basques was justified by erudites like Manuel de Larramendi (1690–1766)[282] because the Arab invasion had not reached the Basque territories, so it was believed that Basques had maintained their original purity, while the rest of Spain was suspect of miscegenation. Hidalguía helped many Basques to official positions in the administration.[283] In December 2008, a genetic study of the current population of the Iberian Peninsula, published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, estimated that about 10% have North African ancestors and 20% have Sephardi Jews as ancestors. Since there is no direct link between genetic makeup and religious affiliation, however, it is difficult to draw direct conclusions between their findings and forced or voluntary conversion.[284] Nevertheless, the Sephardic result is in contradiction[285][286][287][288][289] or not replicated in all the body of genetic studies done in Iberia and has been later questioned by the authors themselves[284][290][291][292] and by Stephen Oppenheimer who estimates that much earlier migrations, 5000 to 10,000 years ago from the Eastern Mediterranean might also have accounted for the Sephardic estimates: "They are really assuming that they are looking at his migration of Jewish immigrants, but the same lineages could have been introduced in the Neolithic".[293] The rest of genetic studies done in Spain estimate the North African contribution ranging from 2.5/3.4%[citation needed] to 7.7%.[294]
Italian Peninsula



 "Othello and Desdemona", a painting by Alexandre-Marie Colin in 1829
As was the case in other areas occupied by Muslims, it was acceptable in Islamic marital law for a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females in southern Italy when under Islamic rule - namely, the Emirate of Sicily, and, of least importance, the short-lived Emirate of Bari between the 8th and 11th centuries. In this case, most intermarriages were between Arab and Berber males from North Africa and the local Greek, Roman and Italian females. Such intermarriages were particularly common in the Emirate of Sicily, where one writer visiting the place in the 970s expressed shock at how common it was in rural areas.[295] After the Norman conquest of southern Italy, all Muslim citizens (whether foreign, native or mixed) of the Kingdom of Sicily were known as "Moors". After a brief period when the Arab-Norman culture had flourished under the reign of Roger II of Sicily, later rulers forced the Moors to either convert to Christianity or be expelled from the kingdom.
In Malta, Arabs and Italians from neighbouring Sicily and Calabria intermarried with the local inhabitants,[296] who were descended from Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans and Vandals. The Maltese people are descended from such unions, and the Maltese language is descended from Siculo-Arabic.
At times, the Italian city-states also played an active role in the Arab slave trade, where Moorish and Italian traders occasionally exchanged slaves.
During World War II, France's Moroccan troops known as Goumiers committed war rapes in Italy after the Battle of Monte Cassino[297] and in Germany. In Italy, victims of the mass rape committed after the Battle of Monte Cassino by Goumiers are known as Marocchinate. According to Italian sources, more than 7,000 Italian civilians, including women and children, were raped by Goumiers.[298]



 An artistic depiction of Ruthenian slave girl Roxelana with Suleiman the Magnificent, by German painter Anton Hickel (1780).
Russia
See also: Afro-Russian and Ethnic Chinese in Russia
The Metis Foundation estimates that there are about 40,000 mixed-race Russians.[299]
Many Chinese men, even those who had left wives and children behind in China, married local women in the 1920s, especially those women who had been widowed during the wars and upheavals of the previous decade. Their mixed race children tended to be given Russian forenames; some retained their fathers' Chinese surnames, while others took on Russian surnames, and a large proportion also invented new surnames using their father's entire family name and given name as the new surname.
Southeastern and Eastern Europe
Vikings explored and eventually settled in territories in Slavic-dominated areas of Eastern Europe. By 950 AD these settlements were largely Slavicized through intermarriage with the local population. Eastern Europe was also an important source for the Arab slave trade at the time, when Saqaliba (Slavic) slaves were taken to the Arab World, where the women and girls often served in harems, some of whom married their Arab masters. When the Mongol Empire annexed much of Eastern Europe in the 13th century, the Mongols also intermarried with the local population and often engaged in war rape during the Mongol invasion of Europe.
In the 11th century, the Byzantine territory of Anatolia was conquered by the Seljuq Turks, who came from Turkestan in Central Asia. Their Ottoman Turkish descendants went on to annex the Balkans and much of Eastern Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Due to Islamic marital law allowing a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females, it was common in the Ottoman Empire for Turkish males to intermarry with European females. For example, various sultans of the Ottoman Dynasty often had Greek (Rûm), Slavic (Saqaliba), Venetian, Northcaucasian and French wives.



 The Mongol invasion of Europe. The Mongols, with captured women, are on the left, the knights, with one saved woman, on the right.
Some of these European wives exerted great influence upon the empire as Valide Sultan ("Mother-Sultan"), some famous examples including Roxelana, a Ukrainian harem slave who later became Suleiman the Magnificent's favourite wife, and Nakşidil Sultan, wife of Abdul Hamid I, who according to legend may have been Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, cousin of French Empress Josephine. Due to the common occurrence of such intermarriages in the Ottoman Empire, they have had a significant impact on the ethnic makeup of the modern Turkish population in Turkey, which now differs from that of the Turkic population in Central Asia.[300] In addition to intermarriage, the large harems of Ottoman sultans often consisted almost entirely of female concubines who were of Christian European origin.[301] Sultan Ibrahim the Mad, Ottoman ruler from 1640 to 1648,　is said to have drowned 280 concubines of his harem in the Bosphorus.[302] At least one of his concubines, Turhan Hatice, Ukrainian girl captured during one of the raids by Tatars and sold into slavery, survived his reign.
United Kingdom
See also: British Mixed-Race
Intermarriage with non-European populations began as early as the Agricultural Revolution. Researchers have found that a majority of British males have DNA that can be traced back to Middle Eastern male farmers (from around present-day Iraq and Syria) who around 8000 BC began migrating to Britain, introducing agriculture to the island, and settling down with local British females.[303]



Seal with ex-wife Heidi Klum.
In the late 15th century, the Romani people, who have Indian origins, arrived in Britain. The Romani in Britain intermarried with the local population and became known to the Romani as the Romanichal. In India, the British East India Company and other European soldiers intermarried with Indian women. The offspring of these mixed marriages between the British and Indians were known as Anglo-Indians.[304] Indian wives sometimes accompanied their husbands back to Britain.[305] The British East India Company brought many South Asian lascars to Britain, where many settled down with local white British wives, due to a lack of Asian women in Britain at the time.[306]
Inter-ethnic relationships have become increasingly accepted over the last several decades. As of 2001, 2% of all marriages in Britain are inter-ethnic. Despite having a much lower non-white population (9%), mixed marriages in the United Kingdom are as common as in the United States, although America has many fewer specific definitions of race (four racial definitions as opposed to the United Kingdom's 86).[307] As of 2005, it is estimated that nearly half of British-born African-Caribbean males, a third of British-born African-Caribbean females, and a fifth of Indian and African males, have white partners.[308] As of 2009, one in 10 children in the UK lives in a mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity family (families headed by one white-British parent and one white parent not of British origin are included in the figure) and two out of five Chinese women have partners of a different race.[309] One out of five Chinese men have partners of a different race. According to the UK 2001 census, black British males were around 50% more likely than black females to marry outside their race. British Chinese women (30%) were twice as likely as their male counterparts (15%) to marry someone from a different ethnic group.
Middle East



The Slave Market, painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, c. 1884
A Stanford team found the greatest diversity outside Africa among people living in the wide crescent of land stretching from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean to northern India. Not only was the region among the first colonized by the African migrants, they theorize, but the large number of European and East Asian genes among the population indicates that it has long been a human highway, with large numbers of migrants from both directions conquering, trading and generally reproducing along its entire length. The same team also found out that the Bedouin nomads of the Middle East actually have some similarities to Europeans and South Asians[citation needed]
Inter-ethnic sexual slavery was common during the Arab slave trade throughout the Middle Ages and early modern period, when women and girls captured from non-Arab lands often ended up as sexual slaves in the harems of the Arab World.[310] Most of these slaves came from places such as Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj), South Asia (Hindus), the North Caucasus (mainly Circassians),[311] Central Asia (mainly Turks), and Central and Eastern Europe (mainly Saqaliba).[312] The Barbary pirates also captured 1,250,000 slaves from Western Europe and North America between the 16th and 19th centuries.[313][314] It was also common for Arab conquerors, traders and explorers to marry local females in the lands they conquered or traded with, in various parts of Africa, Asia (see Asia section) and Europe (see Europe section).
Inter-ethnic relationships were generally accepted in Arabic society and formed a fairly common theme in medieval Arabic literature and Persian literature. For example, the Persian poet Nizami, who had himself married his Kipchak slave girl, wrote The Seven Beauties (1196). Its frame story involves a Persian prince marrying seven foreign princesses, including Byzantine, Chinese, Indian, Khwarezmian, Maghrebian, Slavic and Tartar princesses. Hadith Bayad wa Riyad, a 12th-century Arabic tale from Al-Andalus, was a love story involving an Iberian girl and a Damascene man. The One Thousand and One Nights tale of "The Man of Al-Yaman and His Six Slave-Girls" involves a Yemeni man's relationship with foreign slave girls, four of which are white, black, brown and yellow.[315] Another One Thousand and One Nights tale, "The Ebony Horse", involves the Prince of Persia, Qamar al-Aqmar, rescuing his lover, the Princess of Sana'a, from the Byzantine Emperor who also wishes to marry her.[316]
One study found that some Arabic-speaking populations—Palestinians, Jordanians, Syrians, Iraqis, and Bedouins—have what appears to be substantial mtDNA gene flow from sub-Saharan Africa, amounting to 10–15% of lineages within the past three millennia.[317][318] In the case of Yemenites, the average is higher at 35%.[317]



 A slave market in Khartoum, Sudan, c. 1876
In 1814, Swiss explorer Johann Burckhardt wrote of his travels in Egypt and Nubia, where he saw the practice of slave trading:

I frequently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach Egypt or Arabia in a state of virginity.[319]
A genetic anthropological study known as The Genographic Project has found what is believed to be faint genetic traces left by medieval Crusaders in the Middle East. The team has uncovered a specific DNA signature in Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan that is probably linked to the 7th and 8th Christian crusades. The Crusaders originated from European kingdoms, mostly France, England and the Holy Roman Empire.[320]
In the Ottoman Empire, in addition to the Ottoman elites often taking large numbers of European wives and concubines (see Southeastern and Eastern Europe section), there were also opportunities for the reverse, when the empire recruited young Christian boys (Europeans and Christian Arabs) to become the elite troops of the Turkish Empire, the Janissaries. These Janissaries were stationed throughout the Turkish empire including the Middle-East and North Africa leading to inter-ethnic relationships between European men and women from the Middle East and North Africa.
The concubines of the Ottoman Sultan consisted chiefly of purchased slaves. Because Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims, the Sultan's concubines were generally of Christian origin. The mother of a Sultan, though technically a slave, received the extremely powerful title of Valide Sultan, and at times became effective ruler of the Empire (see Sultanate of women). One notable example was Kösem Sultan, daughter of a Greek Christian priest, who dominated the Ottoman Empire during the early decades of the 17th century.[321] Another notable example was Roxelana, the favourite wife of Suleiman the Magnificent.
Inter-ethnic sexual slavery still continues today in a smaller form in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, where women and children are trafficked from the post-Soviet states, Eastern Europe, Far East, Africa, South Asia and other parts of the Middle East.[322][323][324]
Israel
The modern State of Israel was established as a nation-state for the Jewish people. The Jewish identity contains elements of religion (Judaism), ethnicity, and a sense of a common lineage.
Israeli law concerns itself with miscegenation based on Jewish ethnicity, not miscegenation based on race. Therefore, there are no restrictions on interracial marriages between Jews of different Jewish ethnic divisions, or between other co-religionists of different races, although social stigma may still exist. Furthermore there is no legal impediment to inter-ethnic or inter-religious marriage per se, only that the state does not recognize them when they are solemnized within Israel.
Thus in Israel, all marriages must be approved by religious authorities, while civil marriages are legally recognized if performed abroad. Rules governing marriage are based on strict religious guidelines of each religion. Under Israeli law, authority over all issues related to Judaism in Israel, including marriage, falls under the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, which is Orthodox. Orthodox Judaism is the only form of Judaism recognized by the state, and marriages performed in Israel by non-Orthodox Rabbis are not recognized.
The Rabbinate prohibits marriage in Israel of halakhic Jews (i.e. people born to a Jewish mother or Jewish by conversion), whether they are Orthodox Jews or not, to partners who are non-Jewish or who are of Jewish descent that runs through the paternal line (i.e. not Jewish according to halakha), unless they undergo a formal conversion to Judaism. As a result, in the state of Israel, people of differing religious traditions cannot legally marry someone in another religion and multi-faith couples must leave the country to get married.
The only other option in Israel for the marriage of a halakhic Jew (Orthodox or not) to a non-Jew, or for that matter, a Christian to a non-Christian or Muslim to a non-Muslim, is for one partner to formally convert to the other's religion, be it to Orthodox Judaism, a Christian denomination or a denomination of Islam. As for persons with patrilineal Jewish descent (i.e. not recognized as Jewish according to halakha) who wish to marry a halakhic Jew (i.e., born to a Jewish mother or is Jewish by Orthodox conversion) who is Orthodox or otherwise, is also required to formally convert to Orthodox Judaism or they cannot legally marry.
According to a Haaretz article "Justice Ministry drafts civil marriage law for ‘refuseniks’" 300,000 people, or 150,000 couples, are affected by marriage restrictions based on the partners' disparate religious traditions or non-halakhic Jewish status.[325]
Many Israeli Jews oppose mixed relationships between Jews and non-Jews, although it should be noted that this is not so much an Israeli phenomenon as a Jewish one, through fear of assimilation.[citation needed] There may also be an element in Israel that mixed relationships with Arabs represent an additional danger, politically as well as religiously: a 2007 opinion survey found that more than half of Israeli Jews believed intermarriage is equivalent to "national treason". A poll in 2014 found that three quarters of Israeli Jews and two thirds of Israeli Arabs would not marry someone from a different religion. Inter-faith relationships were opposed by 95 percent of Haredi Jews, 88 percent of traditional and religious Jews and 64 percent of secular Jews.[326]
A group of 35 Jewish men, known as "Fire for Judaism", in Pisgat Ze'ev have started patrolling the town in an effort to stop Jewish women from dating Arab men. The municipality of Petah Tikva has also announced an initiative to prevent interracial relationships, providing a telephone hotline for friends and family to "inform" on Jewish girls who date Arab men as well as psychologists to provide counselling. The town of Kiryat Gat launched a school programme in schools to warn Jewish girls against dating local Bedouin men.[327][328]
In February 2010 Maariv has reported that the Tel Aviv municipality has instituted an official, government-sponsored "counselling program" to discourage Jewish girls from dating and marrying Arab boys. The Times has also reported on a vigilante parents’ group policing the Jerusalem neighborhood of Pisgat Ze'ev to intimidate and discourage local Arab-Jewish couples. The Jewish anti-missionary group Yad L'achim has also performed paramilitary "rescue operations" of Jewish women from non-Jewish husbands and celebrates the "rescued women" on their website.[329]
In the 2014 the marriage of a Muslim groom and a bride who had converted from Judaism to Islam attracted attention when the wedding was protested by Lehava, an organisation opposing Jewish assimilation. An Israeli court allowed the protest to go ahead but ordered protesters to stay at least 200 metres away from the wedding venue in Rishon LeZion. In response a demonstration in support for the couple was also held.[330]
United Arab Emirates
There are tens of thousands of women from eastern Europe and Asia working as prostitutes in Dubai. Men from Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates form a large proportion of the customers.[331]
Oceania



 German immigrant Hermann A. Widemann had a large family with his Hawaiian wife Mary Kaumana, 1886
Australia
Most of the early Chinese-Australia population consisted of Cantonese migrants from Guangzhou and Taishan, including some from Fujian, who came during the gold rush period of the 1850s. Marriage records show that between the 1850s and the start of the 20th century, there were about 2000 legal marriages between white women and Chinese men in Australia’s eastern colonies, probably with similar numbers involved in de facto relationships of various kinds (e.g., cohabitation, sexual intimacy, etc.).[332] The number of such marriages declined, as stories of viciousness and the seduction of white women grew, mixed with opposition to intermarriage. Rallies against Chinese men marrying white women became widespread, with many Australian men reviewing Chinese men marrying and cohabiting with white women as a threat to the white race. In late 1878 there were 181 marriages between European women and Chinese men, and 171 couples cohabiting without matrimony, resulting in 586 Eurasian children.[333] Such numbers of intermarriage continued until the 1880s and the 1930s.
As of 2006, over half of Australian Aboriginals were married to non-Aboriginal partners.[334]
New Zealand
Miscegenation is a politically charged topic in New Zealand, although mixed marriages are very common and almost universally accepted. People who identify as Māori typically have ancestors ('tīpuna'[335]) from at least two distinct ethnicities. Historically this has leant itself to the majority belief that "real" Māori were gradually disappearing from New Zealand and "one people" were forming.[336] This view held sway in New Zealand until the late 1960s and 70s, when a revival and re-establishment of Māori culture and tradition coincided with a rejection of the majority opinion.[337]
The belief that Māori were disappearing was partially founded on the reality of high and ongoing rates of intermarriage between Europeans and Māori before and since colonisation. During the revival of Māori culture and tradition this belief began to be challenged by redefining "Māori" as an ethnic identity as opposed to a racial category.[338] As a result a person may have one European/Asian/Pacific parent and one Māori parent, but be considered no less "authentically Māori" than a descendent of two Māori.
Two-thirds of Māori births, half of Pacific births, and a third of white and Asian births belonged to more than one ethnic group.[339]
Portuguese colonies
See also: Orfas del Rei
According to Gilberto Freyre, a Brazilian sociologist, interracial marriage was commonplace in the Portuguese colonies, and was even supported by the court as a way to boost low populations and guarantee a successful and cohesive settlement. Thus, settlers often released African slaves to become their wives. The children were guaranteed full Portuguese citizenship, provided the parents were married. Some former Portuguese colonies have large mixed-race populations, for instance, Brazil, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Timor Leste, Macau and São Tomé and Príncipe. In the case of Brazil, the influential "Indianist" novels of José de Alencar (O Guarany, Iracema, and Ubirajara) perhaps went farther than in the other colonies, advocating miscegenation in order to create a truly Brazilian race.[340] Mixed marriages between Portuguese and locals in former colonies were very common in all Portuguese colonies. Miscegenation was still common in Africa until the independence of the former Portuguese colonies in the mid-1970s.
Demographics of ethnoracial admixture
U.S.
According to the U.S. Census,[341] in 2000 there were 504,119 Asian-white marriages, 287,576 black-white marriages, and 31,271 Asian-black marriages. The black-white marriages increased from 65,000 in 1970 to 558,000 in 2010,[342] according to Census Bureau figures.[343]



 New Jersey, 2008
In the United States, rates of interracial cohabitation are significantly higher than those of marriage. Although only 7% of married African American men have Caucasian American wives, 13% of cohabitating African American men have Caucasian American partners. 25% of married Asian American women have Caucasian spouses, but 45% of cohabitating Asian American women are with Caucasian American men. Of cohabiting Asian men, slightly over 37% of Asian men have white female partners over 10% married White American women.[47][344] Asian American women and Asian American men who live with a white partner, 40 and 27 percent, respectively (Le, 2006b).In 2008, of new marriages including an Asian man, 80% were to an Asian spouse and 14% to a White spouse; of new marriages involving an Asian woman, 61% were to an Asian spouse and 31% to a White spouse.[345] Almost 30% of Asians and Latinos outmarry, with 86.8 and 90% of these, respectively, being to a white person.[346] According to Karyn Langhorne Folan, "...although the most recent census available reported that 70% of African American women are single, African American women have the greatest resistance to marrying 'out' of the race."[347]
One survey revealed that 19% of black males had engaged in sexual activity with white women.[348] A Gallup poll on interracial dating in June 2006 found 75% of Americans approving of a white man dating a black woman, and 71% approving of a black man dating a white woman. Among people between the ages of 18 and 29, the poll found that 95% approved of blacks and whites dating, and about 60% said they had dated someone of a different race.[349] 69% of Hispanics, 52% of blacks, and 45% of whites said they have dated someone of another race or ethnic group.[350] In 1980, just 17% of all respondents said they had dated someone from a different racial background.[351]



 NAACP President Benjamin Jealous is the son of a white father and a black mother
However, according to a study from the University of California at Berkeley, using data from over 1 million profiles of singles from online dating websites, whites were far more reluctant to date outside their race than non-whites. The study found that over 80% of whites, including whites who stated no racial preference, contacted other whites, whereas about 3% of whites contacted blacks, a result that held for younger and older participants. Only 5% of whites responded to inquiries from blacks. Black participants were ten times more likely to contact whites than whites were to contact blacks, however black participants sent inquiries to other blacks more often than otherwise.[352][353]
Interracial marriage is still relatively uncommon, especially among whites. In 2010, 15% of new marriages were interracial, and of those only 9% of Whites married outside of their race. Although this takes into account inter ethnic marriages. This meaning it counts white Hispanics marrying non-Hispanic whites as interracial marriages, despite both bride and groom being racially white. Of the 275,000 new interracial marriages in 2010, 43% were white-Hispanic, 14.4% were white-Asian, 11.9% were white-black and the rest were other combinations. Black-white marriages are the least common interracial coupling.[354] However, interracial marriage has become more common over the past decades due to increasing racial diversity, and liberalizing attitudes toward the practice. The number of interracial marriages in the U.S. increased by 65% between 1990 ands 2000, and by 20% between 2000 and 2010.[355] "A record 14.6% of all new marriages in the United States in 2008 were between spouses of a different race or ethnicity from one another. ... Rates more than doubled among whites and nearly tripled among blacks between 1980 and 2008. But for both Hispanics and Asians, rates were nearly identical in 2008 and 1980.", according to a Pew Research Center analysis of demographic data from the U.S. Census Bureau.[356]
According to studies by Jenifer L. Bratter and Rosalind B. King made publicly available on the Education Resources Information Center, White female-Black male and White female-Asian male marriages are more prone to divorce than White-White pairings.[357] Conversely, unions between White males and non-White females (and between Hispanics and non-Hispanic persons) have similar or lower risks of divorce than White-White marriages, unions between white male-black female last longer than white-white pairings or white-Asian pairings.[357]
Brazil
See also: Race in Brazil
Multiracial Brazilians make up 42.6% of Brazil's population, 79.782 million people, and they live in all regions of Brazil. Multiracial Brazilians are mainly people of mixed European, African, East Asian (mostly Japanese) and Amerindian ancestry.
Interracial marriages comprised 22.6% of all marriages in 2000. 15.7% of blacks, 24.4% of whites and 27.6% of Pardos (mixed-race/brown) married someone whose race was different from their own.[358]
Genetic admixture
Main article: Genetic admixture
Sexual reproduction between two populations reduces the genetic distance between the populations. During the Age of Discovery which began in the early 15th century, European explorers sailed all across the globe reaching all the major continents. In the process they came into contact with many populations that had been isolated for thousands of years. The Tasmanian aboriginals were one of the most isolated groups on the planet.[359] They were killed by European explorers, but a number of their descendants survive today as a result of admixture with Europeans. This is an example of how modern migrations have begun to reduce the genetic divergence of the human species.
New world demographics were radically changed within a short time following the voyage of Columbus.[359] The colonization of Americas brought Native Americans into contact with the distant populations of Europe, Africa and Asia.[359] As a result many countries in the Americas have significant and complex multiracial populations. Furthermore many who identify themselves by only one race still have multiracial ancestry.
Admixture in the United States
See also: Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas and Multiracial American
Admixture in European-American population

 % European admixture
Frequency
90–100 68%
80–89.9 22%
70–79.9 8%
60–69.9 < 1%
50–59.9 < 1%
40–49.9 < 1%
0–39.9 0
Some claim the vast majority of African-Americans possess varying degrees of European admixture (the average Black American is 20% European) although studies suggest the Native American admixture in Black Americans is highly exaggerated; some estimates put average African-American possession of European admixture at 25% with figures as high as 50% in the Northeast and less than 10% in the south. A recent study by Mark D. Shriver of a European-American sample found that the average admixture in the white population is 0.7% African and 3.2% Native American. However, 70% of the sample had no African admixture. The other 30% had African admixture ranging from 2% to 20% with an average of 2.3%. By extrapolating these figures to the whole population some scholars suggest that up to 74 million European-Americans may have African admixture in the same range (2–20%).
Dr Mark Shriver, the team leader of the study, found that he had 11% West African ancestry though he identifies as white. Studies based on skin reflectance have shown the color line in the US applied selective pressure on genes that code for skin color but did not apply any selective pressure on other invisible African genes. Since there are an estimated 6 genetic loci involved in skin color determination it is possible for someone to have 15–20% African admixture and not possess any of alleles that code for dark skin.[dubious – discuss] This is the basis of the passing phenomenon. Thus, the percentage of African admixture amongst white Americans can be relatively high without any significant change in skin tone.
Within the African-Americans population, the amount of African admixture is directly correlated with darker skin since less selective pressure against dark skin is applied within the group of "non-passing" individuals. Thus, African-Americans may have a much wider range of African admixture (>0–100%), whereas European-Americans have a lower range (2–20%).
A small overlap exists such that it is possible that someone who identifies himself as white may have more African admixture than a person who identifies himself as black.[360][361]



The Trapper's Bride shows a trapper, Francois, paying $600 in trade goods for an Indian woman to be his wife, ca. 1837
A statistical analysis done in 1958 using historical census data and historical data on immigration and birth rates concluded that 21% of the white population had black ancestors. The growth in the white population could not be attributed to births in the white population and immigration from Europe alone, but had received significant contribution from the African American population as well.[362] The author states in 1958:

The data presented in this study indicate that the popular belief in the non-African background of white persons is invalid. Over twenty-eight million white persons are descendants of persons of African origin. Furthermore, the majority of the persons with African ancestry are classified as white.
In the United States intermarriage among Filipinos with other races is common. They have the largest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California.[363] It is also noted that 21.8% of Filipino Americans are of mixed blood, second among Asian Americans, and is the fastest growing.[364]
Admixture in Latin America
Background
Prior to the European conquest of the Americas the demographics of Latin America was naturally 100% American Indian. Today those who identify themselves as Native Americans are small minorities in many countries. For example the CIA lists Argentina's native population at 0.9%, Brazil's at 0.4%, and Uruguay's at 0%.[365] However, the range varies widely from country to country in Latin America with some countries having significantly larger Amerindian minorities. According to official statistics —as reported by the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples or CDI— Amerindians make up 10-14%[366] of the population of Mexico.



 Depiction of casta system in Mexico, 18th century
The early conquest of Latin America was primarily carried out by male soldiers and sailors from Spain and Portugal. Since they carried very few European women on their journeys the new settlers married and fathered children with Amerindian women and also with women imported from Africa. This process of miscegenation was even encouraged by the Spanish monarchy and it led to the system of stratification known as the Casta. This system had Europeans (Spaniards and Portuguese) at the top of the hierarchy followed by those of mixed race. Unmixed Blacks and Native Americans were at the bottom. A philosophy of whitening emerged in which Amerindian and African culture was stigmatized in favor of European values. Many Amerindian languages were lost as mixed race offspring adopted Spanish and Portuguese as their first languages. Only towards the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century did large numbers of Europeans begin to migrate to South America and consequently altering its demographics.
In addition many Africans were shipped to regions all over the Americas and were present in many of the early voyages of the conquistadors. Brazil has the largest population of African descendants outside Africa. Other countries such as Jamaica, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador still have sizeable populations identified as Black. However countries such as Argentina and Chile do not have a visible African presence today. Census information from the early 19th century shows that people categorized as Black made up to 30% of the population, or around 400,000 people.[367] Though almost completely absent today, their contribution to Argentine culture is significant and include the tango, the milonga and the zamba, words of Bantu origin.[368]

Demographics of Brazil in 1835, 1940, 2000 and 2008[369][370]

Year
White
Brown
Black
1835 24.4% 18.2% 51.4%
1940 64% 21% 14%
2000 53.7% 38.5% 6.2%
2008 48.8% 43.8% 6.5%
The ideology of whitening encouraged non-whites to seek white or lighter skinned partners. This dilution of non-white admixture would be beneficial to their offspring as they would face less stigmatization and find it easier to assimilate into mainstream society. After successive generations of European gene flow, non-white admixture levels would drop below levels at which skin color or physical appearance is not affected thus allowing individuals to identify as white. In many regions, the native and black populations were simply overwhelmed by a succession of waves of European immigration.
Historians and scientists are thus interested in tracing the fate of Native Americans and Africans from the past to the future. The questions remain about what proportion of these populations simply died out and what proportion still has descendants alive today including those who do not racially identify themselves as their ancestors would have. Admixture testing has thus become a useful objective tool in shedding light on the demographic history of Latin America.
Recent studies



 A Spaniard plays with his mixed-race daughter while his Mulatto wife looks on, 1763
Unlike in the United States, there were no anti-miscegenation policies in Latin America. Though still a racially stratified society there were no significant barriers to gene flow between the three populations. As a result admixture profiles are a reflection of the colonial populations of Africans, Europeans and Amerindians. The pattern is also sex biased in that the African and Amerindian maternal lines are found in significantly higher proportions than African or Amerindian Y chromosomal lines. This is an indication that the primary mating pattern was that of European males with Amerindian or African females. According to the study more than half the white populations of the Latin American countries studied have some degree of either native American or African admixture (MtDNA or Y Chromosome). In countries such as Chile and Colombia almost the entire white population was shown to have some non-white admixture[371][372][373][374]
Frank Moya Pons, a Dominican historian documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with Taíno women, and, over time, these mestizo descendants intermarried with Africans, creating a tri-racial Creole culture. 1514 census records reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the colony of Santo Domingo had Taíno wives.[375] A 2002 study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that over 61% of the population possess Amerindian mtDNA.[376]
Admixture in the Philippines
Historically, admixture has been a common phenomenon in the Philippines. The Philippines were originally settled by Australoid peoples called Negritos which now form the country's aboriginal community. Admixture occurred between this earlier group and the mainstream Malayo-Polynesian population.[253]
There has been Indian migration to and influence in the Philippines since the precolonial era. About 25% of the words in the Tagalog language are Sanskrit terms and about 5% of the country's population possess Indian ancestry from antiquity.[377] There has been a Chinese presence in the Philippines since the 9th century. However, large-scale migrations of Chinese to the Philippines only started during the Spanish colonial era, when the world market was opened to the Philippines. It is estimated that among Filipinos, 10%–20% have some Chinese ancestry and 1.5% are "full-blooded" Chinese.[254]
According to the American anthropologist Dr. H. Otley Beyer, the ancestry of Filipinos is 2% Arab. This dates back to when Arab traders intermarried with the local Malay Filipina female populations during the pre-Spanish history of the Philippines.[88] A recent genetic study by Stanford University indicates that at least 3.6% of the population are European or of part European descent from both Spanish and United States colonization.[378]
Admixture among the Romani people



 Interior of a gipsy's house in Brazil c. 1820, by Debret


 Romani dancers in Romania
Genetic evidence has shown that the Romani people ("Gypsies") originated from the Indian subcontinent and mixed with the local populations in Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. In the 1990s, it was discovered that Romani populations carried large frequencies of particular Y chromosomes (inherited paternally) that otherwise exist only in populations from South Asia, in addition to fairly significant frequencies of particular mitochondrial DNA (inherited maternally) that is rare outside South Asia.
47.3% of Romani males carry Y chromosomes of haplogroup H-M82 which is rare outside of the Indian subcontinent.[379] Mitochondrial haplogroup M, most common in Indian subjects and rare outside Southern Asia, accounts for nearly 30% of Romani people.[379] A more detailed study of Polish Romani shows this to be of the M5 lineage, which is specific to India.[380] Moreover, a form of the inherited disorder congenital myasthenia is found in Romani subjects. This form of the disorder, caused by the 1267delG mutation, is otherwise only known in subjects of Indian ancestry. This is considered to be the best evidence of the Indian ancestry of the Romanies.[381]
The Romanis have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations",[382] while a number of common Mendelian disorders among Romanies from all over Europe indicates "a common origin and founder effect".[382] See also this table:[383]
A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group".[384] Also the study pointed out that "genetic drift and different levels and sources of admixture, appear to have played a role in the subsequent differentiation of populations".[384] The same study found that "a single lineage ... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males. A similar preservation of a highly resolved male lineage has been reported elsewhere only for Jewish priests".[384] See also the Cohen Modal Haplotype.
A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romani are "a founder population of common origins that has subsequently split into multiple socially divergent and geographically dispersed Gypsy groups".[381] The same study revealed that this population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago".[381]
See also
A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century
Amalgamation (race)
Anti-miscegenation laws
Discrimination based on skin color
Ethnic pornography
Exogamy
Interracial marriage
Interracial romance in film
Melungeon
Mestizo
 Mixed Race Day
Multiculturalism
Multiracial
Passing (racial identity)
Plaçage
Race and genetics
Race and society
Race of the future
Racial Integrity Act of 1924
Racism

Notes and references
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104.Jump up ^ The Caucasus revisited (Yunusbayev et al. 2011). blogspot.co.uk, 14 September 2011
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112.Jump up ^ Amnon Shiloah (2003). Music in the World of Islam. Wayne State University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-8143-2970-5. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
113.Jump up ^ Eliot Weinberger (2009). Oranges & Peanuts for Sale. New Directions Publishing. p. 117. ISBN 0-8112-1834-1. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
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116.Jump up ^ Chen, Da-Sheng. "Chinese-Iranian Relations vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T'ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
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119.Jump up ^ Gene Expression: Western barbarian + Han women = Hui. Gnxp.com. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
120.Jump up ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
121.Jump up ^ Dru C. Gladney (1996). Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 245. ISBN 0-674-59497-5. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
122.Jump up ^ China archaeology and art digest, Volume 3, Issue 4. Art Text (HK) Ltd. 2000. p. 30. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
123.Jump up ^ Friedrich Ratzel (1898). The history of mankind, Volume 3. Macmillan and co., ltd. p. 355. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
124.Jump up ^ Melvyn C. Goldstein, Dawei Sherap, William Siebenschuh, William R. Siebenschuh (2006). The A Tibetan Revolutionary: The Political Life and Times of Bapa Phüntso Wangye. University of California Press. p. 19. ISBN 0-520-24992-5. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
125.Jump up ^ Eliakim Littell, Robert S. Littell (1891). Littell's living age, Volume 191. T.H. Carter & Co. p. 606. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
126.Jump up ^ The National review, Volume 23. W.H. Allen. 1894. p. 81. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
127.Jump up ^ China Information Committee (1938). China at war, Volumes 1–2. The China Information Publishing Company. p. 54. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
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129.Jump up ^ Teichman Eric (2009). Travels of a Consular Officer in Eastern Tibet. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 180. ISBN 1-110-31267-9. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
130.Jump up ^ Charles Bell (1992). Tibet Past and Present. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 243. ISBN 81-208-1048-1. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
131.Jump up ^ B. Michael Frolic (1981). Mao's People: Sixteen Portraits of Life in Revolutionary China. Harvard University Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-674-54845-9. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
132.Jump up ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: towards a historical anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. pp. 83–85. ISBN 90-04-16675-0. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
133.Jump up ^ Henry Lansdell (1894). Chinese Central Asia: A Ride to Little Tibet, Volume 2. p. 77. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
134.Jump up ^ James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8. T. & T. Clark. p. 893. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
135.Jump up ^ Martijn Theodoor Houtsma (1987). E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 2. BRILL. p. 849. ISBN 90-04-08265-4. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
136.Jump up ^ Sven Anders Hedin (1899). Through Asia, Volume 2. Harper and brothers. p. 954. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
137.Jump up ^ Robyn R. Iredale, Naran Bilik, Fei Guo (2003). China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies. M.E. Sharpe. p. 120. ISBN 0-7656-1023-X. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
138.Jump up ^ Günther Schlee (2002). Imagined Differences: Hatred and the Construction of Identity, Volume 2001. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 76. ISBN 1-4039-6031-3. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
139.Jump up ^ "Global Mappings: Nanjing Anti-African Protests of 1988–89". Diaspora.northwestern.edu. 1989-01-16. Retrieved 2014-04-11.
140.^ Jump up to: a b Christian Science Monitor: "In China, mixed marriages can be a labor of love – In one major Chinese city, marriages between Chinese and Africans are on the rise. In a country known for monoculture, it isn't easy" By Yepoka Yeebo September 21, 2013
141.Jump up ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (1998). A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Bishop Henry McNeal Turner Studies in North American Black Religion Series. Volume 2 of A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Volume 2 (Issue 36 of American Society of Missiology series) (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 1-57075-450-0. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
142.Jump up ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (2005). A history of Christianity in Asia, Volume 2 (Issue 36 of American Society of Missiology series) (2 ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 1-57075-450-0. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
143.Jump up ^ Free China Review, Volume 11. W.Y. Tsao. 1961. p. 54. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
144.Jump up ^ Covell, Ralph R. (1998). Pentecost of the Hills in Taiwan: The Christian Faith Among the Original Inhabitants (illustrated ed.). Hope Publishing House. p. 96. ISBN 0-932727-90-5. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
145.Jump up ^ Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan (illustrated ed.). Macmillan. p. 77. ISBN 0-230-61424-8. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
146.Jump up ^ Meiqi Lee (2004). Being Eurasian: memories across racial divides. Hong Kong University Press. p. 262. ISBN 962-209-671-9. "EJ Eitel, in the late 1890s, claims that the 'half-caste population in Hong Kong' were from the earliest days of the settlement almost exclusively the offspring of liaisons between European men and women of outcast ethnic groups such as Tanka. Lethbridge refutes the theory saying it was based on a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community. Carl Smith's study in late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, support Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Custom precluded their intermarriage with the Cantonese and Hakka-speaking populations. The Tanka women did not have bound feet. Their opportunities for settlement on shore were limited. They were hence not as closely tied to Confucian ethics as other Chinese ethnic groups. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans (CT Smith, Chung Chi Bulletin, 27). 'Living under the protection of a foreigner,' says Smith, 'could be a ladder to financial security, if not respectability, for some of the Tanka boat girls' (13 )."
147.Jump up ^ Maria Jaschok; Suzanne Miers, eds. (1994). Women and Chinese patriarchy: submission, servitude, and escape. Zed Books. p. 223. ISBN 1-85649-126-9. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "He states that they had a near-monopoly of the trade in girls and women, and that: The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuous re-absorption in the mass of Chinese residents of the Colony (1895 p. 169)"
148.Jump up ^ Helen F. Siu (2011). Helen F. Siu, ed. Merchants' Daughters: Women, Commerce, and Regional Culture in South. Hong Kong University Press. p. 305. ISBN 988-8083-48-1. Retrieved 2 November 2011. "The half-caste population of Hongkong were . . . almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka women. EJ Eitel, Europe in , the History of Hongkong from the Beginning to the Year 1882 (Taipei: Chen-Wen Publishing Co., originally published in Hong Kong by Kelly and Walsh. 1895, 1968), 169."
149.Jump up ^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day [1895], almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people"
150.Jump up ^ Public Library Ernest John Eitel (1895). Europe in China: the history of Hongkong from the beginning to the year 1882. London: Luzac & Co. p. 169. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
151.Jump up ^ Weiss, A. M. (2008). "South Asian Muslims in Hong Kong: Creation of a 'Local Boy' Identity". Modern Asian Studies 25 (3): 417. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00013895. edit
152.Jump up ^ Ina Baghdiantz McCabe, Gelina Harlaftis, Iōanna Pepelasē Minoglou (2005). Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History. Berg Publishers. p. 256. ISBN 1-85973-880-X.
153.Jump up ^ Jonathan Porter (1996). Macau, the imaginary city: culture and society, 1557 to the present. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-2836-2. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
154.Jump up ^ macau – The Las Vegas of the East >>Inscrutable Chinese>>English>>北京仁和博苑中医药研究院. Bjrhby.com. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
155.Jump up ^ Annabel Jackson (2003). Taste of Macau: Portuguese Cuisine on the China Coast (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. x. ISBN 962-209-638-7. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
156.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 39: To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. […] but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay – they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman.
157.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Volume 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology (illustrated ed.). Berg. p. 39. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5. Retrieved 2012-03-01. "To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. […] but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay – they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman."
158.Jump up ^ C. A. Montalto de Jesus (1902). Historic Macao (2 ed.). Kelly & Walsh, Limited. p. 41. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
159.Jump up ^ Austin Coates (2009). A Macao Narrative. Volume 1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. Hong Kong University Press. p. 44. ISBN 962-209-077-X. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
160.Jump up ^ Camões Center (Columbia University. Research Institute on International Change) (1989). Camões Center Quarterly, Volume 1. Volume 1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. The Center. p. 29. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
161.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 39: When we established ourselves here, the Chinese ostracized us. The Portuguese had their wives, then, that came from abroad, but they could have no contact with the Chinese women, except the fishing folk, the tanka women and the female slaves. Only the lowest class of Chinese contacted with the Portuguese in the first centuries. But later the strength of Christianization, of the priests, started to convince the Chinese to become Catholic. […] But, when they started to be Catholics, they adopted Portuguese baptismal names and were ostracized by the Chinese Buddhists. So they joined the Portuguese community and their sons started having Portuguese education without a single drop of Portuguese blood.
162.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 164: I was personally told of people that, to this day, continue to hide the fact that their mothers had been lower-class Chinese women – often even tanka (fishing folk) women who had relations with Portuguese sailors and soldiers.
163.^ Jump up to: a b Society of Macau: Macanese People, Public Holidays in Macau, Tanka People. Alibris. ISBN 978-1-157-45360-4 Retrieved 29 January 2012.
164.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 164
165.^ Jump up to: a b João de Pina-Cabral, p. 165
166.Jump up ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 164: Henrique de Senna Fernandes, another Macanese author, wrote a short story about a tanka girl who has an affair with a Portuguese sailor. In the end, the man returns to his native country and takes their little girl with him, leaving the mother abandoned and broken-hearted. As her sailorman picks up the child, A-Chan's words are: 'Cuidadinho ... cuidadinho' ('Careful ... careful'). She resigns herself to ther fate, much as she may never have recovered from the blow (1978).
167.Jump up ^ Christina Miu Bing Cheng, p. 173: Her slave-like submissiveness is her only attraction to him. A-Chan thus becomes his slave/mistress, an outlet for suppressed sexual urges. The story is an archetypical tragedy of miscegenation. Just as the Tanka community despises A-Chan's cohabitation with a foreign barbarian, Manuel's colleagues mock his 'bad taste' ('gosto degenerado') (Senna Fernandes, 1978: 15) in having a tryst with a boat girl … As such, the Tanka girl is nonchalantly reified and dehumanized as a thing (coisa). Manuel reduces human relations to mere consumption not even of her physical beauty (which has been denied in the description of A-Chan), but her 'Orientalness' of being slave-like and submissive.
168.Jump up ^ Christina Miu Bing Cheng, p. 170: We can trace this fleeting and shallow relationship in Henrique de Senna Fernandes' short story, A-Chan, A Tancareira, (Ah Chan, the Tanka Girl) (1978). Senna Fernandes (1923–), a Macanese, had written a series of novels set against the context of Macao and some of which were made into films.
169.Jump up ^ Bamshad, M.; Kivisild, T.; Watkins, W. S.; Dixon, M. E.; Ricker, C. E.; Rao, B. B. et al. (2001). "Genetic evidence on the origins of Indian caste populations". Genome Research 11 (6): 994–1004. doi:10.1101/gr.GR-1733RR. PMC 311057. PMID 11381027. edit
170.Jump up ^ From The Discovery of India by Jawaharlal Nehru, reproduced from History: Modern India (p 108) by S.N. Sen, New Age Publishers, ISBN 81-224-1774-4
171.Jump up ^ Corbridge, Staurt; Harriss, John (2000). Reinventing India: Liberalization, Hindu Nationalism and Popular Democracy. Polity press. p. 8. ISBN 0-7456-2076-0.
172.Jump up ^ Jalal, A. (2009). "Conjuring Pakistan: History as Official Imagining" (PDF). International Journal of Middle East Studies 27: 73. doi:10.1017/S0020743800061596. JSTOR 176188. edit
173.Jump up ^ *Jim Shaffer – "Current archaeological data do not support the existence of an Indo-Aryan or European invasion into South Asia any time in the pre- or protohistoric periods. Instead, it is possible to document archaeologically a series of cultural changes reflecting indigenous cultural developments from prehistoric to historic periods"Jim Shaffer. The Indo-Aryan Invasions: Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality. J.P. Mallory – "... the extraordinary difficulty of making a case for expansions from Andronovo to northern India, and attempts to link the Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent and Vakhsh cultures only gets the Indo-Iranian to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the Medes, Persians or Indo-Aryans".
Edwin Bryant – "India is not the only Indo-European-speaking area that has not revealed any archaeological traces of immigration. There is at least a series of archaeological cultures that can be traced approaching the Indian subcontinent, even if discontinuous, which does not seem to be the case for any hypothetical east-to-west emigration"
Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513777-9.. Bryant, Edwin F.; Patton, Laurie L., eds. (2005). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and inference in Indian history. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1463-4.
174.Jump up ^ Trivedi, Bijal P (14 May 2001). "Genetic evidence suggests European migrants may have influenced the origins of India's caste system". J. Craig Venter Institute. Genome News Network. Retrieved 27 January 2005.
175.Jump up ^ Scientists Connect Indian Castes and European Heritage. Scientific American. 15 May 2001.
176.Jump up ^ Basu, A.; Mukherjee, N.; Roy, S.; Sengupta, S.; Banerjee, S.; Chakraborty, M.; Dey, B.; Roy, M.; Roy, B.; Bhattacharyya, N. P.; Roychoudhury, S.; Majumder, P. P. (2003). "Ethnic India: A Genomic View, with Special Reference to Peopling and Structure". Genome Research 13 (10): 2277–2290. doi:10.1101/gr.1413403. PMC 403703. PMID 14525929. edit
177.Jump up ^ Mountain, J. L.; Hebert, J. M.; Bhattacharyya, S.; Underhill, P. A.; Ottolenghi, C.; Gadgil, M.; Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1995). "Demographic history of India and mtDNA-sequence diversity". American Journal of Human Genetics 56 (4): 979–992. PMC 1801212. PMID 7717409. edit
178.Jump up ^ Thanseem, I.; Thangaraj, K.; Chaubey, G.; Singh, V.; Bhaskar, L. V. S.; Reddy, B. M.; Reddy, A. G.; Singh, L. (2006). "Genetic affinities among the lower castes and tribal groups of India: Inference from Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA". BMC Genetics 7: 42. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-7-42. PMC 1569435. PMID 16893451. edit
179.Jump up ^ Brian Handwerk (10 January 2006). "India Acquired Language, Not Genes, From West, Study Says". National Geographic. Retrieved 8 December 2006.
180.Jump up ^ Indians are one people descended from two tribes. Dnaindia.com (25 September 2009). Retrieved 11 December 2011.
181.^ Jump up to: a b c d Leupp, p. 52
182.^ Jump up to: a b c Leupp, p. 49
183.Jump up ^ Fisher, M. H. (2007). "Excluding and Including "Natives of India": Early-Nineteenth-Century British-Indian Race Relations in Britain". Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27 (2): 301. doi:10.1215/1089201x-2007-007. edit
184.Jump up ^ Tambe, A. (2005). "The Elusive Ingenue: A Transnational Feminist Analysis of European Prostitution in Colonial Bombay". Gender & Society 19 (2): 160. doi:10.1177/0891243204272781. edit
185.Jump up ^ Enloe, Cynthia H. (2000). Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women's Lives. University of California Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-520-22071-4.
186.Jump up ^ Kent, Eliza F. (2004). Converting Women. Oxford University Press US. pp. 85–6. ISBN 0-19-516507-1.
187.Jump up ^ Kaul, S. (1996). "Colonial figures and postcolonial reading". Diacritics 26: 74–89. doi:10.1353/dia.1996.0005. edit
188.Jump up ^ Carter, Sarah (1997). Capturing Women: The Manipulation of Cultural Imagery in Canada's Prairie West. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 17. ISBN 0-7735-1656-5.
189.Jump up ^ Loomba, Ania (1998). Colonialism-postcolonialism. Routledge. pp. 79–80. ISBN 0-415-12809-9.
190.^ Jump up to: a b Muslim Communities in Myanmar. ColorQ World
191.Jump up ^ Chowdhury, Rita (November 18, 2012). "The Assamese Chinese story". The Hindu. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
192.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) DURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, inquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan"
193.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1909). Castes and tribes of southern India, Volume 2 (PDF). Government press. p. 99. Archived from the original on June 21, 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "99 CHINESE-TAMIL CROSS in the Nilgiri jail. It is recorded * that, in 1868, twelve of the Chinamen " broke out during a very stormy night, and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight"
194.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin …, Volumes 2–3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "ON A CHINESE-TAMIL CKOSS. Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of 'marriage' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating cofl'ce on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs. The measurements of a single family, excepting a widowed daughter whom I was not permitted to see, and an infant in arms, who was pacified with cake while I investigated its mother, are recorded in the following table:"
195.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 31. ISBN 81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
196.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin ... 2–3. Madras: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 32. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
197.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 32. ISBN 81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
198.Jump up ^ Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. pp. 98–99. ISBN 81-206-0288-9. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
199.Jump up ^ Government Museum (Madras, India), Edgar Thurston (1897). Note on tours along the Malabar coast. Volumes 2-3 of Bulletin, Government Museum (Madras, India). Superintendent, Government Press. p. 31. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
200.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 273. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "Thurston found the Chinese element to be predominant among the offspring as will be evident from his description. 'The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil Paraiyan. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish"
201.Jump up ^ Mahadeb Prasad Basu (1990). An anthropological study of bodily height of Indian population. Punthi Pustak. p. 84. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "Sarkar (1959) published a pedigree showing Tamil-Chinese-English crosses in a place located in the Nilgiris. Thurston (1909) mentioned an instance of a mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female. Man (Deka 1954) described"
202.Jump up ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. Retrieved 2 March 2012. "d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) iURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, enquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan"
203.Jump up ^ Leupp, p. 53
204.Jump up ^ Leupp, p. 48
205.Jump up ^ Leupp, p. 50
206.Jump up ^ Michael S. Laver (2011). The Sakoku Edicts and the Politics of Tokugawa Hegemony. Cambria Press. p. 152. ISBN 1-60497-738-8. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
207.Jump up ^ HOFFMAN, MICHAEL (May 26, 2013). "The rarely, if ever, told story of Japanese sold as slaves by Portuguese traders". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2014-03-02.
208.Jump up ^ "Europeans had Japanese slaves, in case you didn’t know…". Japan Probe. May 10, 2007. Retrieved 2014-03-02.
209.Jump up ^ Nelson, Thomas (Winter 2004). "Monumenta Nipponica (Slavery in Medieval Japan)" 59 (No. 4). Sophia University. p. 463. JSTOR 25066328.
210.Jump up ^ Monumenta Nipponica: Studies on Japanese Culture, Past and Present, Volume 59, Issues 3-4. Jōchi Daigaku. Sophia University. 2004. p. 463. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
211.Jump up ^ Michael Weiner, ed. (2004). Race, Ethnicity and Migration in Modern Japan: Imagined and imaginary minorites (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 408. ISBN 0-415-20857-2. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
212.Jump up ^ Kwame Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., ed. (2005). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 479. ISBN 0-19-517055-5. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
213.Jump up ^ Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, ed. (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 187. ISBN 0-19-533770-0. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
214.Jump up ^ "The National Eugenic Law" The 107th law that Japanese Government promulgated in 1940　(国民優生法) 第一条　本法ハ悪質ナル遺伝性疾患ノ素質ヲ有スル者ノ増加ヲ防遏スルト共ニ健全ナル素質ヲ有スル者ノ増加ヲ図リ以テ国民素質ノ向上ヲ期スルコトヲ目的トス, Kimura, Jurisprudence in Genetics
215.Jump up ^ Robertson, J. (2002). "Blood talks: Eugenic modernity and the creation of new Japanese" (PDF). History and anthropology 13 (3): 191–216 (205–206). doi:10.1080/0275720022000025547. PMID 19499628.
216.Jump up ^ Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, Japanese War Crimes in World War II, 1996, pp. 94–98., Evidence documenting sex-slaves coercion revealed, "An estimated 200,000 to 300,000 women across Asia, predominantly Korean and Chinese, are believed to have been forced to work as sex slaves in Japanese military brothels", BBC 8 December 2000;
 "Historians say thousands of women – as many as 200,000 by some accounts – mostly from Korea, China and Japan worked in the Japanese military brothels", Irish Examiner 8 March 2007;
AP 7 March 2007;
CNN 29 March 2001
217.Jump up ^ Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2001, p. 538, citing Kinkabara Samon and Takemae Eiji, Showashi : kokumin no naka no haran to gekido no hanseiki-zohoban, 1989, p. 244.
218.^ Jump up to: a b A Heterology of American GIs during World War II by Xavier Guillaume, Department of Political Science, University of Geneva July 2003, (H-NET review of Peter Schrijvers. "The GI War against Japan: American Soldiers in Asia and the Pacific during World War II". New York: New York University Press, 2002) The citation is cited to page 212 of "The GI War against Japan".
219.Jump up ^ Molasky, Michael S. (1999). The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa: Literature and Memory. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-415-19194-4.
220.Jump up ^ Molasky, Michael S.; Rabson, Steve (2000). Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-8248-2300-9.
221.Jump up ^ Sheehan, Susan D; Elizabeth, Laura; Selden, Hein Mark. "Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power". p. 18.
222.Jump up ^ Ijime: A Social Illness of Japan by Akiko Dogakinai. Lclark.edu (26 December 1994). Retrieved 11 December 2011.
223.Jump up ^ "Press Conference by Mr Doudou Diène, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights". Retrieved 5 January 2007.
224.Jump up ^ "Japan racism 'deep and profound". BBC News (11 July 2005). Retrieved 5 January 2007.
225.Jump up ^ Aso says Japan is nation of 'one race', The Japan Times, 18 October 2005
226.Jump up ^ McLelland 2010, p. 518.
227.Jump up ^ McLelland 2010, p. 529.
228.Jump up ^ McLelland 2010, pp. 519–520.
229.Jump up ^ "Muslim society in Korea is developing and growing". Pravda. 6 November 2002. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
230.Jump up ^ Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea: A Religious History. Routledge. p. 195. ISBN 0-7007-1605-X.
231.Jump up ^ Baker, Don (Winter 2006). "Islam Struggles for a Toehold in Korea". Harvard Asia Quarterly. Retrieved 23 April 2007.
232.Jump up ^ "덕수장씨". Rootsinfo.co.kr (Korean language). Retrieved 20 March 2006.
233.Jump up ^ Eui-Young Yu and Earl H. Phillips, Korean Women in Transition: At Home and Abroad, Center for Korean-American and Korean Studies, California State University, Los Angeles, 1987, p. 185 ISBN 0-942831-00-4.
234.Jump up ^ Japan PM: Moving US base impossible CCTV News – CNTV English. (5 May 2010) Retrieved 29 January 2012.
235.Jump up ^ Hae-in, Shin (3 August 2006). "Korea Greets New Era of Multiculturalism". The Korea Herald. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
236.Jump up ^ Lee, H. K. (2008). "International marriage and the state in South Korea: Focusing on governmental policy". Citizenship Studies 12: 107–123. doi:10.1080/13621020701794240. edit
237.Jump up ^ Hye-Kyung Lee (2008). "International Marriage and the State in South Korea|" (PDF). Citizenship Studies 12: 107. doi:10.1080/13621020701794240. Retrieved 22 December 2008.
238.Jump up ^ Korea's ethnic nationalism is a source of both pride and prejudice, according to Gi-Wook Shin. Aparc.stanford.edu. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
239.Jump up ^ Park Chung Myth of Pure-Blood Nationalism Blocks Multi-Ethnic Society. The Korean Times. 14 August 2006
240.Jump up ^ "'코시안'(Kosian) 쓰지 마라! (Do not use Kosian)". Naver news (in Korean) February 23, 2006. Retrieved 4 March 2006. See English-language reaction on The Marmot's Hole
241.Jump up ^ Do not use the new word Kosian, AMNESTY International South Korea Section, 2006, 07.
242.Jump up ^ "Ward's Win Brings 'Race' to the Fore". Korea Times. 9 February 2006. Archived from the original on 21 May 2009. Retrieved 4 March 2006.
243.Jump up ^ "For mixed-race children in Korea, happiness is too far away". Yonhap News. Retrieved 4 March 2006.
244.Jump up ^ S. Koreans Reclaim Biracial Football Champion as One of Them, Los Angeles Times, 13 February 2006
245.Jump up ^ Reid, Anthony (1990). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: The lands below the winds. Volume 1 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-300-04750-9. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
246.Jump up ^ MacLeod, Murdo J.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida, eds. (1998). European Intruders and Changes in Behaviour and Customs in Africa, America, and Asia Before 1800. Volume 30 of An Expanding World, the European Impact on World History, 1450–1800 , Vol 30 (Issue 30 of An expanding world) (illustrated, reprint ed.). Ashgate. p. 636. ISBN 0-86078-522-X. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
247.Jump up ^ Hughes, Sarah S.; Hughes, Brady, eds. (1995). Women in World History: Readings from prehistory to 1500. Volume 1 of Sources and studies in world history (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 219. ISBN 1-56324-311-3. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
248.Jump up ^ Tingley, Nancy (2009). Asia Society. Museum, ed. Arts of Ancient Viet Nam: From River Plain to Open Sea. Andreas Reinecke, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (illustrated ed.). Asia Society. p. 249. ISBN 0-300-14696-5. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
249.Jump up ^ Hamilton, Alexander (1997). Smithies, Michael, ed. Alexander Hamilton: A Scottish Sea Captain in Southeast Asia, 1689–1723 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Silkworm Books. p. 205. ISBN 9747100452. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
250.Jump up ^ Daniels, Timothy P. (2005). Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia. Routledge. p. 189. ISBN 0-415-94971-8.
251.Jump up ^ Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 6. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301.
252.Jump up ^ Lay, Pathi U Ko (1973). "Twentieth Anniversary Special Edition of Islam Damma Beikman". Myanmar Pyi and Islamic religion: 109–11.
253.^ Jump up to: a b Thangaraj, K.; Singh, L.; Reddy, A. G.; Rao, V. R.; Sehgal, S. C.; Underhill, P. A. et al. (2003). "Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population". Current Biology 13 (2): 86–93. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01336-2. PMID 12546781. edit
254.^ Jump up to: a b :: Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C. ::. Ocac.gov.tw (24 August 2004). Retrieved 14 August 2010.
255.Jump up ^ Historical Timeline Of The Royal Sultanate Of Sulu Including Related Events Of Neighboring Peoplesby Josiah C. Seasite.niu.edu (30 August 2000). Retrieved 14 August 2010.
256.^ Jump up to: a b S. H. Milton (2001). ""Gypsies" as social outsiders in Nazi Germany". In Robert Gellately and Nathan Stoltzfus. Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany. Princeton University Press. pp. 216, 231. ISBN 978-0-691-08684-2.
257.Jump up ^ Michael Burleigh (7 November 1991). The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-521-39802-2.
258.Jump up ^ the non-Jewish members of the European Volk are Aryans. . . .
Eric Ehrenreich. The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution. Indiana University Press. pp. 9, 10. ISBN 978-0-253-11687-1.
259.Jump up ^ Simone Gigliotti, Berel Lang. The Holocaust: a reader. Malden, Massachusetts, USA; Oxford, England, UK; Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. Pp. 14.
260.Jump up ^ Meldungen aus dem Reich: Auswahl aus den geheimen Lageberichten des Sicherheitsdienstes der SS 1939–1944 (11965; Reports from the Reich: Selection from the secret reviews of the situation of the SS 1939–1944; 1984 extended to 14 vols.), Heinz Boberach (ed. and compilator), Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag (dtv), 21968, (dtv-dokumente; vol. 477) p. 208. ISBN B0000BSLXR
261.Jump up ^ The earlier deportations of Jews and Gentiles of Jewish descent from Austria and Pomerania (both to occupied Poland) as well as Baden and the Palatinate (both to occupied France) had remained a spontaneous episode.
262.Jump up ^ At the Wannsee Conference the participants decided to include persons classified as Jews, but married to persons classified as Aryans, however, only after a divorce. In October 1943 an act, facilitating compulsory divorce imposed by the state, was ready for appointment, however, Hitler never granted the competent referees an audience. Pressure by the NSDAP headquarters in early 1944 also failed. Cf. Uwe Dietrich Adam, Judenpolitik im Dritten Reich, Düsseldorf: 2003, pp. 222–234. ISBN 3-7700-4063-5
263.Jump up ^ Beate Meyer, Die Verfolgung und Ermordung der Hamburger Juden 1933–1945, Landeszentrale für politische Bildung (ed.), Hamburg: Landeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2006, p. 83. ISBN 3-929728-85-0
264.Jump up ^ In summer 1945 all in all 8,000 Berliners whom the Nazis had classified as Jews because of 3 or 4 grandparents survived. Their personal faith – like Jewish, Protestant, Catholic or irreligionist – is mostly not recorded, since only the Nazi files which use the Nazi racial definitions report on them. 4,700 out of the 8,000 survived due to their living in a mixed marriage. 1,400 survived hiding, out of 5,000 who tried. 1,900 had returned from Theresienstadt. Cf. Hans-Rainer Sandvoß, Widerstand in Wedding und Gesundbrunnen, Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 2003, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 14), p. 302. ISSN 0175-3592
265.^ Jump up to: a b Diemut Majer (2003). "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939-1945. JHU Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-8018-6493-3.
266.Jump up ^ Majer, "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich, p.369
267.Jump up ^ Leila J. Rupp, Mobilizing Women for War, p 125, ISBN 0-691-04649-2
268.Jump up ^ Robert Edwin Hertzstein, The War That Hitler Won p139 ISBN 0-399-11845-4
269.Jump up ^ Nazi Ideology and the Holocaust. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. January 2007. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-89604-712-9.
270.Jump up ^ Majer, "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich, p.855
271.Jump up ^ Cf. the Bundesgesetz über die Anerkennung freier Ehen (as of 23 June 1950, Federal law on recognition of free marriages).
272.Jump up ^ Germany's 'Brown Babies'. Spiegel. 13 October 2009.
273.Jump up ^ Origins and Language. Source: U.S. Library of Congress.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
274.^ Jump up to: a b A Country Study: Hungary. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ISBN 0-16-029202-6. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
275.Jump up ^ Józsa Hévizi Autonomies in Europe and Hungary. (PDF). Corvinus Society (2004)
276.Jump up ^ National and historical symbols of Hungary. Nemzetijelkepek.hu. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
277.Jump up ^ Kees Versteegh, et al. Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, BRILL, 2006.
278.Jump up ^ Izquierdo Labrado, Julio. "La esclavitud en Huelva y Palos (1570–1587)" (in Spanish). Retrieved 14 July 2008.
279.Jump up ^ Salloum, Habeeb. "The impact of the Arabic language and culture on English and other European languages". The Honorary Consulate of Syria. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
280.Jump up ^ "Real Academia Española". Retrieved 9 December 2009.[dead link]
281.Jump up ^ Robert Lacey (1983), Aristocrats, p. 67, Little, Brown and Company
282.Jump up ^ de Larramendi, Manuel Corografía de la muy noble y muy leal provincia de Guipúzcoa, Bilbao, 1986, facsimile edition of that from Editorial Ekin, Buenos Aires, 1950. (Also published by Tellechea Idígoras, San Sebastián, 1969.) Quoted in La idea de España entre los vascos de la Edad Moderna, by Jon Arrieta Alberdi, Anales 1997–1998, Real Sociedad Económica Valenciana de Amigos del País
283.Jump up ^ Limpieza de sangre in the Spanish-language Auñamendi Encyclopedia
284.^ Jump up to: a b Adams, S. M.; Bosch, E.; Balaresque, P. L.; Ballereau, S. P. J.; Lee, A. C.; Arroyo, E.; López-Parra, A. M.; Aler, M.; Grifo, M. S. G. (2008). "The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula". The American Journal of Human Genetics 83 (6): 725–736. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007. PMC 2668061. PMID 19061982. edit
285.Jump up ^ Flores, Carlos; Maca-Meyer, Nicole; González, Ana M; Oefner, Peter J; Shen, Peidong; Pérez, Jose A; Rojas, Antonio; Larruga, Jose M; Underhill, Peter A (2004). "Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: Implications for population demography". European Journal of Human Genetics 12 (10): 855–63. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201225. PMID 15280900.
286.Jump up ^ González, AM; Brehm, A; Pérez, JA; Maca-Meyer, N; Flores, C; Cabrera, VM (2003). "Mitochondrial DNA affinities at the Atlantic fringe of Europe". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 120 (4): 391–404. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10168. PMID 12627534.
287.Jump up ^ Giacomo, F.; Luca, F.; Popa, L. O.; Akar, N.; Anagnou, N.; Banyko, J.; Brdicka, R.; Barbujani, G.; Papola, F. et al. (2004). "Y chromosomal haplogroup J as a signature of the post-neolithic colonization of Europe". Human Genetics 115 (5): 357–71. doi:10.1007/s00439-004-1168-9. PMID 15322918.
288.Jump up ^ Sutton, WK; Knight, A; Underhill, PA; Neulander, JS; Disotell, TR; Mountain, JL (2006). "Toward resolution of the debate regarding purported crypto-Jews in a spanish-American population: Evidence from the Y chromosome". Annals of Human Biology 33 (1): 100–11. doi:10.1080/03014460500475870. PMID 16500815.
289.Jump up ^ Zalloua, Pierre A.; Platt, Daniel E.; El Sibai, Mirvat; Khalife, Jade; Makhoul, Nadine; Haber, Marc; Xue, Yali; Izaabel, Hassan; Bosch, Elena et al. (2008). "Identifying Genetic Traces of Historical Expansions: Phoenician Footprints in the Mediterranean". The American Journal of Human Genetics 83 (5): 633–42. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.10.012. PMC 2668035. PMID 18976729.
290.Jump up ^ "La cifra de los sefardíes puede estar sobreestimada, ya que en estos genes hay mucha diversidad y quizá absorbieron otros genes de Oriente Medio" ("The Sephardic result may be overestimated, since there is much diversity in those genes and maybe absorbed other genes from the Middle East"). ¿Pone en duda Calafell la validez de los tests de ancestros? "Están bien para los americanos, nosotros ya sabemos de dónde venimos" (Puts Calafell in doubt the validity of ancestry tests? "They can be good for the Americans, we already know from where we come from)" Yanes, Javier (4 December 2008) Tres culturas en el ADN. publico.es
291.Jump up ^ Saey, Tina Hesman (January 3, 2009). "Spanish Inquisition couldn’t quash Moorish, Jewish genes". ScienceNews 175: 1. doi:10.1002/scin.2009.5591750111. "We think it might be an over estimate .. The genetic makeup of Sephardic Jews is probably common to other Middle Eastern populations, such as the Phoenicians, that also settled the Iberian Peninsula, Calafell says. In our study, that would have all fallen under the Jewish label"
292.Jump up ^ "El doctor Calafell matiza que (...) los marcadores genéticos usados para distinguir a la población con ancestros sefardíes pueden producir distorsiones". "ese 20% de españoles que el estudio señala como descendientes de sefardíes podrían haber heredado ese rasgo de movimiento más antiguos, como el de los fenicios o, incluso, primeros pobladores neolíticos hace miles de años." "Dr. Calafell clarifies that (...) the genetic markers used to distinguish the population with Sephardim ancestry may produce distortions. The 20% of Spaniards that are identified as having Sephardim ancestry in the study could have inherited that same marker from older movements like the Phoenicians, or even the first Neolithic settlers thousands of years ago" Caceres, Pedro (4 December 2008) Uno de cada tres españoles tiene marcadores genéticos de Oriente Medio o el Magreb. elmundo.es
293.Jump up ^ Spanish Inquisition left genetic legacy in Iberia , New Scientist, 4 December 2008.
294.Jump up ^ Capelli, Cristian; Onofri, Valerio; Brisighelli, Francesca; Boschi, Ilaria; Scarnicci, Francesca; Masullo, Mara; Ferri, Gianmarco; Tofanelli, Sergio et al. (2009). "Moors and Saracens in Europe: Estimating the medieval North African male legacy in southern Europe". European Journal of Human Genetics 17 (6): 848–52. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2008.258. PMC 2947089. PMID 19156170.
295.Jump up ^ Emma Blake, Emma (2008). "The Familiar Honeycomb: Byzantine Era Reuse of Sicily's Prehistoric Rock-Cut Tombs". In Ruth M. Van Dyke, Susan E. Alcock. Archaeologies of Memory. Blackwell Publishers. p. 201. doi:10.1002/9780470774304.ch10. ISBN 978-0-470-77430-4.
296.Jump up ^ Alex E. Felice, "Genetic origin of contemporary Maltese," The Sunday Times (of Malta), 5 August 2007, last visited 5 August 2007
297.Jump up ^ Italian women win cash for wartime rapes. Listserv.acsu.buffalo.edu. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
298.Jump up ^ "1952: Il caso delle "marocchinate" al Parlamento". Retrieved 22 November 2008.
299.Jump up ^ Gribanova, Lyubov "Дети-метисы в России: свои среди чужих" (in Russian). Nashi Deti Project. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
300.Jump up ^ Donald Quataert (2000). The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-521-63328-1.
301.Jump up ^ "The sultanate of women". Channel 4. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
302.Jump up ^ "The Ottoman Empire’s Life-or-Death Race". Smithsonian. March 22, 2012
303.Jump up ^ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1244654/Study-finds-Britons-descended-farmers-left-Iraq-Syria-10-000-years-ago.html
304.Jump up ^ Anglo-Indians. Movinghere.org.uk. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
305.Jump up ^ Asians in Britain: Their Social, Cultural and Political Lives. Fathom.com. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
306.Jump up ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 81-7824-154-4.
307.Jump up ^ "Inter-Ethnic Marriage: 2% of all Marriages are Inter-Ethnic". National Statistics. 21 March 2005. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
308.Jump up ^ Bland, L. (2005). "White Women and Men of Colour: Miscegenation Fears in Britain after the Great War". Gender & History 17: 29. doi:10.1111/j.0953-5233.2005.00371.x. edit
309.Jump up ^ Major new study reveals the rise of mixed-race Britain. Some ethnic groups 'will disappear', The Observer, 18 January 2009
310.Jump up ^ Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery, BBC, 7 September 2009
311.Jump up ^ "Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women—Infanticide in Turkey," New York Daily Times, 6 August 1856. Chnm.gmu.edu. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
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External links
 Look up miscegenation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Miscegenation.
Explore Famous Interracial Couples and Other Race Relations Issues on the About.com Website.
Perez v. Sharp
Historical Background on Miscegenation
Wikisource-logo.svg Ernest Ingersoll (1920). "Cross-Fertilization in Animals and in Man". Encyclopedia Americana.


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