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Stormfront (website)

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Stormfront
Stormfront header logo.png
Web address
www.stormfront.org
Slogan
"White Pride World Wide"
Commercial?
No

Type of site
 Forum
Registration
Required to post
Available in
English, with sub-forums in Afrikaans, Croatian, Danish, Dutch, Estonian, Finnish, French, Hungarian, Icelandic, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Russian, Serbian, Spanish and Swedish
Owner
Don Black
Created by
Don Black
Launched
1995

Alexa rank
 Decrease 39,082 (June 2015)[1]
Current status
Active
Linked to the Politics and elections series
 and part of the Politics series on
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Stormfront is a white nationalist,[2] white supremacist[3] and neo-Nazi[4] Internet forum that was the Web's first major racial hate site.[5]
Stormfront began as an online bulletin board system in the early 1990s before being established as a website in 1995 by former Ku Klux Klan leader and white nationalist Don Black. It received national attention in the United States in 2000 after being featured as the subject of a documentary, Hate.com. Stormfront has been the subject of controversy after being removed from French, German, and Italian Google indexes, for targeting an online FOX News poll on racial segregation, and for having political candidates as members. Its prominence has grown since the 1990s, attracting attention from watchdog organizations that oppose racism and antisemitism.


Contents  [hide]
1 History 1.1 Early history
1.2 National attention
1.3 Controversies
1.4 Popularity and later history
2 Content 2.1 Services
2.2 Design
2.3 Funding
3 Character 3.1 Purpose and appeal
3.2 Ideology
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

History[edit]



 White nationalist politician and activist David Duke, whose 1990 campaign for United States Senator in Louisiana was the impetus for the first iteration of Stormfront.
Early history[edit]
Stormfront began in 1990 as an online bulletin board for white nationalist David Duke's campaign for United States Senator of Louisiana. The name "Stormfront" was chosen for its connotations of a political or military front and an analogy with weather fronts that invokes the idea of a tumultuous storm ending in cleansing.[6] It was opened to the public in 1994, and the Stormfront.org website was founded in 1995 by Don Black, becoming the first website associated with white supremacy.[7][8]
Until this point, attempts at using the internet for the white pride movement met with limited success,[9] but Stormfront quickly began to become popular with the growth of the internet at this time, according to Black.[6][10] A former Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan and in the 1970s a member of the National Socialist White People's Party,[11] Black first received computer training while imprisoned for his role in an abortive 1981 attempt to overthrow the government of Dominica.[12][13]
National attention[edit]
The site received considerable attention in the United States, such as in Hate.com, a 2000 CBS/HBO documentary television special which focused on the perceived threat of white nationalist and white supremacist organisations on the internet.[14] Narrated by Morris Dees of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), it featured interviews with Black and his son Derek as well as other white nationalist groups and organisations.[citation needed]
Controversies[edit]
In 2002, Google complied with French and German legislation forbidding links to websites which host white supremacist, Holocaust-denying, or historical revisionist material by removing Stormfront.org from their French and German indexes.[15]
Stormfront returned to the news in May 2003, when Fox News Channel host Bill O'Reilly reported on a racially segregated prom being held in Georgia and posted a poll on his website asking his viewers if they would send their own children to one. Stormfront's members targeted [clarification needed] the poll, prompting O'Reilly to discuss them the subsequent week.[16] Doug Hanks, a candidate for the city council of Charlotte, North Carolina, withdrew his nomination in August 2005 after it was revealed that he had posted on Stormfront. Hanks had posted more than 4,000 comments over three years, including one in which he described black people as "rabid beasts".[17][18] Hanks said his postings were designed to gain the trust of Stormfront users to help him write a novel: "I did what I thought I needed to do to establish myself as a credible white nationalist."[17]
In 2012 Italian police blocked the website and arrested 4 people for allegedly inciting racial hatred.[citation needed] The measure was taken after the publication of a blacklist of "prominent Jews and people who support Jews and immigrants" on the Italian section of the website. The list included possible targets of violent attacks, including gypsy camps.[19] The subsequent year, Italian police raided the homes of 35 Stormfront posters in November 2013. One man who was arrested in Mantua had two loaded weapons, a hand grenade casing, and a flag with a swastika in his possession.[20]
According to a 2014 two-year study by the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC)'s Intelligence Report, registered Stormfront users have been disproportionately responsible for some of the most lethal hate crimes and mass killings since the site was put up in 1995. In the five years leading up to 2014, Stormfront members murdered nearly 100 people.[21][22][23][24]
Popularity and later history[edit]

The total of registered users is just shy of 300,000, a fairly astounding number for a site run by an ex-felon and former Alabama Klan leader. And that doesn't include thousands of visitors who never register as users. At press time, Stormfront ranked as the Internet's 13,648th most popular site, while the NAACP site, by comparison, ranked 32,640th. -- The Year in Hate and Extremism, 2015[25]
In a 2001 USA Today article, journalist Tara McKelvey called Stormfront "the most visited white supremacist site on the net".[26] The number of registered users on the site rose from 5,000 in January 2002 to 52,566 in June 2005,[27] by which year it was the 338th largest internet forum, receiving more than 1,500 hits each weekday and ranking in the top one percent of internet sites in terms of use.[28][29] By June 2008, the site was attracting more than 40,000 unique users each day.[30] Operating the site from its West Palm Beach, Florida headquarters is Black's full-time job, and he is assisted by his son and 40 moderators.[11][30][31] The popularity of the site attracted attention from groups such as the Simon Wiesenthal Center and the Anti-Defamation League (ADL).[32] The ADL describes Stormfront as having "served as a veritable supermarket of online hate, stocking its shelves with many forms of anti-Semitism and racism".[33]
In 2006, the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) reported a discussion on Stormfront in which white nationalists were encouraged to join the U.S. military to learn the skills necessary for winning a race war.[34][35] The 2008 United States presidential candidacy of African-American Democrat Barack Obama was a cause of significant concern for some Stormfront members:[30] the site received 2,000 new members the day after Obama was elected as President, and went off-line temporarily due to the increase in visitors.[36] Stormfront posters saw Obama as representing a new multicultural era in the United States replacing "white rule", feared that he would support illegal immigration and affirmative action, and that he would help make white people a minority group.[30]
During the primary campaigns, The New York Times mistakenly reported that Stormfront had donated $500 to Republican presidential hopeful Ron Paul; in fact, it was site owner Don Black who had contributed the money to Paul.[37] In an April 2009 shooting, Richard Poplawski, a poster on the site, was charged with ambushing and killing three Pittsburgh Police officers and attempting to kill nine others.[38]
Content[edit]

Stormfront is a resource for those courageous men and women fighting to preserve their White Western culture, ideals and freedom of speech and association—a forum for planning strategies and forming political and social groups to ensure victory.
—Stormfront mission statement.[39]
Stormfront is notable for the white supremacist views of its members,[3] a characterization that is contested by Don Black as an inaccurate description; Black believes the term "supremacy" implies a system which "isn't descriptive of what [the members] want".[6] It is also a neo-Nazi website,[4] on which Nazi mysticism and the personality cult of Adolf Hitler are sustained and Nazi iconography is popular.[40] The Stormfront.org website is organized primarily as a discussion forum with multiple thematic sub-fora including "News", "Ideology and Philosophy" ("Foundations for White Nationalism"), "Culture and Customs", "Theology", "Quotations", "Revisionism", "Science, Technology and Race" ("Genetics, eugenics, racial science and related subjects"), "Privacy", "Self-Defense, Martial Arts, and Preparedness", "Homemaking", "Education and Homeschooling", "Youth", and "Music and Entertainment".[27][30] There are boards for different geographic regions, and a section open to unregistered guests, who are elsewhere unable to post, and even then, only under heavy moderation.[citation needed]
Services[edit]



 Stormfront's logo, featuring a Celtic cross surrounded by the motto "white pride, world wide".
Stormfront.org hosts files from and links to a number of white nationalist and white racist websites,[8] an online dating service (for "heterosexual White Gentiles only"), and electronic mailing lists that allow the white nationalist community to discuss issues of interest.[32][41][42] It features a selection of current news reports, an archive of past stories, live streaming of The Political Cesspool radio show,[43] and a merchandise store featuring literature and music.[39] Stormfront has reportedly published stories aimed at children.[40]
A 2001 study of recruitment by extremist groups on the internet noted that Stormfront came close to offering most of the standard services offered by web portals, including an internal search engine, web hosting, and categorized links, and lacking only in an internet search engine and the provision of free email for its members (though a limited email service was available at the price of $30 a month).[40]
Design[edit]
Prominently featured on the homepage is a Celtic cross surrounded by the words "white pride, world wide." A mission statement praises courage and freedom. Stormfront states it discourages racial slurs, and prohibits violent threats and descriptions of anything illegal.[27][40] Others state that only blatant hate and calls for violence are kept off the opening page.[39][44]
Funding[edit]
On the organisation's website Black sets a $7,500 a month goal for donations to cover costs.[45] People can join as Sustaining Members for $5 a month, $50 a year or $1,000 to be a lifetime supporter or as Core Members at $30 a month. Contributions can be paid in Bitcoins.[45]
Character[edit]
Stormfront is a white nationalist,[2] white supremacist[3] and neo-Nazi website[4] known as a hate site.[5]
Purpose and appeal[edit]
Don Black has long worked to increase the mainstream appeal of white supremacism.[27] Black established Stormfront to heighten awareness of perceived anti-white discrimination and government actions detrimental to white people,[14] and to create a virtual community of white extremists.[6][30][40][46] Black owns the site's servers so he is not dependent upon website hosting providers.[29]
Black's organization inculcates enough white pride to make "its worldwide aspirations meaningful and socially significant".[39] Stormfront keeps the rhetoric in its forums muted, discourages racial slurs, and prohibits violent threats and descriptions of anything illegal.[27][40] Site moderator Jamie Kelso is reportedly "the motivating force behind real community-building among Stormfront members" due to his energy and enthusiasm in organizing offline events.[47] Black's positioning the site as a community with the explicit purpose of "defending the white race" has helped sustain the community over its long lifetime, as it attracts white men and women who define themselves in opposition to ethnic minorities, particularly Jews.[27]
Stormfront established MartinLutherKing.org to discredit Martin Luther King, Jr.[48] In a 2001 study of white nationalist groups including Stormfront, academics Beverly Ray and George E. Marsh II commented that "Like the Nazis before them, they rely upon a blend of science, ignorance, and mythology to prop up their arguments".[40][49]
Ideology[edit]
Stormfront presents itself as engaged in a struggle for unity, identifying culture, speech and free association as its core concerns,[39] though members of Stormfront are especially passionate about racial purity.[47] It promotes a lone wolf mentality, linking to white nationalist theorist Louis Beam's influential work on leaderless resistance and offering a sympathetic assessment of Benjamin Nathaniel Smith, a white supremacist who committed suicide after a racially-motivated killing spree in June 1999.[40] Violet Jones[who?] notes that Stormfront credits its mission to "the founding myth of an America created, built, and ideologically grounded by the descendants of white Europeans."[50] Asked in 2008 by an interviewer for Italian newspaper la Repubblica whether Stormfront was a 21st-century version of the Ku Klux Klan without the iconography, Black responded affirmatively, though he noted that he would never say so to an American journalist.[51]
In addition to its promotion of antisemitism and Holocaust denial, Stormfront has increasingly become active in its propagation of Islamophobia.[52]
See also[edit]

Portal icon United States portal
Portal icon Internet portal
Portal icon Discrimination portal
Jew Watch
List of white nationalist organizations
List of Internet forums

References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ "Stormfront.org Site Info". Alexa Internet. Retrieved June 11, 2015.
2.^ Jump up to: a b Sources which consider Stormfront a white nationalist website include: Dan Keating (May 2, 1995). "White supremacists booted from Internet". Knight-Ridder Newspapers. "'I wasn't surprised,' said Don Black of West Palm Beach, who runs the Stormfront World Wide Web site for white nationalists."
Andrew Backover (November 8, 1999). "Hate sets up shop on Internet". Denver Post. "Nationally, Stormfront.org, a white nationalist site, is considered the granddaddy of online hatred."
Jean Winegardner (February 17, 1998). "Is Hate Young and New on the Web?". USC Annenberg's Online Journalism Review. "Don Black, 44, a white nationalist since the age of 15, runs a site many would put in the hate speech category. He [is] the founder of Stormfront, a white nationalist Web site."
Anchor: Ted Koppel (January 13, 1998). "Hate and the Internet". ABC News Nightline. ABC. "[...] Storm Front, a Web site dedicated to the white nationalist movement [...] Storm Front, a white nationalist Web site [...]"
Swain, Carol Miller (2002). The New White Nationalism in America. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 0-521-80886-3. "Don Black, leader of the white nationalist organization Stormfront"
3.^ Jump up to: a b c Sources which consider Stormfront a white supremacist website include: Abel, D.S. (February 19–25, 1998). "The Racist Next Door". New Times. "Black's swastika-strewn "Stormfront" – the only white supremacist Website on the Internet before the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City"
Etchingham, Julie (January 12, 2000). "Hate.com expands on the net". BBC News (BBC). Retrieved September 14, 2007.
Lloyd, Robin (August 12, 1999). "Web trackers hunt racist groups online". CNN. Retrieved September 14, 2007.
"Hate on the World Wide Web:A Brief Guide to Cyberspace Bigotry". ADL.org. Anti-Defamation League. October 1998. Retrieved January 1, 2009.
"Jena Rally Sparks White Supremacist Rage, Lynching Threat". Southern Poverty Law Center. September 20, 2007. Retrieved January 29, 2008.
Ripley, Amanda (March 5, 2005). "The Bench Under Siege". Time Magazine. Retrieved January 29, 2008.
Scheneider, Keith (March 13, 1995). "Hate Groups Use Tools Of the Electronic Trade". The New York Times (The New York Times Company). Retrieved January 29, 2001.
Atkins, Stephen E. (August 30, 2002). Encyclopedia of Modern American Extremists and Extremist Groups. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31502-7. Retrieved July 19, 2008. "In 1995 Black brought up a Web site, Stormfront, which now serves as the primary site for white supremacist Internet communications."
Mooney, Linda A.; Knox, David; Schach, Caroline (2004). "Race and Ethic Relations". Understanding Social Problems. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 181. ISBN 0-534-62514-2. Retrieved July 19, 2008. "White supremacist groups such as Stormfront spread their message of racial hate through their Web site."
Wang, Wally (April 15, 2006). "Hate Groups and Terrorists on the Internet". Steal This Computer Book 4.0: What They Won't Tell You About the Internet (4th ed.). No Starch Press Inc. p. 239. ISBN 1-59327-105-0. Retrieved July 19, 2008. "Don Black, an ex-Grand Dragon of the Ku Klux Klan and owner of the white supremacist homepage Stormfront (www.stormfront.org)"
Casey, Natasha (February 2006). "'The Best Kept Secret in Retail': Selling Business in Contemporary America". In Negra, Diane. The Irish in Us: Irishness, Performativity, and Popular Culture. Duke University Press. p. 94. ISBN 0-8223-3740-1. Retrieved July 19, 2008. "… the inclusion of the Stormfront flag specifically defines its audience as white supremacist."
Gerstenfeld, Phyllis B. (June 26, 2003). Hate Crimes: Causes, Controls, and Controversies. Sage Publications. p. 227. ISBN 0-7619-2814-6. "A search for the term 'Stormfront' on the American version of Google results in a list of sites with the white supremacist Web site Stormfront first on the list."
Lane, Henry W.; DiStefano, Joseph J.; Maznevski, Martha L. (2006). International Management Behavior. Blackwell Publishing. p. 539. ISBN 1-4051-2671-X. "After his release in 1985, Black launched the first white supremacist Web site. Black's "Stormfront" was one of the largest hate sites on the Internet"
Jepson, Peter (2003). Tackling Militant Racism. Ashgate Publishing. p. 151. ISBN 0-7546-2163-4. "Stormfront is a white supremacist organisation." footnote 83.
4.^ Jump up to: a b c Sources which consider Stormfront a Neo-Nazi website include: Kim, T.K. (Summer 2005). "Electronic Storm – Stormfront Grows a Thriving Neo-Nazi Community". Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center) (118). Retrieved December 30, 2008.
Zhou, Y; Reid E, Qinj, Chen H, and Lai G (2008). "U.S. Domestic Extremist Groups on the Web: Link and Content Analysis" (PDF). University of Arizona. Retrieved December 27, 2008. "Stormfront.org, a neo-Nazi's Web site set up in 1995, is considered the first major domestic “hate site” on the World Wide Web because of its depth of content and its presentation style which represented a new period for online right-wing extremism"
Eshman, Rob (December 23, 2008). "Jewish Money". The Jewish Journal. "Earlier this week, when I entered the search terms "Madoff" and "Jewish" into Google, the top responses included JewishJournal.com and stormfront.org, a neo-Nazi Web site."
Hildebrand, Joe (January 1, 2008). "RSL slams Australia Day hijack". The Daily Telegraph (News Corporation). "Much of the activity has been co-ordinated through the neo-Nazi website Stormfront, whose Australian arm is moderated by 18-year-old Newcastle resident Rhys McLean."
Ezra Levant, Mark Steyn. Shakedown: How Our Government Is Undermining Democracy in the Name of Human Rights. McClelland & Stewart, 2009; ISBN 978-0-7710-4619-3, p. 208; "A particularly rough stretch of road is a neo-Nazi website called Stormfront.org."
Jeffrey Kaplan, Heléne Lööw. The Cultic Milieu: Oppositional Subcultures in an Age of Globalization. Rowman Altamira, 2002; ISBN 978-0-7591-0204-0, p. 224; "Also, Web Pages such as ...'Stormfront'... in addition to racist, anti-Semitic, and neo-Nazi messages and illustrations, provide links..."
James Friedman. Reality Squared: Televisual Discourse on the Real. Rutgers University Press, 2002; ISBN 978-0-8135-2989-9, p. 163; "Stormfront provides its viewers with... a general store stocked with Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and neo-Nazi literature and music..."
Peter Katel, "Hate Groups: Is Extremism on the Rise in the United States?", in CQ Researcher (ed.). Issues in Terrorism and Homeland Security, SAGE, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4129-9201-5, p. 79; "...a March 13 Web post by Poplawski to the neo-Nazi Web site Stormfront."
Zev Garber. Mel Gibson's Passion: The Film, the Controversy, and its Implications. Purdue University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1-55753-405-7, p. 147; "...Internet websites (e.g. Angry White Female web-page, Vanguard News Network, Christian Identity website, Stormfront Neo-Nazi website, National Alliance website...)"
Mark Crispin Miller. Fooled Again: The Real Case for Electoral Reform. Basic Books, 2007, ISBN 978-0-465-04580-8, p. 461; "...appearing on such ultra-rightist websites as Free Republic and the neo-Nazi outfit Stormfront (“WHITE PRIDE WORLD WIDE”)"
Markos Moulitsas. American Taliban: How War, Sex, Sin, and Power Bind Jihadists and the Radical Right, Polipoint Press, 2010, ISBN 978-1-936227-02-0, p. 56; "Poplawski was active on white supremacist and neo-Nazi Stormfront internet forums."
Andrew Martin, Patrice Petro. Rethinking Global Security: Media, Popular Culture, and the "War on terror". Rutgers University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-8135-3830-3, p. 174; "...9/11 Internet chat-room discussions, including radical hate-group sites like the neo-Nazi Stormfront.org."
John Gorenfeld, Barry W. Lynn. Bad Moon Rising: How Reverend Moon Created the Washington Times, Seduced the Religious Right, and Built an American Kingdom, Polipoint Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9794822-3-6, p. 68; "She has even written in to neo-Nazi Web site Stormfront, geeking out together on Peter Jackson's film adaptation;..."
5.^ Jump up to: a b Sources which identify Stormfront as the Internet's "first hate site" include: Levin, Brian (August 21, 2003). "Cyberhate: A Legal and Historical Analysis of Extremists' Use of Computer Networks in America". In Perry, Barbara. Hate and Bias Crime: A Reader. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94408-2. Retrieved July 21, 2008.
Ryan, Nick (March 2, 2004). "Thirteen Days". Into a World of Hate: A Journey Among the Extreme Right (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 80. ISBN 0-415-94922-X. Retrieved July 21, 2008. "It was Black who would launch Stormfront, the first major extremist hate site."
Samuels, Shimon (February 6, 1997). "Is the Holocaust unique?". In Rosenbaum, Alan S. Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide. Westview Press. p. 218. ISBN 0-8133-3686-4. Retrieved July 21, 2008. "It was Holocaust denier and Ku Klux Klan leader, Don Black, who had founded Stormfront (the very first Internet hate site, in 1995)"
Bolaffi, Guido; Bracalenti, Raffaele; Braham, Peter H.; Gindro, Sandro (December 26, 2002). Dictionary of Race, Ethnicity and Culture (1st ed.). Sage Publications. p. 254. ISBN 0-7619-6900-4. Retrieved July 21, 2008. "The first extremist hate site was Stormfront (1995)"
6.^ Jump up to: a b c d Swain, Carol M.; Nieli, Russell (March 24, 2003). "Don Black". Contemporary Voices of White Nationalism in America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 153–165. ISBN 0-521-01693-2.
7.Jump up ^ Schultz, David (2000). It's Show Time!. Frankfurt Am Main: P. Lang. p. 236. ISBN 0-8204-4135-X.
8.^ Jump up to: a b Swain, Carol Miller (2002). The New White Nationalism in America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 30–32. ISBN 0-521-80886-3. "Stormfront has links to many dozens of other white nationalist and white racist websites, and many of these also feed into Stormfront."
9.Jump up ^ Kaplan, Jeffrey (1998). The Emergence of a Euro-American Radical Right. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 160. ISBN 0-8135-2564-0.
10.Jump up ^ Etchingham, Julie (January 12, 2000). "Hate.com expands on the net". BBC News (BBC). Retrieved September 14, 2007.
11.^ Jump up to: a b Schwab Abel, David (February 19, 1998). "The Racist Next Door". New Times.
12.Jump up ^ Lloyd, Robin (August 8, 1999). "Web Trackers Hunt Racist Groups Online". CNN (Turner Broadcasting System). Retrieved September 14, 2007.
13.Jump up ^ McKelvey, Tara (August 16, 2001). "Father and Son Team on Hate Site". USA Today (Gannett Company). Retrieved January 29, 2008.
14.^ Jump up to: a b Swain, Carol (2002). The New White Nationalism in America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 230–232. ISBN 0-521-80886-3.
15.Jump up ^ McCullagh, Declan (October 23, 2002). "Google excluding controversial sites". CNet News. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
16.Jump up ^ O'Reilly, Bill (May 8, 2003). "Circling the Wagons in Georgia". Talking Points (Fox News). Retrieved July 20, 2008.
17.^ Jump up to: a b "Internet postings end politico's shot". Columbia Daily Tribune. Associated Press. August 6, 2005. Retrieved November 25, 2011.
18.Jump up ^ Shugart, Karen (December 7, 2005). "No Really, He's A Racialist". Creative Loafing. Retrieved November 25, 2011.
19.Jump up ^ "Italian white supremacists arrested for inciting anti-Semitism". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved November 24, 2012.
20.Jump up ^ Italian police raid homes of suspected online anti-Semites, haaretz.com, November 15, 2013.
21.Jump up ^ "White Homicide Worldwide". splcenter.org. SPL. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
22.Jump up ^ "More than 100 hate-crime murders linked to single website, report finds". The Guardian. April 18, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
23.Jump up ^ Bever, Lindsey (April 18, 2014). "A white supremacist Web site frequented by killers". Washington Post. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
24.Jump up ^ Newcomb, Alyssa (April 17, 2014). "Stormfront Website Posters Have Murdered Almost 100 People, Watchdog Group Says". ABC News. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
25.Jump up ^ Potok, Mark. "The Year in Hate and Extremism". SPLC. Retrieved 6 May 2015.
26.Jump up ^ McKelvey, Tara (July 16, 2006). "Father and Son Team on Hate Site". USA Today (Gannett Company). Retrieved December 28, 2008.
27.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Daniels, Jessie (December 1, 2007). "Race, Civil Rights and Hate Speech in the Digital Era". In Everett, Anna. Learning Race and Ethnicity: Youth and Digital Media. MIT Press. p. 133. ISBN 0-262-05091-9. Retrieved July 19, 2008. "Black has long been advocate for 'mainstreaming' the white supremacist movement, and the Internet is his preferred medium for doing so. His first and primary presence is Stormfront.org"
28.Jump up ^ Jessup, Michael (2007). "The Sword of Truth in a Sea of Lies: The Ideology of Hate". In Robert J. Priest, Alvaro L. Nieves. This Side of Heaven. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-19-531056-X.
29.^ Jump up to: a b Cohen-Almagor, Raphael (November 1, 2005). "Conclusion". The Scope of Tolerance: Studies on the Costs of Free Expression and Freedom of the Press (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 254. ISBN 0-415-35758-6. Retrieved July 21, 2008.
30.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Saslow, Eli (June 22, 2008). "Hate Groups' Newest Target". Washington Post (Washington Post Company). Retrieved July 13, 2008.
31.Jump up ^ Phillips, Peter (April 9, 2001). Censored 2001: 25 Years of Censored News and the Top Censored Stories of the Year. New York: Seven Stories Press. p. 133. ISBN 1-58322-064-X. "Today, the state is home to several of the most powerful white supremicists in the country, including Stormfront, an Internet-based hate group headquartered in West Palm Beach."
32.^ Jump up to: a b Kaplan, Jeffrey (May 28, 2000). "Black Metal". Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-7425-0340-2.
33.Jump up ^ "Don Black: White Pride World Wide". Poisoning the Web: Hatred Online. Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved December 28, 2008.
34.Jump up ^ Holthouse, David (July 7, 2006). "A Few Bad Men". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
35.Jump up ^ Kifner, John (July 7, 2006). "Hate Groups Are Infiltrating the Military, Group Asserts". The New York Times. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
36.Jump up ^ Sullivan, Eileen; Lara Jakes Jordan; Jerry Harkavy (November 13, 2008). "Obama threats more than previous presidents-elect". Yahoo News (Yahoo!). Associated Press. Archived from the original on November 14, 2008. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
37.Jump up ^ "Corrections: For the Record". The New York Times Company. December 26, 2007.
38.Jump up ^ "Poplawski frequented right-wing Web sites". UPI.com. April 5, 2009. Retrieved April 6, 2009.
39.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bernardi, Daniel (2002). "Cyborgs in Cyberspace". In James Friedman. Reality Squared. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 163–167. ISBN 0-8135-2989-1.
40.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Ray, Beverly; George E. Marsh, II (February 2001). "Recruitment by Extremist Groups on the Internet". First Monday 6 (2). Retrieved December 28, 2008.
41.Jump up ^ Nacos, Brigitte L. (November 2002). "E-Terrorism and the Web of Hate". Mass-Mediated Terrorism: The Central Role of the Media in Terrorism and Counterterrorism (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 114. ISBN 0-7425-1083-2.
42.Jump up ^ Kaplan, Jeffrey; Weinberg, Leonard (February 28, 1999). The Emergence of a Euro-American Radical Right. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 161. ISBN 0-8135-2564-0.
43.Jump up ^ Screencap of Stormfront site with Cesspool streaming link, available at Politics1.com; accessed February 17, 2013.
44.Jump up ^ Lehman, Peter; Peter Lehman (2006-07-25). Pornography: Film And Culture. Rutgers University Press. p. 221. ISBN 0-8135-3871-8.
45.^ Jump up to: a b "Contributions in July". StormFront.org. 2012-01-17. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
46.Jump up ^ Pulera, Dominic J. (August 30, 2004). "White Wrongs". Sharing the Dream: White Males in Multicultural America. London, UK: Continuum. pp. 304–305. ISBN 0-8264-1643-8. "Jeffrey Kaplan ... describes Black's Web site as 'the cyberspace flagship of the racist right.' Indeed, Stormfront.org is the most popular racist site on the Internet"
47.^ Jump up to: a b Tucker, Maria Luisa (June 5, 2007). "A Neo-Nazi Field Trip to the Met". Village Voice. Retrieved December 27, 2008.
48.Jump up ^ Ibanga, Imaeyen (June 12, 2009). "Hate Groups Effectively Use Web as a Recruiting Tool", abcnews.go.com; accessed June 12, 2015.
49.Jump up ^ Hubbard, Lee (January 24, 2000). "Dissing the King". Salon.com. Retrieved September 28, 2008.
50.Jump up ^ Jones, Violet (November 28, 2006). "Violence, Discourse and Dixieland: A Critical Reflection on an Incident Involving Violence Against Black Youth". In Rossatto, César; Allen, Ricky. L; Pryun, Mark. Reinventing Critical Pedagogy: Widening the Circle of Anti-Oppression Education. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 39. ISBN 0-7425-3888-5.
51.Jump up ^ Calabresi, Mario (October 29, 2008). "Fermeremo Barack Obama siamo il nuovo Ku Klux Klan". la Repubblica. Gruppo Editoriale L'Espresso. Retrieved November 17, 2008.
52.Jump up ^ Heidi Beirich (August 25, 2010). "White Supremacists Find Common Cause with Pam Geller’s Anti-Islam Campaign". Hatewatch. Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved June 11, 2015.
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Stormfront (website)

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Stormfront
Stormfront header logo.png
Web address
www.stormfront.org
Slogan
"White Pride World Wide"
Commercial?
No

Type of site
 Forum
Registration
Required to post
Available in
English, with sub-forums in Afrikaans, Croatian, Danish, Dutch, Estonian, Finnish, French, Hungarian, Icelandic, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Russian, Serbian, Spanish and Swedish
Owner
Don Black
Created by
Don Black
Launched
1995

Alexa rank
 Decrease 39,082 (June 2015)[1]
Current status
Active
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 and part of the Politics series on
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Stormfront is a white nationalist,[2] white supremacist[3] and neo-Nazi[4] Internet forum that was the Web's first major racial hate site.[5]
Stormfront began as an online bulletin board system in the early 1990s before being established as a website in 1995 by former Ku Klux Klan leader and white nationalist Don Black. It received national attention in the United States in 2000 after being featured as the subject of a documentary, Hate.com. Stormfront has been the subject of controversy after being removed from French, German, and Italian Google indexes, for targeting an online FOX News poll on racial segregation, and for having political candidates as members. Its prominence has grown since the 1990s, attracting attention from watchdog organizations that oppose racism and antisemitism.


Contents  [hide]
1 History 1.1 Early history
1.2 National attention
1.3 Controversies
1.4 Popularity and later history
2 Content 2.1 Services
2.2 Design
2.3 Funding
3 Character 3.1 Purpose and appeal
3.2 Ideology
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

History[edit]



 White nationalist politician and activist David Duke, whose 1990 campaign for United States Senator in Louisiana was the impetus for the first iteration of Stormfront.
Early history[edit]
Stormfront began in 1990 as an online bulletin board for white nationalist David Duke's campaign for United States Senator of Louisiana. The name "Stormfront" was chosen for its connotations of a political or military front and an analogy with weather fronts that invokes the idea of a tumultuous storm ending in cleansing.[6] It was opened to the public in 1994, and the Stormfront.org website was founded in 1995 by Don Black, becoming the first website associated with white supremacy.[7][8]
Until this point, attempts at using the internet for the white pride movement met with limited success,[9] but Stormfront quickly began to become popular with the growth of the internet at this time, according to Black.[6][10] A former Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan and in the 1970s a member of the National Socialist White People's Party,[11] Black first received computer training while imprisoned for his role in an abortive 1981 attempt to overthrow the government of Dominica.[12][13]
National attention[edit]
The site received considerable attention in the United States, such as in Hate.com, a 2000 CBS/HBO documentary television special which focused on the perceived threat of white nationalist and white supremacist organisations on the internet.[14] Narrated by Morris Dees of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), it featured interviews with Black and his son Derek as well as other white nationalist groups and organisations.[citation needed]
Controversies[edit]
In 2002, Google complied with French and German legislation forbidding links to websites which host white supremacist, Holocaust-denying, or historical revisionist material by removing Stormfront.org from their French and German indexes.[15]
Stormfront returned to the news in May 2003, when Fox News Channel host Bill O'Reilly reported on a racially segregated prom being held in Georgia and posted a poll on his website asking his viewers if they would send their own children to one. Stormfront's members targeted [clarification needed] the poll, prompting O'Reilly to discuss them the subsequent week.[16] Doug Hanks, a candidate for the city council of Charlotte, North Carolina, withdrew his nomination in August 2005 after it was revealed that he had posted on Stormfront. Hanks had posted more than 4,000 comments over three years, including one in which he described black people as "rabid beasts".[17][18] Hanks said his postings were designed to gain the trust of Stormfront users to help him write a novel: "I did what I thought I needed to do to establish myself as a credible white nationalist."[17]
In 2012 Italian police blocked the website and arrested 4 people for allegedly inciting racial hatred.[citation needed] The measure was taken after the publication of a blacklist of "prominent Jews and people who support Jews and immigrants" on the Italian section of the website. The list included possible targets of violent attacks, including gypsy camps.[19] The subsequent year, Italian police raided the homes of 35 Stormfront posters in November 2013. One man who was arrested in Mantua had two loaded weapons, a hand grenade casing, and a flag with a swastika in his possession.[20]
According to a 2014 two-year study by the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC)'s Intelligence Report, registered Stormfront users have been disproportionately responsible for some of the most lethal hate crimes and mass killings since the site was put up in 1995. In the five years leading up to 2014, Stormfront members murdered nearly 100 people.[21][22][23][24]
Popularity and later history[edit]

The total of registered users is just shy of 300,000, a fairly astounding number for a site run by an ex-felon and former Alabama Klan leader. And that doesn't include thousands of visitors who never register as users. At press time, Stormfront ranked as the Internet's 13,648th most popular site, while the NAACP site, by comparison, ranked 32,640th. -- The Year in Hate and Extremism, 2015[25]
In a 2001 USA Today article, journalist Tara McKelvey called Stormfront "the most visited white supremacist site on the net".[26] The number of registered users on the site rose from 5,000 in January 2002 to 52,566 in June 2005,[27] by which year it was the 338th largest internet forum, receiving more than 1,500 hits each weekday and ranking in the top one percent of internet sites in terms of use.[28][29] By June 2008, the site was attracting more than 40,000 unique users each day.[30] Operating the site from its West Palm Beach, Florida headquarters is Black's full-time job, and he is assisted by his son and 40 moderators.[11][30][31] The popularity of the site attracted attention from groups such as the Simon Wiesenthal Center and the Anti-Defamation League (ADL).[32] The ADL describes Stormfront as having "served as a veritable supermarket of online hate, stocking its shelves with many forms of anti-Semitism and racism".[33]
In 2006, the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) reported a discussion on Stormfront in which white nationalists were encouraged to join the U.S. military to learn the skills necessary for winning a race war.[34][35] The 2008 United States presidential candidacy of African-American Democrat Barack Obama was a cause of significant concern for some Stormfront members:[30] the site received 2,000 new members the day after Obama was elected as President, and went off-line temporarily due to the increase in visitors.[36] Stormfront posters saw Obama as representing a new multicultural era in the United States replacing "white rule", feared that he would support illegal immigration and affirmative action, and that he would help make white people a minority group.[30]
During the primary campaigns, The New York Times mistakenly reported that Stormfront had donated $500 to Republican presidential hopeful Ron Paul; in fact, it was site owner Don Black who had contributed the money to Paul.[37] In an April 2009 shooting, Richard Poplawski, a poster on the site, was charged with ambushing and killing three Pittsburgh Police officers and attempting to kill nine others.[38]
Content[edit]

Stormfront is a resource for those courageous men and women fighting to preserve their White Western culture, ideals and freedom of speech and association—a forum for planning strategies and forming political and social groups to ensure victory.
—Stormfront mission statement.[39]
Stormfront is notable for the white supremacist views of its members,[3] a characterization that is contested by Don Black as an inaccurate description; Black believes the term "supremacy" implies a system which "isn't descriptive of what [the members] want".[6] It is also a neo-Nazi website,[4] on which Nazi mysticism and the personality cult of Adolf Hitler are sustained and Nazi iconography is popular.[40] The Stormfront.org website is organized primarily as a discussion forum with multiple thematic sub-fora including "News", "Ideology and Philosophy" ("Foundations for White Nationalism"), "Culture and Customs", "Theology", "Quotations", "Revisionism", "Science, Technology and Race" ("Genetics, eugenics, racial science and related subjects"), "Privacy", "Self-Defense, Martial Arts, and Preparedness", "Homemaking", "Education and Homeschooling", "Youth", and "Music and Entertainment".[27][30] There are boards for different geographic regions, and a section open to unregistered guests, who are elsewhere unable to post, and even then, only under heavy moderation.[citation needed]
Services[edit]



 Stormfront's logo, featuring a Celtic cross surrounded by the motto "white pride, world wide".
Stormfront.org hosts files from and links to a number of white nationalist and white racist websites,[8] an online dating service (for "heterosexual White Gentiles only"), and electronic mailing lists that allow the white nationalist community to discuss issues of interest.[32][41][42] It features a selection of current news reports, an archive of past stories, live streaming of The Political Cesspool radio show,[43] and a merchandise store featuring literature and music.[39] Stormfront has reportedly published stories aimed at children.[40]
A 2001 study of recruitment by extremist groups on the internet noted that Stormfront came close to offering most of the standard services offered by web portals, including an internal search engine, web hosting, and categorized links, and lacking only in an internet search engine and the provision of free email for its members (though a limited email service was available at the price of $30 a month).[40]
Design[edit]
Prominently featured on the homepage is a Celtic cross surrounded by the words "white pride, world wide." A mission statement praises courage and freedom. Stormfront states it discourages racial slurs, and prohibits violent threats and descriptions of anything illegal.[27][40] Others state that only blatant hate and calls for violence are kept off the opening page.[39][44]
Funding[edit]
On the organisation's website Black sets a $7,500 a month goal for donations to cover costs.[45] People can join as Sustaining Members for $5 a month, $50 a year or $1,000 to be a lifetime supporter or as Core Members at $30 a month. Contributions can be paid in Bitcoins.[45]
Character[edit]
Stormfront is a white nationalist,[2] white supremacist[3] and neo-Nazi website[4] known as a hate site.[5]
Purpose and appeal[edit]
Don Black has long worked to increase the mainstream appeal of white supremacism.[27] Black established Stormfront to heighten awareness of perceived anti-white discrimination and government actions detrimental to white people,[14] and to create a virtual community of white extremists.[6][30][40][46] Black owns the site's servers so he is not dependent upon website hosting providers.[29]
Black's organization inculcates enough white pride to make "its worldwide aspirations meaningful and socially significant".[39] Stormfront keeps the rhetoric in its forums muted, discourages racial slurs, and prohibits violent threats and descriptions of anything illegal.[27][40] Site moderator Jamie Kelso is reportedly "the motivating force behind real community-building among Stormfront members" due to his energy and enthusiasm in organizing offline events.[47] Black's positioning the site as a community with the explicit purpose of "defending the white race" has helped sustain the community over its long lifetime, as it attracts white men and women who define themselves in opposition to ethnic minorities, particularly Jews.[27]
Stormfront established MartinLutherKing.org to discredit Martin Luther King, Jr.[48] In a 2001 study of white nationalist groups including Stormfront, academics Beverly Ray and George E. Marsh II commented that "Like the Nazis before them, they rely upon a blend of science, ignorance, and mythology to prop up their arguments".[40][49]
Ideology[edit]
Stormfront presents itself as engaged in a struggle for unity, identifying culture, speech and free association as its core concerns,[39] though members of Stormfront are especially passionate about racial purity.[47] It promotes a lone wolf mentality, linking to white nationalist theorist Louis Beam's influential work on leaderless resistance and offering a sympathetic assessment of Benjamin Nathaniel Smith, a white supremacist who committed suicide after a racially-motivated killing spree in June 1999.[40] Violet Jones[who?] notes that Stormfront credits its mission to "the founding myth of an America created, built, and ideologically grounded by the descendants of white Europeans."[50] Asked in 2008 by an interviewer for Italian newspaper la Repubblica whether Stormfront was a 21st-century version of the Ku Klux Klan without the iconography, Black responded affirmatively, though he noted that he would never say so to an American journalist.[51]
In addition to its promotion of antisemitism and Holocaust denial, Stormfront has increasingly become active in its propagation of Islamophobia.[52]
See also[edit]

Portal icon United States portal
Portal icon Internet portal
Portal icon Discrimination portal
Jew Watch
List of white nationalist organizations
List of Internet forums

References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ "Stormfront.org Site Info". Alexa Internet. Retrieved June 11, 2015.
2.^ Jump up to: a b Sources which consider Stormfront a white nationalist website include: Dan Keating (May 2, 1995). "White supremacists booted from Internet". Knight-Ridder Newspapers. "'I wasn't surprised,' said Don Black of West Palm Beach, who runs the Stormfront World Wide Web site for white nationalists."
Andrew Backover (November 8, 1999). "Hate sets up shop on Internet". Denver Post. "Nationally, Stormfront.org, a white nationalist site, is considered the granddaddy of online hatred."
Jean Winegardner (February 17, 1998). "Is Hate Young and New on the Web?". USC Annenberg's Online Journalism Review. "Don Black, 44, a white nationalist since the age of 15, runs a site many would put in the hate speech category. He [is] the founder of Stormfront, a white nationalist Web site."
Anchor: Ted Koppel (January 13, 1998). "Hate and the Internet". ABC News Nightline. ABC. "[...] Storm Front, a Web site dedicated to the white nationalist movement [...] Storm Front, a white nationalist Web site [...]"
Swain, Carol Miller (2002). The New White Nationalism in America. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 0-521-80886-3. "Don Black, leader of the white nationalist organization Stormfront"
3.^ Jump up to: a b c Sources which consider Stormfront a white supremacist website include: Abel, D.S. (February 19–25, 1998). "The Racist Next Door". New Times. "Black's swastika-strewn "Stormfront" – the only white supremacist Website on the Internet before the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City"
Etchingham, Julie (January 12, 2000). "Hate.com expands on the net". BBC News (BBC). Retrieved September 14, 2007.
Lloyd, Robin (August 12, 1999). "Web trackers hunt racist groups online". CNN. Retrieved September 14, 2007.
"Hate on the World Wide Web:A Brief Guide to Cyberspace Bigotry". ADL.org. Anti-Defamation League. October 1998. Retrieved January 1, 2009.
"Jena Rally Sparks White Supremacist Rage, Lynching Threat". Southern Poverty Law Center. September 20, 2007. Retrieved January 29, 2008.
Ripley, Amanda (March 5, 2005). "The Bench Under Siege". Time Magazine. Retrieved January 29, 2008.
Scheneider, Keith (March 13, 1995). "Hate Groups Use Tools Of the Electronic Trade". The New York Times (The New York Times Company). Retrieved January 29, 2001.
Atkins, Stephen E. (August 30, 2002). Encyclopedia of Modern American Extremists and Extremist Groups. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31502-7. Retrieved July 19, 2008. "In 1995 Black brought up a Web site, Stormfront, which now serves as the primary site for white supremacist Internet communications."
Mooney, Linda A.; Knox, David; Schach, Caroline (2004). "Race and Ethic Relations". Understanding Social Problems. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 181. ISBN 0-534-62514-2. Retrieved July 19, 2008. "White supremacist groups such as Stormfront spread their message of racial hate through their Web site."
Wang, Wally (April 15, 2006). "Hate Groups and Terrorists on the Internet". Steal This Computer Book 4.0: What They Won't Tell You About the Internet (4th ed.). No Starch Press Inc. p. 239. ISBN 1-59327-105-0. Retrieved July 19, 2008. "Don Black, an ex-Grand Dragon of the Ku Klux Klan and owner of the white supremacist homepage Stormfront (www.stormfront.org)"
Casey, Natasha (February 2006). "'The Best Kept Secret in Retail': Selling Business in Contemporary America". In Negra, Diane. The Irish in Us: Irishness, Performativity, and Popular Culture. Duke University Press. p. 94. ISBN 0-8223-3740-1. Retrieved July 19, 2008. "… the inclusion of the Stormfront flag specifically defines its audience as white supremacist."
Gerstenfeld, Phyllis B. (June 26, 2003). Hate Crimes: Causes, Controls, and Controversies. Sage Publications. p. 227. ISBN 0-7619-2814-6. "A search for the term 'Stormfront' on the American version of Google results in a list of sites with the white supremacist Web site Stormfront first on the list."
Lane, Henry W.; DiStefano, Joseph J.; Maznevski, Martha L. (2006). International Management Behavior. Blackwell Publishing. p. 539. ISBN 1-4051-2671-X. "After his release in 1985, Black launched the first white supremacist Web site. Black's "Stormfront" was one of the largest hate sites on the Internet"
Jepson, Peter (2003). Tackling Militant Racism. Ashgate Publishing. p. 151. ISBN 0-7546-2163-4. "Stormfront is a white supremacist organisation." footnote 83.
4.^ Jump up to: a b c Sources which consider Stormfront a Neo-Nazi website include: Kim, T.K. (Summer 2005). "Electronic Storm – Stormfront Grows a Thriving Neo-Nazi Community". Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center) (118). Retrieved December 30, 2008.
Zhou, Y; Reid E, Qinj, Chen H, and Lai G (2008). "U.S. Domestic Extremist Groups on the Web: Link and Content Analysis" (PDF). University of Arizona. Retrieved December 27, 2008. "Stormfront.org, a neo-Nazi's Web site set up in 1995, is considered the first major domestic “hate site” on the World Wide Web because of its depth of content and its presentation style which represented a new period for online right-wing extremism"
Eshman, Rob (December 23, 2008). "Jewish Money". The Jewish Journal. "Earlier this week, when I entered the search terms "Madoff" and "Jewish" into Google, the top responses included JewishJournal.com and stormfront.org, a neo-Nazi Web site."
Hildebrand, Joe (January 1, 2008). "RSL slams Australia Day hijack". The Daily Telegraph (News Corporation). "Much of the activity has been co-ordinated through the neo-Nazi website Stormfront, whose Australian arm is moderated by 18-year-old Newcastle resident Rhys McLean."
Ezra Levant, Mark Steyn. Shakedown: How Our Government Is Undermining Democracy in the Name of Human Rights. McClelland & Stewart, 2009; ISBN 978-0-7710-4619-3, p. 208; "A particularly rough stretch of road is a neo-Nazi website called Stormfront.org."
Jeffrey Kaplan, Heléne Lööw. The Cultic Milieu: Oppositional Subcultures in an Age of Globalization. Rowman Altamira, 2002; ISBN 978-0-7591-0204-0, p. 224; "Also, Web Pages such as ...'Stormfront'... in addition to racist, anti-Semitic, and neo-Nazi messages and illustrations, provide links..."
James Friedman. Reality Squared: Televisual Discourse on the Real. Rutgers University Press, 2002; ISBN 978-0-8135-2989-9, p. 163; "Stormfront provides its viewers with... a general store stocked with Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and neo-Nazi literature and music..."
Peter Katel, "Hate Groups: Is Extremism on the Rise in the United States?", in CQ Researcher (ed.). Issues in Terrorism and Homeland Security, SAGE, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4129-9201-5, p. 79; "...a March 13 Web post by Poplawski to the neo-Nazi Web site Stormfront."
Zev Garber. Mel Gibson's Passion: The Film, the Controversy, and its Implications. Purdue University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1-55753-405-7, p. 147; "...Internet websites (e.g. Angry White Female web-page, Vanguard News Network, Christian Identity website, Stormfront Neo-Nazi website, National Alliance website...)"
Mark Crispin Miller. Fooled Again: The Real Case for Electoral Reform. Basic Books, 2007, ISBN 978-0-465-04580-8, p. 461; "...appearing on such ultra-rightist websites as Free Republic and the neo-Nazi outfit Stormfront (“WHITE PRIDE WORLD WIDE”)"
Markos Moulitsas. American Taliban: How War, Sex, Sin, and Power Bind Jihadists and the Radical Right, Polipoint Press, 2010, ISBN 978-1-936227-02-0, p. 56; "Poplawski was active on white supremacist and neo-Nazi Stormfront internet forums."
Andrew Martin, Patrice Petro. Rethinking Global Security: Media, Popular Culture, and the "War on terror". Rutgers University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-8135-3830-3, p. 174; "...9/11 Internet chat-room discussions, including radical hate-group sites like the neo-Nazi Stormfront.org."
John Gorenfeld, Barry W. Lynn. Bad Moon Rising: How Reverend Moon Created the Washington Times, Seduced the Religious Right, and Built an American Kingdom, Polipoint Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9794822-3-6, p. 68; "She has even written in to neo-Nazi Web site Stormfront, geeking out together on Peter Jackson's film adaptation;..."
5.^ Jump up to: a b Sources which identify Stormfront as the Internet's "first hate site" include: Levin, Brian (August 21, 2003). "Cyberhate: A Legal and Historical Analysis of Extremists' Use of Computer Networks in America". In Perry, Barbara. Hate and Bias Crime: A Reader. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94408-2. Retrieved July 21, 2008.
Ryan, Nick (March 2, 2004). "Thirteen Days". Into a World of Hate: A Journey Among the Extreme Right (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 80. ISBN 0-415-94922-X. Retrieved July 21, 2008. "It was Black who would launch Stormfront, the first major extremist hate site."
Samuels, Shimon (February 6, 1997). "Is the Holocaust unique?". In Rosenbaum, Alan S. Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide. Westview Press. p. 218. ISBN 0-8133-3686-4. Retrieved July 21, 2008. "It was Holocaust denier and Ku Klux Klan leader, Don Black, who had founded Stormfront (the very first Internet hate site, in 1995)"
Bolaffi, Guido; Bracalenti, Raffaele; Braham, Peter H.; Gindro, Sandro (December 26, 2002). Dictionary of Race, Ethnicity and Culture (1st ed.). Sage Publications. p. 254. ISBN 0-7619-6900-4. Retrieved July 21, 2008. "The first extremist hate site was Stormfront (1995)"
6.^ Jump up to: a b c d Swain, Carol M.; Nieli, Russell (March 24, 2003). "Don Black". Contemporary Voices of White Nationalism in America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 153–165. ISBN 0-521-01693-2.
7.Jump up ^ Schultz, David (2000). It's Show Time!. Frankfurt Am Main: P. Lang. p. 236. ISBN 0-8204-4135-X.
8.^ Jump up to: a b Swain, Carol Miller (2002). The New White Nationalism in America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 30–32. ISBN 0-521-80886-3. "Stormfront has links to many dozens of other white nationalist and white racist websites, and many of these also feed into Stormfront."
9.Jump up ^ Kaplan, Jeffrey (1998). The Emergence of a Euro-American Radical Right. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 160. ISBN 0-8135-2564-0.
10.Jump up ^ Etchingham, Julie (January 12, 2000). "Hate.com expands on the net". BBC News (BBC). Retrieved September 14, 2007.
11.^ Jump up to: a b Schwab Abel, David (February 19, 1998). "The Racist Next Door". New Times.
12.Jump up ^ Lloyd, Robin (August 8, 1999). "Web Trackers Hunt Racist Groups Online". CNN (Turner Broadcasting System). Retrieved September 14, 2007.
13.Jump up ^ McKelvey, Tara (August 16, 2001). "Father and Son Team on Hate Site". USA Today (Gannett Company). Retrieved January 29, 2008.
14.^ Jump up to: a b Swain, Carol (2002). The New White Nationalism in America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 230–232. ISBN 0-521-80886-3.
15.Jump up ^ McCullagh, Declan (October 23, 2002). "Google excluding controversial sites". CNet News. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
16.Jump up ^ O'Reilly, Bill (May 8, 2003). "Circling the Wagons in Georgia". Talking Points (Fox News). Retrieved July 20, 2008.
17.^ Jump up to: a b "Internet postings end politico's shot". Columbia Daily Tribune. Associated Press. August 6, 2005. Retrieved November 25, 2011.
18.Jump up ^ Shugart, Karen (December 7, 2005). "No Really, He's A Racialist". Creative Loafing. Retrieved November 25, 2011.
19.Jump up ^ "Italian white supremacists arrested for inciting anti-Semitism". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved November 24, 2012.
20.Jump up ^ Italian police raid homes of suspected online anti-Semites, haaretz.com, November 15, 2013.
21.Jump up ^ "White Homicide Worldwide". splcenter.org. SPL. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
22.Jump up ^ "More than 100 hate-crime murders linked to single website, report finds". The Guardian. April 18, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
23.Jump up ^ Bever, Lindsey (April 18, 2014). "A white supremacist Web site frequented by killers". Washington Post. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
24.Jump up ^ Newcomb, Alyssa (April 17, 2014). "Stormfront Website Posters Have Murdered Almost 100 People, Watchdog Group Says". ABC News. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
25.Jump up ^ Potok, Mark. "The Year in Hate and Extremism". SPLC. Retrieved 6 May 2015.
26.Jump up ^ McKelvey, Tara (July 16, 2006). "Father and Son Team on Hate Site". USA Today (Gannett Company). Retrieved December 28, 2008.
27.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Daniels, Jessie (December 1, 2007). "Race, Civil Rights and Hate Speech in the Digital Era". In Everett, Anna. Learning Race and Ethnicity: Youth and Digital Media. MIT Press. p. 133. ISBN 0-262-05091-9. Retrieved July 19, 2008. "Black has long been advocate for 'mainstreaming' the white supremacist movement, and the Internet is his preferred medium for doing so. His first and primary presence is Stormfront.org"
28.Jump up ^ Jessup, Michael (2007). "The Sword of Truth in a Sea of Lies: The Ideology of Hate". In Robert J. Priest, Alvaro L. Nieves. This Side of Heaven. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-19-531056-X.
29.^ Jump up to: a b Cohen-Almagor, Raphael (November 1, 2005). "Conclusion". The Scope of Tolerance: Studies on the Costs of Free Expression and Freedom of the Press (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 254. ISBN 0-415-35758-6. Retrieved July 21, 2008.
30.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Saslow, Eli (June 22, 2008). "Hate Groups' Newest Target". Washington Post (Washington Post Company). Retrieved July 13, 2008.
31.Jump up ^ Phillips, Peter (April 9, 2001). Censored 2001: 25 Years of Censored News and the Top Censored Stories of the Year. New York: Seven Stories Press. p. 133. ISBN 1-58322-064-X. "Today, the state is home to several of the most powerful white supremicists in the country, including Stormfront, an Internet-based hate group headquartered in West Palm Beach."
32.^ Jump up to: a b Kaplan, Jeffrey (May 28, 2000). "Black Metal". Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-7425-0340-2.
33.Jump up ^ "Don Black: White Pride World Wide". Poisoning the Web: Hatred Online. Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved December 28, 2008.
34.Jump up ^ Holthouse, David (July 7, 2006). "A Few Bad Men". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
35.Jump up ^ Kifner, John (July 7, 2006). "Hate Groups Are Infiltrating the Military, Group Asserts". The New York Times. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
36.Jump up ^ Sullivan, Eileen; Lara Jakes Jordan; Jerry Harkavy (November 13, 2008). "Obama threats more than previous presidents-elect". Yahoo News (Yahoo!). Associated Press. Archived from the original on November 14, 2008. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
37.Jump up ^ "Corrections: For the Record". The New York Times Company. December 26, 2007.
38.Jump up ^ "Poplawski frequented right-wing Web sites". UPI.com. April 5, 2009. Retrieved April 6, 2009.
39.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bernardi, Daniel (2002). "Cyborgs in Cyberspace". In James Friedman. Reality Squared. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 163–167. ISBN 0-8135-2989-1.
40.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Ray, Beverly; George E. Marsh, II (February 2001). "Recruitment by Extremist Groups on the Internet". First Monday 6 (2). Retrieved December 28, 2008.
41.Jump up ^ Nacos, Brigitte L. (November 2002). "E-Terrorism and the Web of Hate". Mass-Mediated Terrorism: The Central Role of the Media in Terrorism and Counterterrorism (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 114. ISBN 0-7425-1083-2.
42.Jump up ^ Kaplan, Jeffrey; Weinberg, Leonard (February 28, 1999). The Emergence of a Euro-American Radical Right. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 161. ISBN 0-8135-2564-0.
43.Jump up ^ Screencap of Stormfront site with Cesspool streaming link, available at Politics1.com; accessed February 17, 2013.
44.Jump up ^ Lehman, Peter; Peter Lehman (2006-07-25). Pornography: Film And Culture. Rutgers University Press. p. 221. ISBN 0-8135-3871-8.
45.^ Jump up to: a b "Contributions in July". StormFront.org. 2012-01-17. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
46.Jump up ^ Pulera, Dominic J. (August 30, 2004). "White Wrongs". Sharing the Dream: White Males in Multicultural America. London, UK: Continuum. pp. 304–305. ISBN 0-8264-1643-8. "Jeffrey Kaplan ... describes Black's Web site as 'the cyberspace flagship of the racist right.' Indeed, Stormfront.org is the most popular racist site on the Internet"
47.^ Jump up to: a b Tucker, Maria Luisa (June 5, 2007). "A Neo-Nazi Field Trip to the Met". Village Voice. Retrieved December 27, 2008.
48.Jump up ^ Ibanga, Imaeyen (June 12, 2009). "Hate Groups Effectively Use Web as a Recruiting Tool", abcnews.go.com; accessed June 12, 2015.
49.Jump up ^ Hubbard, Lee (January 24, 2000). "Dissing the King". Salon.com. Retrieved September 28, 2008.
50.Jump up ^ Jones, Violet (November 28, 2006). "Violence, Discourse and Dixieland: A Critical Reflection on an Incident Involving Violence Against Black Youth". In Rossatto, César; Allen, Ricky. L; Pryun, Mark. Reinventing Critical Pedagogy: Widening the Circle of Anti-Oppression Education. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 39. ISBN 0-7425-3888-5.
51.Jump up ^ Calabresi, Mario (October 29, 2008). "Fermeremo Barack Obama siamo il nuovo Ku Klux Klan". la Repubblica. Gruppo Editoriale L'Espresso. Retrieved November 17, 2008.
52.Jump up ^ Heidi Beirich (August 25, 2010). "White Supremacists Find Common Cause with Pam Geller’s Anti-Islam Campaign". Hatewatch. Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved June 11, 2015.
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Neo-Nazism

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Neo-Nazism consists of post-World War II social or political movements seeking to revive the far-right-wing tenets of Nazism.[1][2][3][4] The term neo-Nazism can also refer to the ideology of these movements.[5][6]
Neo-Nazism borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including ultranationalism, racism, ableism, xenophobia, homophobia, antisemitism, and initiating the Fourth Reich. Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is incorporation of Nazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler.
Neo-Nazi activity is a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries, as well as international networks. In some European and Latin American countries, laws have been enacted that prohibit the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, anti-Semitic or homophobic views. Many Nazi-related symbols are banned in European countries in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism.[7][8][9]


Contents  [hide]
1 Europe 1.1 Austria
1.2 Belgium
1.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina
1.4 Croatia
1.5 Czech Republic
1.6 Estonia
1.7 France
1.8 Germany
1.9 Greece
1.10 Hungary
1.11 Netherlands
1.12 Poland
1.13 Russia
1.14 Serbia
1.15 Sweden
1.16 Switzerland
1.17 Turkey
1.18 Ukraine
1.19 United Kingdom
2 Asia 2.1 Israel
2.2 Mongolia
2.3 Myanmar
2.4 Taiwan
3 The Americas 3.1 Brazil
3.2 Canada
3.3 Chile
3.4 Costa Rica
3.5 United States
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Bibliography 6.1 Primary sources
6.2 Academic surveys
7 External links

Europe[edit]



 Neo-Nazi march in Leipzig, Germany on October 17, 2009
Austria[edit]
The major postwar far-right party was the Austrian National Democratic Party (NDP), until it was banned in 1988 for violating Austria's anti-Nazi legislation, Verbotsgesetz 1947.[10] The Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception. In 1980, scandals undermined Austria's two main parties, and the economy stagnated. Jörg Haider became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for Nazism, calling its employment policy effective. In the 1994 Austrian election, the FPÖ won 22 percent of the vote, as well as 33 percent of the vote in Carinthia and 22 percent in Vienna; showing that it had become a force capable of reversing the old pattern of Austrian politics.[11]
Historian Walter Laqueur writes that even though Haider welcomed former Nazis at his meetings and went out of his way to address Schutzstaffel (SS) veterans, the FPÖ is not a fascist party in the traditional sense, since it has not made anti-communism an important issue, and does not advocate the overthrow of the democratic order or the use of violence. In his view, the FPÖ is "not quite fascist", although it is part of a tradition, similar to that of 19th-century Viennese mayor Karl Lueger, that involves nationalism, xenophobic populism, and authoritarianism.[12] Professor Ali Mazrui, however, identified the FPÖ as neo-Nazi in a BBC world lecture.[13]
Haider, who in 2005 left the Freedom Party and formed the Alliance for Austria's Future, was killed in a traffic accident in October, 2008.[14]
Barbara Rosenkranz, the Freedom Party's candidate for the Austrian presidential election, 2010, is controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements.[15] Rosenkranz is married to Horst Rosenkranz, a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, and known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she cannot detect anything "dishonourable" in her husband's activities.[16]
The volume Rechtsextremismus in Österreich seit 1945 (Right-wing Extremism in Austria since 1945), issued by DÖW in 1979, listed nearly 50 active far right organizations in Austria. Their influence waned gradually, partly due to liberalization programs in secondary schools and universities that emphasized Austrian identity and democratic traditions. Votes for the RFS (Ring Freiheitlicher Studenten), the Freedom Party's academic student organization, in student elections fell from 30% in the 1960s to 2% in 1987. In the 1995 elections for the student representative body Österreichische Hochschülerschaft (Austrian Students' Association), the RFS got 4% of the vote. The FPÖ won 22% of the votes at the General Election in the same year.[17]
A radical non-parliamentary, anti-democratic far-right organization active in Austria was the VAPO (Volkstreue Außerparlamentarische Opposition) founded by the Austrian neo-Nazi Gottfried Küssel in 1986, who publicly declared to be a member of the US-American neo-Nazi organization NSDAP/AO since 1977. Neither an association nor a party, the VAPO was loosely organized in "Kameradschaften" (comradeships) and defined itself as a "battle alliance of nationalist groups and persons" with the aims of "reestablishing the NSDAP" and the "seizure of power".[18] In 1993 Küssel was repeatedly convicted on charges of "NS-Wiederbetätigung" (re-engagement in national socialism) under the Austrian anti-Nazi law (Verbotsgesetz 1947) and sentenced to ten years of prison.[19] The VAPO de facto disbanded in the course of the imprisonment of its leading figures, much due to its loose organizational structure. Due to procedural errors Küssel's sentence was revoked by the OGH (Austrian Supreme Court) and the trial reheld in 1994 where Küssel was sentenced to eleven years in prison.[20]
Belgium[edit]
Main article: Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw



 Anti-Nazi logo in Belgium
A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Blood, Soil, Honour and Loyalty), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (Blood and Honour). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, antisemitism and supporters of censorship. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael, the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" Belgium.[21][22] According to journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances network, the ultras of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through Westland New Post and the Front de la Jeunesse.[23]
A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in Leopoldsburg near the Dutch border: Kleine-Brogel, Peer, Brussels (Royal military school) and Zedelgem– as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders. They found weapons, munitions, explosives, and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode." The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons, and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far-right movement De Nationale Alliantie.[24][25][26][27][28][29]
Bosnia and Herzegovina[edit]
The neo-Nazi white nationalist organization Bosanski Pokret Nacionalnog Ponosa (Bosnian Movement of National Pride) was founded in Bosnia and Herzegovina in July 2009. Their model is the Waffen-SS Handschar Division, composed of Bosnian Muslim volunteers.[30] They proclaimed their main enemies to be "Jews, Gypsies, Serbian Chetniks, the Croatian separatists, Josip Broz Tito, Communists, homosexuals and blacks".[31][32] They mix an ideology of Bosnian nationalism, National Socialism and white nationalism. The group is led by a person nicknamed Sauberzwig, after the commander of the 13 SS Handschar. The group's strongest area of operations is in the Tuzla area of Bosnia.
Croatia[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in Croatia
Neo-Nazis in Croatia base their ideology on the writings of Ante Pavelić and the Ustaše, a fascist anti-Yugoslav separatist movement.[33] The Ustaše regime committed a genocide against Serbs, Jews and Gypsies. At the end of World War II, many Ustaše members fled to the West, where they found sanctuary and continued their political and terrorist activities (which were tolerated because of Cold War hostilities).[34][35] Jonathan Levy, a lawyer who represented plaintiffs in a 1999 lawsuit against the Ustaše and others, said: "Many are still terrified of the Ustashe, the Serbs particularly. Unlike the Nazi Party, the Ustashe still exist and have a party headquarters in Zagreb."[36]
In 1999, Zagreb's Square of the Victims of Fascism was renamed The Square of The Great Men of Croatia, provoking widespread criticism of Croatia's attitude toward the Holocaust.[37] In 2000, the city council renamed the square the Square of the Victims of Fascism.[38] Many streets in Croatia were renamed after the prominent Ustaše figure Mile Budak, which provoked outrage amongst the Serbian minority. Since 2002, there has been a reversal of this development, and streets with the name of Mile Budak or other persons connected with the Ustaše movement are few or non-existent.[39] A plaque in Slunj with the inscription "Croatian Knight Jure Francetić" was erected to commemorate Francetić, the notorious Ustaše leader of the Black Legion. The plaque remained there for four years, until it was removed by the authorities.[39][40]
In 2003, an attempt was made to amend the Croatian penal code by adding articles prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, historical revisionism and holocaust denial, but this attempt was prevented by the Croatian constitutional court.[41] An amendment was added in 2006 to prohibit any type of hate crime based on factors such as race, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion or national origin.[42]
There have been instances of hate speech in Croatia, such as the use of the phrase Srbe na vrbe! ("(hang) Serbs on the willow trees!"). In 2004, an Orthodox church was spray-painted with pro-Ustaše graffiti.[43][44] During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other suspected war criminals have carried nationalist symbols and pictures of Pavelić.[45] On May 17, 2007, a concert in Zagreb by Thompson, a popular Croatian singer, was attended by 60,000 people, some of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes and shouted the Ustaše slogan "Za dom spremni" (for the homeland – ready!). This event prompted the Jerusalem office of the Simon Wiesenthal Center to publicly issue a protest to the Croatian president.[46][47][48][49][50] In 2007, Austrian authorities launched a criminal investigation into the widespread display of Ustaše symbols at a gathering of Croatian nationalists in Bleiburg, Austria.[51][52]
Czech Republic[edit]
Czech Republic strictly punishes Neo-Nazism (Czech: Neonacismus). According to the report from Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic Neo-Nazist committed more than 211 crimes in 2013. Czech Republic has more than 150 members of various groups. One of them is group Wotan Jugend based in Germany.
Estonia[edit]
In 2006, Roman Ilin, a Jewish theatre director from St. Petersburg, Russia, was attacked by neo-Nazis when returning from an underground tunnel after a rehearsal. Ilin subsequently accused Estonian police of indifference after filing the incident.[53] When a dark-skinned French student was attacked in Tartu, the head of an association of foreign students claimed that the attack was characteristic of a wave of neo-Nazi violence. An Estonian police official, however, stated that there were only a few cases involving foreign students over the previous two years.[54] In November 2006, the Estonian government passed a law banning the display of Nazi symbols.[55]
The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur's Report noted that community representatives and non-governmental organizations devoted to human rights had pointed out that neo-Nazi groups were active in Estonia—particularly in Tartu—and had perpetrated acts of violence against non-European minorities.[56]
France[edit]
Main article: History of far-right movements in France
Neo-Nazi organizations in France are outlawed, yet a significant number exist.[57] Legal far-right groups are also numerous, and include the Bloc identitaire, created by former members of Christian Bouchet's Unité Radicale group. Close to National Bolshevism and Third Position ideologies, Unité Radicale was dissolved in 2002 following Maxime Brunerie's assassination attempt on July 14, 2002 against then-President Jacques Chirac. Christian Bouchet had previously been a member of Nouvelle Résistance (NR), an offshoot of Troisième Voie (Third Way) which described itself as "nationalist revolutionary". Although Nouvelle Résistance at first opposed the "national conservatives" of Jean-Marie Le Pen's National Front, it changed strategy, adopting the slogan "Less Leftism! More Fascism![58] " Nouvelle Résistance was also a successor to Jean-François Thiriart's Jeune Europe neo-Nazi Europeanist movement of the 1960s, which had participated in the National Party of Europe, along with Oswald Mosley's Union Movement, Otto Strasser and others. The French government estimated that neo-Nazi groups in France had 3,500 members.[59] In 2011 alone, 129 violent actions were recorded in France against the Jewish population, with 60.5% of those cases occurring in the Île-de-France region. The CNCDH notes that in 19 cases, these violent actions could be imputed to persons of ‘Arab origin or Muslim confession’, with 15 others relating to neo-Nazi ideology, mainly consisting of displaying swastikas. In relation to these violent actions 36 persons were arrested, 28 of whom were minors. Of the 129 violent actions recorded, 50.4% were for degradations, 44.2% for violence and assault and battery, and the remaining 5.4% for arson. In France in 2011, 260 threats were recorded, with 53% of those (138 cases) occurring in the Île-de-France region. Of these threats, 15% related to neo-Nazi ideology, with another 14% imputable to persons of ‘Arab origin or Muslim confession’. Thirty-two persons were arrested in relation to these threats, nine of whom were minors. Of the 260 threats, 44% consisted of speech acts and threatening gestures and insults, 38% of graffiti and the remaining 18% of pamphlets and emails.[60]
Germany[edit]
Main article: Far right in Germany
See also: Category:Neo-Nazism in Germany.



 Anti-Nazi demonstration in Dresden, Germany, February 13, 2012
In Germany, immediately after World War II, Allied forces and the new German government attempted to prevent the creation of the new Nazi movement through a process known as denazification. However, with the onset of the Cold War it had lost interest in prosecuting anyone.[61] Many of the more than 90,000 Nazi war criminals recorded in German files were serving in positions of prominence under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.[62][63] Not until the 1960s were the former concentration camp personnel prosecuted by West Germany in the Belzec trial, Frankfurt Auschwitz trials, Treblinka trials, Chełmno trials, and the Sobibór trial.[64] The government had passed laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs. Displaying the swastika became an offense punishable by up to one year imprisonment. Nevertheless, some former National Socialists retained their political beliefs and passed them down to new generations who formed the extreme-right National Democratic Party.[65]
After German reunification in the 1990s, post-National Socialist groups gained more followers, mostly among the younger generation in the former East Germany.[65] They have expressed an aversion to people from Slavic countries (especially Poland) and people of other national backgrounds who moved from the former West Germany into the former East Germany after Germany was reunited.[66] According to the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (Verfassungsschutz) for 2012, at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6,000 neo-Nazis.[67] The Neo-Nazi organizations are not outlawed in Germany,[65] although Holocaust denial is, according to the German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch § 86a) and § 130 (public incitement).
Greece[edit]
The far right political party Golden Dawn (Chrysi Avyi) is generally labelled neo-Nazi, although the group rejects this label. A few Golden Dawn members participated in the Bosnian War in the Greek Volunteer Guard (GVG) and were present in Srebrenica during the Srebrenica massacre.[68][69] Another Greek neo-Nazi group is the Strasserist "Mavros Krinos" (Μαύρος Κρίνος – Black Lily).
In the elections of 6 May 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.97% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament for the first time with 21 representatives. Due to no coalition amongst the elected parties so as to form a Greek Government, new elections were proclaimed.
In the elections of 17 June 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.92% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament with 18 representatives.
Hungary[edit]
Further information: History of the Jews in Hungary
Today, Neo-Nazism in Hungary takes the form of hatred towards Judaism and Israel, it can be observed from many prominent Hungarian politicians. The most famous example is the MIÉP-Jobbik Third Way Alliance of Parties. Antisemitism in Hungary is manifested mainly in far right publications and demonstrations. Hungarian Justice and Life Party supporters continued their tradition of shouting antisemitic slogans and tearing the US flag to shreds at their annual rallies in Budapest in March 2003 and 2004, commemorating the 1848–49 revolution. Further, during the demonstrations held to celebrate the anniversary of the 1956 uprising, a post-Communist tradition celebrated by the left and right of the political spectrum, antisemitic and anti-Israel slogans were heard from the right wing. The center-right traditionally keeps its distance from the right-wing Csurka-led and other far-right demonstrations.[70]
Netherlands[edit]
The Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism reports that on 17 May 2011 in Leek, Groningen, antisemitic graffiti was found at a Jewish school. The graffiti consisted of a swastika and the text "C18", or Combat 18, a neo-Nazi organisation active throughout Europe. The number 18 refers to the initials of Adolf Hitler, A and H being the first and eighth letters of the alphabet, respectively.[71]
Poland[edit]
Although several small far-right and anti-semitic organisations exist, most notably NOP and ONR, they frequently adhere to Polish nationalism and National Democracy, in which nazism is generally considered to be against ultra-nationalist principles, and therefore although classed as white nationalist and fascist movements, they are at the same time considered anti-nazi. Some elements may resemble neo-nazi features, but the groups frequently dissociate themselves from Nazi elements, claiming such acts as unpatriotic and arguing that Nazism misappropriated or slightly altered several pre-existing symbols and features, such as distinguishing the Roman salute from the Nazi salute.[72]
Russia[edit]
Main articles: Racism in Russia and Radical nationalism in Russia



 Neo-Nazism in Russia: The photograph was taken at an anti-homosexual demonstration in Moscow in October 2010
Many Russian neo-Nazis openly admire Adolf Hitler and use the swastika as their symbol. Russian neo-Nazis are characterized by racism, antisemitism, homophobia, Islamophobia and extreme xenophobia towards people from Asia.[73] Their ideology centers on defending Russian national identity against what they perceive as a takeover by minority groups such as Jews, Caucasians, homosexuals, Central Asians, East Asians, Roma people, and Muslims.
Russian neo-Nazis have made it an explicit goal to take over the country by force, and have put serious effort into preparing for this. Paramilitary organizations operating under the guise of sports clubs have trained their members in squad tactics, hand to hand combat and weapons handling. They have stockpiled and used weapons, often illegally.
Some observers have noted a subjective irony of Russians embracing Nazism, because one of Hitler's ambitions at the start of World War II was the Generalplan Ost (Master Plan East) which allegedly envisaged to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs from central and eastern Europe (i.e., Russians, Ukrainians, Poles etc.).[74] Russian neo-Nazis deny the authenticity of this plan.[74] At the end of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, over 25 million Soviet citizens had died.[75] In a 2007 news story, ABC News reported, "In a country that lost more people defeating the Nazis than any other country, there are now an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 neo-Nazis, half of the world's total."[76]
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused great economic and social problems, including widespread unemployment and poverty. Several far right paramilitary organizations were able to tap into popular discontent, particularly among marginalized, lesser educated and unemployed youths. Of the three major age groups — youths, adults, and the elderly — youths may have been hit the hardest. The elderly suffered due to inadequate (or unpaid) pensions, but they found effective political representation in the Communist Party, and generally had their concerns addressed through better budget allocations. Adults, although often suffering financially and psychologically due to job losses, were generally able to find new sources of income.
Russian National Unity (RNE), founded in 1990 and led by Alexander Barkashov, has claimed to have members in 250 cities. RNE adopted the swastika as its symbol, and sees itself as the avant-garde of a coming national revolution. It is critical of other major far right organizations, such as the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR). Historian Walter Laqueur calls RNE far closer to the Nazi model than the LDPR. RNE publishes several news sheets; one of them, Russky poryadok, claims to have a circulation of 150,000. Full members of RNE are called Soratnik (comrades in arms), receive combat training at locations near Moscow, and many of them work as security officers or armed guards.[77]
On August 15, 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black swastika flag.[78] Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine ... There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally."[79] A Russian neo-Nazi group called the Russian National Socialist Party claimed responsibility for the murders.
Serbia[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in Serbia
Neo-Nazism in Serbia is mostly based on national and religious factors. Nacionalni stroj (National Alignment), a neo-Nazi organization[80][81] from the Vojvodina region, orchestrated several incidents. Charges were laid against 18 of the leading members.[82]
Sweden[edit]
Neo-Nazi activities in Sweden have previously been limited to white supremacist groups, none of which has more than a few hundred members.[83] The main neo-Nazi organizations as of 2014 are the Party of the Swedes and the Swedish Resistance Movement.
Switzerland[edit]
See also: Far right in Switzerland
The neo-Nazi and white power skinhead scene in Switzerland has seen significant growth in the 1990s and 2000s.[citation needed] It is reflected in the foundation of the Partei National Orientierter Schweizer in 2000, which resulted in an improved organizational structure of the neo-Nazi and white supremacist scene.
Turkey[edit]
See also: Turkish nationalism
Apart from neo-fascist[84][85][86][87][88][89][90] Grey Wolves and the Turkish ultranationalist[91][92][93][94][95][96] Nationalist Movement Party there are some Neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey like the Turkish Nazi Party[97] or the National Socialist Party of Turkey,[98] mainly based on the internet.[99][100][101]
Ukraine[edit]



 Fans of the FC Karpaty Lviv football club honoring the Waffen-SS Galizien division, in Lviv, Ukraine, 2013
In 1991 Svoboda (political party) was founded as the 'Social-National Party of Ukraine'.[102] The party combined radical nationalism and neo-Nazi features.[103] It was renamed and rebranded 13 years later as 'All-Ukrainian Association Svoboda' in 2004 under Oleh Tyahnybok. Political scientists Olexiy Haran and Alexander J. Motyl contend that Svoboda is not fascist but they are radical and that they are better compared to the Far-Right movements like Tea Party than fascists or neo-Nazis.[104][105] By 2005 an important step toward heroization of Ukrainian nationalism was Victor Yushchenko's appointment of Svoboda member Volodymyr Viatrovych as head of the Ukrainian security service (SBU) archives. This allowed Viatrovych not only to sanitize ultra nationalist history, but also officially promote its dissemination along with OUN(b) ideology based on 'ethnic purity' coupled with anti-Russian, anti-Polish and anti-semitic rhetoric; denial of UPA war crimes, and the paradoxical glorification of Nazi history with concomitant denial of wartime collaboration wrote Professor Per Anders Rudling.[106]:229–230 The extreme right wing now capitalize on 'Yushchenkoist' propaganda initiatives.[106]:235 This includes Iuryi Mykahl’chyshyn, an ideologue who proudly confesses himself part of the fascist tradition.[106] The autonomous nationalists focus on recruiting younger people, participates in violent actions, quoting "anti-bourgeoism, anti-capitalism, anti-globalism, anti-democratism, anti-liberalism, anti-bureaucratism, anti-dogmatism". In 2009 Svoboda fetched 34% of votes in one region of the state. Svoboda is part of a right wing Alliance of European National Movements.[106] Per Anders Rulig has suggested that "Viktor Yanukovych has indirectly aided Svoboda" by "granting Svoboda representatives disproportionate attention in the media".[106]:247
After Yanokovych's ouster in February 2014, the interim Yatsenyuk Government placed 4 Svoboda members in leading positions: Oleksandr Sych as Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine, Ihor Tenyukh as Minister of Defense, lawyer Ihor Shvaika as Minister of Agrarian Policy and Food and Andriy Mokhnyk as Minister of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine.[107] However, the U.S. State Department has stated in a March 5, 2014 fact sheet that "Far-right wing ultranationalist groups, some of which were involved in open clashes with security forces during the EuroMaidan protests, are not represented in the Rada."[108]
Ukraine's National Security and Defence Council chief Andriy Parubiy, one of the founders of Social-National Party of Ukraine,[109] oversees the "anti–terrorist" operation against pro-Russian separatists in eastern Ukraine.[110] Andriy Biletsky, the head of the ultra-nationalist and neo-Nazi political groups Social-National Assembly and Patriots of Ukraine,[111] is commander of the Azov Battalion,[112] a pro-Ukrainian volunteer paramilitary group fighting pro-Russian separatists in Donbas region.[113][114]
United Kingdom[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in the United Kingdom, Racism in the United Kingdom and List of British fascist parties
Asia[edit]
Israel[edit]
Neo-Nazi activity is not common or widespread in Israel, and the few activities reported have all been the work of extremists, who were punished severely. One notable case is that of Patrol 36, a cell in Petah Tikva made up of eight teenage immigrants from the former Soviet Union who had been attacking foreign workers and homosexuals, and vandalizing synagogues with Nazi images.[115][116] These neo-Nazis were reported to have operated in cities across Israel, and have been described as being influenced by the rise of neo-Nazism in Europe;[115][116][117] mostly influenced by similar movements in Russia and Ukraine, as the rise of the phenomenon is widely credited to immigrants from those two states, the largest sources of emigration to Israel.[118] Widely publicized arrests have led to a call to reform the Law of Return to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship for – and the subsequent deportation of – neo-Nazis.[116]
Mongolia[edit]



 Flag of the Dayar Mongol, a neo-Nazi party in Mongolia
Neo-Nazism is a growing political force in Mongolia. From 2008, Mongolian Neo-Nazi groups have defaced buildings in Ulan Bator, smashed Chinese shopkeepers' windows, and killed pro-Chinese Mongols. The Neo-Nazi Mongols' targets for violence are Chinese, Koreans,[119] Mongol women who sleep with Chinese men, and LGBT people.[120] They wear Nazi uniforms and revere the Mongol Empire and Genghis Khan. During World War II, the invading Nazi Germans also recruited Mongol Kalmyks to fight for them against the Soviet Union. Though Tsagaan Khass leaders say they do not support violence, they are self-proclaimed Nazis. "Adolf Hitler was someone we respect. He taught us how to preserve national identity," said the 41-year-old co-founder, who calls himself Big Brother. "We don't agree with his extremism and starting the Second World War. We are against all those killings, but we support his ideology. We support nationalism rather than fascism." Some have ascribed it to poor historical education.[119]
Myanmar[edit]
The Straits Times writes that the 969 Movement, which it says "is described as Myanmar's 'neo-Nazi group'", is facing scrutiny for "its role in spreading anti-Muslim sentiment".[121]
Taiwan[edit]
Main article: National Socialism Association
The National Socialism Association (NSA) is a neo-Nazi political organisation founded in Taiwan in September 2006 by Hsu Na-chi (Chinese: 許娜琦), at that time a 22-year-old female political science graduate of Soochow University. The NSA has an explicit stated goal of obtaining the power to govern the state. The NSA views Adolf Hitler as its leader and often proclaims "Long live Hitler" (Heil Hitler) as one of its slogans. The Simon Wiesenthal Centre condemned the National Socialism Association on March 13, 2007 for championing the former Nazi dictator and blaming democracy for Taiwan's "social unrest."[6]
The Americas[edit]
Brazil[edit]
Further information: Racism in Brazil
Several Brazilian neo-Nazi gangs appeared in the 1990s in Southern and Southeastern Brazil, regions with mostly white people, with their acts gaining more media coverage and public notoriety in the 2000s.[122][123][124][125][126][127][128] Some members of Brazilian neo-Nazi groups have been associated with football hooliganism.[129]
Their targets have included African, South American and Asian immigrants; Jews; Afro-Brazilians and internal migrants with origins in the northern regions of Brazil (who are mostly brown-skinned or Afro-Brazilian);[127][130] homeless people, prostitutes; recreational drug users; feminists and—more frequently reported in the media—homosexuals, bisexuals, the third-gendered and the transgendered.[126][131][132] News of their attacks has played a role in debates about anti-discrimination laws in Brazil (including to some extent hate speech laws) and the issues of sexual orientation and gender identity.[133][134][135]
Canada[edit]
Neo-Nazism in Canada began with the formation of the Canadian Nazi Party in 1965. In the 1970s and 1980s, neo-Nazism continued to spread in the country as organizations including the Western Guard and Church of the Creator (later renamed as Creativity) promoted white supremacist ideals.[136] Founded in the United States in 1973, Creativity calls for white people to wage racial holy war (Rahowa) against Jews and other perceived enemies.[137]
Don Andrews founded the Nationalist Party of Canada in 1977. The purported goals of the unregsistered party are "the promotion and maintenance of European Heritage and Culture in Canada," but the party is known for anti-Semitism and racism. Many influential neo-Nazi Leaders, such as Wolfgang Droege, were affiliated with the party, but many of its members left to join the Heritage Front, which was founded in 1989.[138]
Droege founded the Heritage Front in in Toronto at a time when leaders of the white supremacist movement were "disgruntled about the state of the radical right" and wanted to unite unorganized groups of white supremacists into an influential and efficient group with common objectives.[138] Plans for the organization began in September 1989, and the formation of the Heritage Front was formally announced a couple of months later in November. In the 1990s, George Burdi of Resistance Records and the band Rahowa popularized the Creativity movement and the white power music scene.[139]
Controversy and dissention has left many Canadian neo-Nazi organizations dissolved or weakened.[138]
Chile[edit]
Main article: Nazism in Chile
After the dissolution of the National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNSCH) in 1938, notable former members of MNSCH migrated into Partido Agrario Laborista (PAL), obtaining high positions.[140] Not all former MNSCH members joined the PAL; some continued to form parties that followed the MNSCH model until 1952.[140] A new old-school Nazi party was formed in 1964 by school teacher Franz Pfeiffer.[140] Among the activities of this group were the organization of a Miss Nazi beauty contest and the formation of a Chilean branch of the Ku Klux Klan.[140] The party disbanded in 1970. Pfeiffer attempted to restart it in 1983 in the wake of a wave of protests against the Augusto Pinochet regime.[140]
Nicolás Palacios considered the "Chilean race" to be a mix of two bellicose master races: the Visigoths of Spain and the Mapuche (Araucanians) of Chile.[141] Palacios traces the origins of the Spanish component of the "Chilean race" to the coast of the Baltic Sea, specifically to Götaland in Sweden,[141] one of the supposed homelands of the Goths. Palacios claimed that both the blonde-haired and the bronze-coloured Chilean Mestizo share a "moral physonomy" and a masculine psychology.[142] He opposed immigration from Southern Europe, and argued that Mestizos who are derived from south Europeans lack "cerebral control" and are a social burden.[143]
Costa Rica[edit]
Several neo-Nazi groups exist in Costa Rica, and the first to be in the spotlight was the Costa Rican National Socialist Party, which is now disbanded.[144] Others include Costa Rican National Socialist Youth, Costa Rican National Socialist Alliance, New Social Order, Costa Rican National Socialist Resistance (which is Costa Rica's member of the World Union of National Socialists)[145] and the Hiperborean Spear Society. The groups normally target Jewish-Costa Ricans, Afro-Costa Ricans, Communists, homosexuals and especially Nicaraguan and Colombian immigrants. The media has discovered the existence of an underground neo-Nazi group inside the police.[146]
United States[edit]



 The NSM rally on the West lawn of the US Capitol, Washington DC, 2008
There are several neo-Nazi groups in the United States. The National Socialist Movement (NSM), with about 400 members in 32 states,[147] is currently the largest neo-Nazi organization in the United States.[148] After World War II, new organizations formed with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles. The National States' Rights Party, founded in 1958 by Edward Reed Fields and J. B. Stoner countered racial integration in the Southern United States with Nazi-inspired publications and iconography. The American Nazi Party, founded by George Lincoln Rockwell in 1959, achieved high-profile coverage in the press through its public demonstrations.[149]
The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, which allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, and anti-Semitic views. A First Amendment landmark case was National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie, in which neo-Nazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neo-Nazis to stage a series of demonstrations in Chicago.
The Institute for Historical Review, formed in 1978, is a Holocaust denial body associated with neo-Nazism.
Organizations which report upon American neo-Nazi activities include the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. While a small minority of American neo-Nazis draw public attention, most operate underground, so they can recruit, organize and raise funds without interference or harassment. American neo-Nazis are known to attack, torment, and harass Jews, African Americans, Slavic Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, Asian Americans, Arab Americans, Romani Americans, homosexuals, "race traitors" and people with different political or religious opinions.[150] American neo-Nazi groups often operate websites, occasionally stage public demonstrations, and maintain ties to groups in Europe and elsewhere.[151]
See also[edit]
Alex Linder
American History X
Aryan race
The Believer
Craig Cobb
Documentation Centre of Austrian Resistance
Esoteric Nazism
Far-right politics
Fascism
Fourth Reich
Holocaust denial
List of neo-Nazi bands
List of neo-Nazi organizations
List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
List of white nationalist organizations
National Socialist black metal
Nazi chic
Nazi punk
Nazism
Neo-fascism
Neo-Stalinism
Rock Against Communism
Romper Stomper
Stormfront (website)
Tom Metzger
White nationalism
White power skinhead
Notes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Lee McGowan (2002). The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present. Pearson Education. pp. 9, 178. ISBN 0-582-29193-3. OCLC 49785551.
2.Jump up ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda; Wolfgang Neugebauer. "Right-Wing Extremism in Austria: History, Organisations, Ideology". "Right-wing extremism can be equated neither with Nazism nor with neo-Fascism or neo-Nazism. Neo-Nazism, a legal term, is understood as the attempt to propagate, in direct defiance of the law (Verbotsgesetz), Nazi ideology or measures such as the denial, playing-down, approval or justification of Nazi mass murder, especially the Holocaust."
3.Jump up ^ Martin Frost. "Neo Nazism". "The term neo-Nazism refers to any social or political movement seeking to revive National Socialism, and which postdates the Second World War. Often, especially internationally, those who are part of such movements do not use the term to describe themselves."
4.Jump up ^ Lee, Martin A. 1997. The Beast Reawakens. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, pp. 85–118, 214–234, 277–281, 287–330, 333–378. On Volk concept," and a discussion of ethnonationalist integralism, see pp. 215–218
5.Jump up ^ Peter Vogelsang & Brian B. M. Larsen (2002). "Neo-Nazism". The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism is the name for a modern offshoot of Nazism. It is a radically right-wing ideology, whose main characteristics are extreme nationalism and violent xenophobia. Neo-Nazism is, as the word suggests, a modern version of Nazism. In general, it is an incoherent right-extremist ideology, which is characterised by ‘borrowing’ many of the elements that constituted traditional Nazism."
6.Jump up ^ Ondřej Cakl & Klára Kalibová (2002). "Neo-Nazism". Faculty of Humanities at Charles University in Prague, Department of Civil Society Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism: An ideology which draws upon the legacy of the Nazi Third Reich, the main pillars of which are an admiration for Adolf Hitler, aggressive nationalism ("nothing but the nation"), and hatred of Jews, foreigners, ethnic minorities, homosexuals and everyone who is different in some way."
7.Jump up ^ Werner Bergmann; Rainer Erb (1997). Anti-Semitism in Germany: The Post-Nazi Epoch Since 1945. Transaction Publishers. p. 91. ISBN 1-56000-270-0. OCLC 35318351. "In contrast to today, in which rigid authoritarianism and neo-Nazism are characteristic of marginal groups, open or latent leanings toward Nazi ideology in the 1940s and 1950s"
8.Jump up ^ Martin Polley (200). A-Z of Modern Europe Since 1789. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 0-415-18597-1. OCLC 49569961. "Neo-Nazism, drawing heavily both on the ideology and aesthetics of the NSDAP, emerged in many parts of Europe and elsewhere in the economic crises of the 1970s, and has continued to influence a number of small political groups."
9.Jump up ^ "Neo-Nazism". ApologeticsIndex. "The term Neo-Nazism refers to any social, political and/or (quasi) religious movement seeking to revive Nazism. Neo-Nazi groups are racist hate groups that pattern themselves after Hitler’s philosophies. Examples include: Aryan Nations, National Alliance"
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18.Jump up ^ Dokumentationsarchiv des österreichischen Widerstandes - Volkstreue außerparlamentarische Opposition (VAPO)
19.Jump up ^ "Dokumentationsarchiv des österreichischen Widerstandes - VHandbuch des österreichischen Rechtsextremismus, Wien 1994". Archived from the original on 2007-02-07.
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21.Jump up ^ De nouvelles découvertes, La Libre Belgique, 8 September 2006 (French)
22.Jump up ^ Mandats d'arrêts confirmés pour les néo-nazis, Le Soir, 13 September 2006 (French)
23.Jump up ^ Les néonazis voulaient déstabiliser le pays, Le Soir, Jeudi 7 septembre 2006 (French)
24.Jump up ^ Un groupe terroriste néonazi démantelé, Le Nouvel Observateur, 8 septembre 2006 (French)
25.Jump up ^ La Belgique démantèle un groupe néonazi préparant des attentats, Le Monde, 7 septembre 2006 (French)
26.Jump up ^ Des militaires néonazis voulaient commettre des attentats, RTL Belgique, 8 septembre 2006 (French)
27.Jump up ^ Des militaires néonazis voulaient déstabiliser la Belgique par des attentats, AFP, September 8, 2006 (French)
28.Jump up ^ La Belgique découvre, stupéfaite, un complot néonazi au sein de son armée, AFP, September 8, 2006. (French)
29.Jump up ^ Un réseau terroriste de militaires néonazis démantelé en Belgique, Le Monde, September 8, 2006 (French)
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126.^ Jump up to: a b "neo-Nazis arrested over gay pride bombing in São Paulo". Abc.net.au. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
127.^ Jump up to: a b The Skinhead International: Brazil
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130.Jump up ^ (Portuguese) Neo-Nazis in São Paulo: Blacks and Northeasterners, we will kill you!
131.Jump up ^ "Homophobia is not just a neo-Nazi problem in Latin America". Americasouthandnorth.wordpress.com. 2012-04-03. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
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141.^ Jump up to: a b Palacios, Nicolás, Raza Chilena (Editorial Chilena, 1918), pp. 35—36.
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147.Jump up ^ "Neo-Nazi Father Is Killed; Son, 10, Steeped in Beliefs, Is Accused". The New York Times. May 10, 2011.
148.Jump up ^ "The National Socialist Movement". The Anti-Defamation League.
149.Jump up ^ Kaplan, Jeffrey, Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right (Rowman Altamira, 2000), pp. 1–3.
150.Jump up ^ "American Swastika: Inside the White Power Movement's Hidden Spaces of Hate" By Pete Simi, Robert Futrell
151.Jump up ^ Michael, George, The Enemy of My Enemy: The Alarming Convergence of Militant Islam and the Extreme Right (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006)
Bibliography[edit]
Primary sources[edit]
Imperium by Francis Parker Yockey (using the pen name Ulick Varange, 1947, ISBN 0-911038-10-8)
The Lightning and the Sun by Savitri Devi, (1958 (written 1948–56); ISBN 0-937944-14-9)
White Power by George Lincoln Rockwell (1967; John McLaughlin, 1996, ISBN 0-9656492-8-8)
This Time The World by George Lincoln Rockwell (1961; Liberty Bell Publications, 2004, ISBN 1-59364-014-5)
National Socialism: Vanguard of the Future, Selected Writings of Colin Jordan (ISBN 87-87063-40-9)
Merrie England– 2000 by Colin Jordan
The Turner Diaries by William Pierce (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (1978, ISBN 1-56980-086-3) .
Siege: The Collected Writings of James Mason edited and introduced by Michael M. Jenkins (Storm Books, 1992) or introduced by Ryan Schuster (Black Sun Publications, ISBN 0-9724408-0-1)
Hunter by William Pierce (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1984, ISBN 0-937944-09-2)
Faith of the Future by Matt Koehl (New Order; Rev edition, 1995, ISBN 0-9648533-0-2)
Serpent's Walk by Randolph D. Calverhall (pseudonym), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1991, ISBN 0-937944-05-X)
The Nexus periodical edited by Kerry Bolton
Deceived, Damned & Defiant– The Revolutionary Writings of David Lane by David Lane, foreword by Ron McVan, preface by Katja Lane (Fourteen Word Press, 1999, ISBN 0-9678123-2-1)
Resistance Magazine published by National Vanguard Books
Academic surveys[edit]
The Beast Reawakens by Martin A. Lee, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997, ISBN 0-316-51959-6)
Fascism (Oxford Readers) by Roger Griffin (1995, ISBN 0-19-289249-5)
Beyond Eagle and Swastika: German nationalism since 1945 by Kurt P. Tauber (Wesleyan University Press; [1st ed.] edition, 1967)
Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890 edited by Philip Rees, (1991, ISBN 0-13-089301-3)
Hitler's Priestess: Savitri Devi, the Hindu-Aryan Myth, and Neo-Nazism by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (1998, ISBN 0-8147-3111-2 and ISBN 0-8147-3110-4)
Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International by Kevin Coogan, (Autonomedia, Brooklyn, NY 1998, ISBN 1-57027-039-2)
Hate: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by William H. Schmaltz (Potomac Books, 2000, ISBN 1-57488-262-7)
American Fuehrer: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by Frederick J. Simonelli (University of Illinois Press, 1999, ISBN 0-252-02285-8)
Fascism in Britain: A History, 1918–1985 by Richard C. Thurlow (Olympic Marketing Corp, 1987, ISBN 0-631-13618-5)
Fascism Today: A World Survey by Angelo Del Boca and Mario Giovana (Pantheon Books, 1st American edition, 1969)
Swastika and the Eagle: Neo-Naziism in America Today by Clifford L Linedecker (A & W Pub, 1982, ISBN 0-89479-100-1)
The Silent Brotherhood: Inside America's Racist Underground by Kevin Flynn and Gary Gerhardt (Signet Book; Reprint edition, 1995, ISBN 0-451-16786-4)
"White Power, White Pride!": The White Separatist Movement in the United States by Betty A. Dobratz with Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile (hardcover, Twayne Publishers, 1997, ISBN 0-8057-3865-7); a.k.a. The White Separatist Movement in the United States: White Power White Pride (paperback, Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9)
Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right by Jeffrey Kaplan (Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, 2000, ISBN 0-7425-0340-2)
Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads, and the Rise of a New White Culture by James Ridgeway (Thunder's Mouth Press; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 1-56025-100-X)
A Hundred Little Hitlers: The Death of a Black Man, the Trial of a White Racist, and the Rise of the Neo-Nazi Movement in America by Elinor Langer (Metropolitan Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8050-5098-1)
The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen by Raphael S. Ezekiel (Penguin (Non-Classics); Reprint edition, 1996, ISBN 0-14-023449-7)
Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (2001, ISBN 0-8147-3155-4)
Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe by Paul Hockenos (Routledge; Reprint edition, 1994, ISBN 0-415-91058-7)
The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today by Geoff Harris, (Edinburgh University Press; New edition, 1994, ISBN 0-7486-0466-9)
The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe by Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (Longman Publishing Group; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 0-582-23881-1)
The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis by Herbert Kitschelt (University of Michigan Press; Reprint edition, 1997, ISBN 0-472-08441-0)
Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe edited by Martin Schain, Aristide Zolberg, and Patrick Hossay (Palgrave Macmillan; 1st edition, 2002, ISBN 0-312-29593-6)
The Fame of a Dead Man's Deeds: An Up-Close Portrait of White Nationalist William Pierce by Robert S. Griffin (Authorhouse, 2001, ISBN 0-7596-0933-0)
Nation and Race: The Developing Euro-American Racist Subculture by Jeffrey Kaplan, Tore Bjorgo (Northeastern University Press, 1998, ISBN 1-55553-331-0)
Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism by Mattias Gardell (Duke University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8223-3071-7)
The Nazi conception of law (Oxford pamphlets on world affairs) by J. Walter Jones, Clarendon (1939)
Hearst, Ernest, Chip Berlet, and Jack Porter. "Neo-Nazism." Encyclopaedia Judaica. Eds. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 15. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. 74–82. 22 vols. Thomson Gale.
Goodrick-Clark, Nicholas (2002). Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-3155-4. OCLC 47665567.
Blee, Kathleen (2002). Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement. Berkeley, California; London: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24055-3. OCLC 52566455.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neo-Nazism.
Mainstreaming Neo-Nazism
Rjabchikov, S.V., 2014. The Nazi Orders in the So-called "Donetsk People's Republic". The paper was read on the scientific session of the Sergei Rjabchikov Foundation – Research Centre for Studies of Ancient Civilisations and Cultures, September 29, 2014, Krasnodar, Russia
Antisemitism And Racism in the Baltic Republics
The history of modern fascism
The Hate Directory a collection of monitored neo-Nazi web sites
The Neo-Nazi Movement, Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC)


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Neo-Nazism

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Neo-Nazism consists of post-World War II social or political movements seeking to revive the far-right-wing tenets of Nazism.[1][2][3][4] The term neo-Nazism can also refer to the ideology of these movements.[5][6]
Neo-Nazism borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including ultranationalism, racism, ableism, xenophobia, homophobia, antisemitism, and initiating the Fourth Reich. Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is incorporation of Nazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler.
Neo-Nazi activity is a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries, as well as international networks. In some European and Latin American countries, laws have been enacted that prohibit the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, anti-Semitic or homophobic views. Many Nazi-related symbols are banned in European countries in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism.[7][8][9]


Contents  [hide]
1 Europe 1.1 Austria
1.2 Belgium
1.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina
1.4 Croatia
1.5 Czech Republic
1.6 Estonia
1.7 France
1.8 Germany
1.9 Greece
1.10 Hungary
1.11 Netherlands
1.12 Poland
1.13 Russia
1.14 Serbia
1.15 Sweden
1.16 Switzerland
1.17 Turkey
1.18 Ukraine
1.19 United Kingdom
2 Asia 2.1 Israel
2.2 Mongolia
2.3 Myanmar
2.4 Taiwan
3 The Americas 3.1 Brazil
3.2 Canada
3.3 Chile
3.4 Costa Rica
3.5 United States
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Bibliography 6.1 Primary sources
6.2 Academic surveys
7 External links

Europe[edit]



 Neo-Nazi march in Leipzig, Germany on October 17, 2009
Austria[edit]
The major postwar far-right party was the Austrian National Democratic Party (NDP), until it was banned in 1988 for violating Austria's anti-Nazi legislation, Verbotsgesetz 1947.[10] The Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception. In 1980, scandals undermined Austria's two main parties, and the economy stagnated. Jörg Haider became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for Nazism, calling its employment policy effective. In the 1994 Austrian election, the FPÖ won 22 percent of the vote, as well as 33 percent of the vote in Carinthia and 22 percent in Vienna; showing that it had become a force capable of reversing the old pattern of Austrian politics.[11]
Historian Walter Laqueur writes that even though Haider welcomed former Nazis at his meetings and went out of his way to address Schutzstaffel (SS) veterans, the FPÖ is not a fascist party in the traditional sense, since it has not made anti-communism an important issue, and does not advocate the overthrow of the democratic order or the use of violence. In his view, the FPÖ is "not quite fascist", although it is part of a tradition, similar to that of 19th-century Viennese mayor Karl Lueger, that involves nationalism, xenophobic populism, and authoritarianism.[12] Professor Ali Mazrui, however, identified the FPÖ as neo-Nazi in a BBC world lecture.[13]
Haider, who in 2005 left the Freedom Party and formed the Alliance for Austria's Future, was killed in a traffic accident in October, 2008.[14]
Barbara Rosenkranz, the Freedom Party's candidate for the Austrian presidential election, 2010, is controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements.[15] Rosenkranz is married to Horst Rosenkranz, a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, and known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she cannot detect anything "dishonourable" in her husband's activities.[16]
The volume Rechtsextremismus in Österreich seit 1945 (Right-wing Extremism in Austria since 1945), issued by DÖW in 1979, listed nearly 50 active far right organizations in Austria. Their influence waned gradually, partly due to liberalization programs in secondary schools and universities that emphasized Austrian identity and democratic traditions. Votes for the RFS (Ring Freiheitlicher Studenten), the Freedom Party's academic student organization, in student elections fell from 30% in the 1960s to 2% in 1987. In the 1995 elections for the student representative body Österreichische Hochschülerschaft (Austrian Students' Association), the RFS got 4% of the vote. The FPÖ won 22% of the votes at the General Election in the same year.[17]
A radical non-parliamentary, anti-democratic far-right organization active in Austria was the VAPO (Volkstreue Außerparlamentarische Opposition) founded by the Austrian neo-Nazi Gottfried Küssel in 1986, who publicly declared to be a member of the US-American neo-Nazi organization NSDAP/AO since 1977. Neither an association nor a party, the VAPO was loosely organized in "Kameradschaften" (comradeships) and defined itself as a "battle alliance of nationalist groups and persons" with the aims of "reestablishing the NSDAP" and the "seizure of power".[18] In 1993 Küssel was repeatedly convicted on charges of "NS-Wiederbetätigung" (re-engagement in national socialism) under the Austrian anti-Nazi law (Verbotsgesetz 1947) and sentenced to ten years of prison.[19] The VAPO de facto disbanded in the course of the imprisonment of its leading figures, much due to its loose organizational structure. Due to procedural errors Küssel's sentence was revoked by the OGH (Austrian Supreme Court) and the trial reheld in 1994 where Küssel was sentenced to eleven years in prison.[20]
Belgium[edit]
Main article: Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw



 Anti-Nazi logo in Belgium
A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Blood, Soil, Honour and Loyalty), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (Blood and Honour). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, antisemitism and supporters of censorship. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael, the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" Belgium.[21][22] According to journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances network, the ultras of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through Westland New Post and the Front de la Jeunesse.[23]
A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in Leopoldsburg near the Dutch border: Kleine-Brogel, Peer, Brussels (Royal military school) and Zedelgem– as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders. They found weapons, munitions, explosives, and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode." The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons, and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far-right movement De Nationale Alliantie.[24][25][26][27][28][29]
Bosnia and Herzegovina[edit]
The neo-Nazi white nationalist organization Bosanski Pokret Nacionalnog Ponosa (Bosnian Movement of National Pride) was founded in Bosnia and Herzegovina in July 2009. Their model is the Waffen-SS Handschar Division, composed of Bosnian Muslim volunteers.[30] They proclaimed their main enemies to be "Jews, Gypsies, Serbian Chetniks, the Croatian separatists, Josip Broz Tito, Communists, homosexuals and blacks".[31][32] They mix an ideology of Bosnian nationalism, National Socialism and white nationalism. The group is led by a person nicknamed Sauberzwig, after the commander of the 13 SS Handschar. The group's strongest area of operations is in the Tuzla area of Bosnia.
Croatia[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in Croatia
Neo-Nazis in Croatia base their ideology on the writings of Ante Pavelić and the Ustaše, a fascist anti-Yugoslav separatist movement.[33] The Ustaše regime committed a genocide against Serbs, Jews and Gypsies. At the end of World War II, many Ustaše members fled to the West, where they found sanctuary and continued their political and terrorist activities (which were tolerated because of Cold War hostilities).[34][35] Jonathan Levy, a lawyer who represented plaintiffs in a 1999 lawsuit against the Ustaše and others, said: "Many are still terrified of the Ustashe, the Serbs particularly. Unlike the Nazi Party, the Ustashe still exist and have a party headquarters in Zagreb."[36]
In 1999, Zagreb's Square of the Victims of Fascism was renamed The Square of The Great Men of Croatia, provoking widespread criticism of Croatia's attitude toward the Holocaust.[37] In 2000, the city council renamed the square the Square of the Victims of Fascism.[38] Many streets in Croatia were renamed after the prominent Ustaše figure Mile Budak, which provoked outrage amongst the Serbian minority. Since 2002, there has been a reversal of this development, and streets with the name of Mile Budak or other persons connected with the Ustaše movement are few or non-existent.[39] A plaque in Slunj with the inscription "Croatian Knight Jure Francetić" was erected to commemorate Francetić, the notorious Ustaše leader of the Black Legion. The plaque remained there for four years, until it was removed by the authorities.[39][40]
In 2003, an attempt was made to amend the Croatian penal code by adding articles prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, historical revisionism and holocaust denial, but this attempt was prevented by the Croatian constitutional court.[41] An amendment was added in 2006 to prohibit any type of hate crime based on factors such as race, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion or national origin.[42]
There have been instances of hate speech in Croatia, such as the use of the phrase Srbe na vrbe! ("(hang) Serbs on the willow trees!"). In 2004, an Orthodox church was spray-painted with pro-Ustaše graffiti.[43][44] During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other suspected war criminals have carried nationalist symbols and pictures of Pavelić.[45] On May 17, 2007, a concert in Zagreb by Thompson, a popular Croatian singer, was attended by 60,000 people, some of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes and shouted the Ustaše slogan "Za dom spremni" (for the homeland – ready!). This event prompted the Jerusalem office of the Simon Wiesenthal Center to publicly issue a protest to the Croatian president.[46][47][48][49][50] In 2007, Austrian authorities launched a criminal investigation into the widespread display of Ustaše symbols at a gathering of Croatian nationalists in Bleiburg, Austria.[51][52]
Czech Republic[edit]
Czech Republic strictly punishes Neo-Nazism (Czech: Neonacismus). According to the report from Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic Neo-Nazist committed more than 211 crimes in 2013. Czech Republic has more than 150 members of various groups. One of them is group Wotan Jugend based in Germany.
Estonia[edit]
In 2006, Roman Ilin, a Jewish theatre director from St. Petersburg, Russia, was attacked by neo-Nazis when returning from an underground tunnel after a rehearsal. Ilin subsequently accused Estonian police of indifference after filing the incident.[53] When a dark-skinned French student was attacked in Tartu, the head of an association of foreign students claimed that the attack was characteristic of a wave of neo-Nazi violence. An Estonian police official, however, stated that there were only a few cases involving foreign students over the previous two years.[54] In November 2006, the Estonian government passed a law banning the display of Nazi symbols.[55]
The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur's Report noted that community representatives and non-governmental organizations devoted to human rights had pointed out that neo-Nazi groups were active in Estonia—particularly in Tartu—and had perpetrated acts of violence against non-European minorities.[56]
France[edit]
Main article: History of far-right movements in France
Neo-Nazi organizations in France are outlawed, yet a significant number exist.[57] Legal far-right groups are also numerous, and include the Bloc identitaire, created by former members of Christian Bouchet's Unité Radicale group. Close to National Bolshevism and Third Position ideologies, Unité Radicale was dissolved in 2002 following Maxime Brunerie's assassination attempt on July 14, 2002 against then-President Jacques Chirac. Christian Bouchet had previously been a member of Nouvelle Résistance (NR), an offshoot of Troisième Voie (Third Way) which described itself as "nationalist revolutionary". Although Nouvelle Résistance at first opposed the "national conservatives" of Jean-Marie Le Pen's National Front, it changed strategy, adopting the slogan "Less Leftism! More Fascism![58] " Nouvelle Résistance was also a successor to Jean-François Thiriart's Jeune Europe neo-Nazi Europeanist movement of the 1960s, which had participated in the National Party of Europe, along with Oswald Mosley's Union Movement, Otto Strasser and others. The French government estimated that neo-Nazi groups in France had 3,500 members.[59] In 2011 alone, 129 violent actions were recorded in France against the Jewish population, with 60.5% of those cases occurring in the Île-de-France region. The CNCDH notes that in 19 cases, these violent actions could be imputed to persons of ‘Arab origin or Muslim confession’, with 15 others relating to neo-Nazi ideology, mainly consisting of displaying swastikas. In relation to these violent actions 36 persons were arrested, 28 of whom were minors. Of the 129 violent actions recorded, 50.4% were for degradations, 44.2% for violence and assault and battery, and the remaining 5.4% for arson. In France in 2011, 260 threats were recorded, with 53% of those (138 cases) occurring in the Île-de-France region. Of these threats, 15% related to neo-Nazi ideology, with another 14% imputable to persons of ‘Arab origin or Muslim confession’. Thirty-two persons were arrested in relation to these threats, nine of whom were minors. Of the 260 threats, 44% consisted of speech acts and threatening gestures and insults, 38% of graffiti and the remaining 18% of pamphlets and emails.[60]
Germany[edit]
Main article: Far right in Germany
See also: Category:Neo-Nazism in Germany.



 Anti-Nazi demonstration in Dresden, Germany, February 13, 2012
In Germany, immediately after World War II, Allied forces and the new German government attempted to prevent the creation of the new Nazi movement through a process known as denazification. However, with the onset of the Cold War it had lost interest in prosecuting anyone.[61] Many of the more than 90,000 Nazi war criminals recorded in German files were serving in positions of prominence under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.[62][63] Not until the 1960s were the former concentration camp personnel prosecuted by West Germany in the Belzec trial, Frankfurt Auschwitz trials, Treblinka trials, Chełmno trials, and the Sobibór trial.[64] The government had passed laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs. Displaying the swastika became an offense punishable by up to one year imprisonment. Nevertheless, some former National Socialists retained their political beliefs and passed them down to new generations who formed the extreme-right National Democratic Party.[65]
After German reunification in the 1990s, post-National Socialist groups gained more followers, mostly among the younger generation in the former East Germany.[65] They have expressed an aversion to people from Slavic countries (especially Poland) and people of other national backgrounds who moved from the former West Germany into the former East Germany after Germany was reunited.[66] According to the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (Verfassungsschutz) for 2012, at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6,000 neo-Nazis.[67] The Neo-Nazi organizations are not outlawed in Germany,[65] although Holocaust denial is, according to the German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch § 86a) and § 130 (public incitement).
Greece[edit]
The far right political party Golden Dawn (Chrysi Avyi) is generally labelled neo-Nazi, although the group rejects this label. A few Golden Dawn members participated in the Bosnian War in the Greek Volunteer Guard (GVG) and were present in Srebrenica during the Srebrenica massacre.[68][69] Another Greek neo-Nazi group is the Strasserist "Mavros Krinos" (Μαύρος Κρίνος – Black Lily).
In the elections of 6 May 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.97% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament for the first time with 21 representatives. Due to no coalition amongst the elected parties so as to form a Greek Government, new elections were proclaimed.
In the elections of 17 June 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.92% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament with 18 representatives.
Hungary[edit]
Further information: History of the Jews in Hungary
Today, Neo-Nazism in Hungary takes the form of hatred towards Judaism and Israel, it can be observed from many prominent Hungarian politicians. The most famous example is the MIÉP-Jobbik Third Way Alliance of Parties. Antisemitism in Hungary is manifested mainly in far right publications and demonstrations. Hungarian Justice and Life Party supporters continued their tradition of shouting antisemitic slogans and tearing the US flag to shreds at their annual rallies in Budapest in March 2003 and 2004, commemorating the 1848–49 revolution. Further, during the demonstrations held to celebrate the anniversary of the 1956 uprising, a post-Communist tradition celebrated by the left and right of the political spectrum, antisemitic and anti-Israel slogans were heard from the right wing. The center-right traditionally keeps its distance from the right-wing Csurka-led and other far-right demonstrations.[70]
Netherlands[edit]
The Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism reports that on 17 May 2011 in Leek, Groningen, antisemitic graffiti was found at a Jewish school. The graffiti consisted of a swastika and the text "C18", or Combat 18, a neo-Nazi organisation active throughout Europe. The number 18 refers to the initials of Adolf Hitler, A and H being the first and eighth letters of the alphabet, respectively.[71]
Poland[edit]
Although several small far-right and anti-semitic organisations exist, most notably NOP and ONR, they frequently adhere to Polish nationalism and National Democracy, in which nazism is generally considered to be against ultra-nationalist principles, and therefore although classed as white nationalist and fascist movements, they are at the same time considered anti-nazi. Some elements may resemble neo-nazi features, but the groups frequently dissociate themselves from Nazi elements, claiming such acts as unpatriotic and arguing that Nazism misappropriated or slightly altered several pre-existing symbols and features, such as distinguishing the Roman salute from the Nazi salute.[72]
Russia[edit]
Main articles: Racism in Russia and Radical nationalism in Russia



 Neo-Nazism in Russia: The photograph was taken at an anti-homosexual demonstration in Moscow in October 2010
Many Russian neo-Nazis openly admire Adolf Hitler and use the swastika as their symbol. Russian neo-Nazis are characterized by racism, antisemitism, homophobia, Islamophobia and extreme xenophobia towards people from Asia.[73] Their ideology centers on defending Russian national identity against what they perceive as a takeover by minority groups such as Jews, Caucasians, homosexuals, Central Asians, East Asians, Roma people, and Muslims.
Russian neo-Nazis have made it an explicit goal to take over the country by force, and have put serious effort into preparing for this. Paramilitary organizations operating under the guise of sports clubs have trained their members in squad tactics, hand to hand combat and weapons handling. They have stockpiled and used weapons, often illegally.
Some observers have noted a subjective irony of Russians embracing Nazism, because one of Hitler's ambitions at the start of World War II was the Generalplan Ost (Master Plan East) which allegedly envisaged to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs from central and eastern Europe (i.e., Russians, Ukrainians, Poles etc.).[74] Russian neo-Nazis deny the authenticity of this plan.[74] At the end of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, over 25 million Soviet citizens had died.[75] In a 2007 news story, ABC News reported, "In a country that lost more people defeating the Nazis than any other country, there are now an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 neo-Nazis, half of the world's total."[76]
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused great economic and social problems, including widespread unemployment and poverty. Several far right paramilitary organizations were able to tap into popular discontent, particularly among marginalized, lesser educated and unemployed youths. Of the three major age groups — youths, adults, and the elderly — youths may have been hit the hardest. The elderly suffered due to inadequate (or unpaid) pensions, but they found effective political representation in the Communist Party, and generally had their concerns addressed through better budget allocations. Adults, although often suffering financially and psychologically due to job losses, were generally able to find new sources of income.
Russian National Unity (RNE), founded in 1990 and led by Alexander Barkashov, has claimed to have members in 250 cities. RNE adopted the swastika as its symbol, and sees itself as the avant-garde of a coming national revolution. It is critical of other major far right organizations, such as the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR). Historian Walter Laqueur calls RNE far closer to the Nazi model than the LDPR. RNE publishes several news sheets; one of them, Russky poryadok, claims to have a circulation of 150,000. Full members of RNE are called Soratnik (comrades in arms), receive combat training at locations near Moscow, and many of them work as security officers or armed guards.[77]
On August 15, 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black swastika flag.[78] Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine ... There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally."[79] A Russian neo-Nazi group called the Russian National Socialist Party claimed responsibility for the murders.
Serbia[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in Serbia
Neo-Nazism in Serbia is mostly based on national and religious factors. Nacionalni stroj (National Alignment), a neo-Nazi organization[80][81] from the Vojvodina region, orchestrated several incidents. Charges were laid against 18 of the leading members.[82]
Sweden[edit]
Neo-Nazi activities in Sweden have previously been limited to white supremacist groups, none of which has more than a few hundred members.[83] The main neo-Nazi organizations as of 2014 are the Party of the Swedes and the Swedish Resistance Movement.
Switzerland[edit]
See also: Far right in Switzerland
The neo-Nazi and white power skinhead scene in Switzerland has seen significant growth in the 1990s and 2000s.[citation needed] It is reflected in the foundation of the Partei National Orientierter Schweizer in 2000, which resulted in an improved organizational structure of the neo-Nazi and white supremacist scene.
Turkey[edit]
See also: Turkish nationalism
Apart from neo-fascist[84][85][86][87][88][89][90] Grey Wolves and the Turkish ultranationalist[91][92][93][94][95][96] Nationalist Movement Party there are some Neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey like the Turkish Nazi Party[97] or the National Socialist Party of Turkey,[98] mainly based on the internet.[99][100][101]
Ukraine[edit]



 Fans of the FC Karpaty Lviv football club honoring the Waffen-SS Galizien division, in Lviv, Ukraine, 2013
In 1991 Svoboda (political party) was founded as the 'Social-National Party of Ukraine'.[102] The party combined radical nationalism and neo-Nazi features.[103] It was renamed and rebranded 13 years later as 'All-Ukrainian Association Svoboda' in 2004 under Oleh Tyahnybok. Political scientists Olexiy Haran and Alexander J. Motyl contend that Svoboda is not fascist but they are radical and that they are better compared to the Far-Right movements like Tea Party than fascists or neo-Nazis.[104][105] By 2005 an important step toward heroization of Ukrainian nationalism was Victor Yushchenko's appointment of Svoboda member Volodymyr Viatrovych as head of the Ukrainian security service (SBU) archives. This allowed Viatrovych not only to sanitize ultra nationalist history, but also officially promote its dissemination along with OUN(b) ideology based on 'ethnic purity' coupled with anti-Russian, anti-Polish and anti-semitic rhetoric; denial of UPA war crimes, and the paradoxical glorification of Nazi history with concomitant denial of wartime collaboration wrote Professor Per Anders Rudling.[106]:229–230 The extreme right wing now capitalize on 'Yushchenkoist' propaganda initiatives.[106]:235 This includes Iuryi Mykahl’chyshyn, an ideologue who proudly confesses himself part of the fascist tradition.[106] The autonomous nationalists focus on recruiting younger people, participates in violent actions, quoting "anti-bourgeoism, anti-capitalism, anti-globalism, anti-democratism, anti-liberalism, anti-bureaucratism, anti-dogmatism". In 2009 Svoboda fetched 34% of votes in one region of the state. Svoboda is part of a right wing Alliance of European National Movements.[106] Per Anders Rulig has suggested that "Viktor Yanukovych has indirectly aided Svoboda" by "granting Svoboda representatives disproportionate attention in the media".[106]:247
After Yanokovych's ouster in February 2014, the interim Yatsenyuk Government placed 4 Svoboda members in leading positions: Oleksandr Sych as Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine, Ihor Tenyukh as Minister of Defense, lawyer Ihor Shvaika as Minister of Agrarian Policy and Food and Andriy Mokhnyk as Minister of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine.[107] However, the U.S. State Department has stated in a March 5, 2014 fact sheet that "Far-right wing ultranationalist groups, some of which were involved in open clashes with security forces during the EuroMaidan protests, are not represented in the Rada."[108]
Ukraine's National Security and Defence Council chief Andriy Parubiy, one of the founders of Social-National Party of Ukraine,[109] oversees the "anti–terrorist" operation against pro-Russian separatists in eastern Ukraine.[110] Andriy Biletsky, the head of the ultra-nationalist and neo-Nazi political groups Social-National Assembly and Patriots of Ukraine,[111] is commander of the Azov Battalion,[112] a pro-Ukrainian volunteer paramilitary group fighting pro-Russian separatists in Donbas region.[113][114]
United Kingdom[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in the United Kingdom, Racism in the United Kingdom and List of British fascist parties
Asia[edit]
Israel[edit]
Neo-Nazi activity is not common or widespread in Israel, and the few activities reported have all been the work of extremists, who were punished severely. One notable case is that of Patrol 36, a cell in Petah Tikva made up of eight teenage immigrants from the former Soviet Union who had been attacking foreign workers and homosexuals, and vandalizing synagogues with Nazi images.[115][116] These neo-Nazis were reported to have operated in cities across Israel, and have been described as being influenced by the rise of neo-Nazism in Europe;[115][116][117] mostly influenced by similar movements in Russia and Ukraine, as the rise of the phenomenon is widely credited to immigrants from those two states, the largest sources of emigration to Israel.[118] Widely publicized arrests have led to a call to reform the Law of Return to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship for – and the subsequent deportation of – neo-Nazis.[116]
Mongolia[edit]



 Flag of the Dayar Mongol, a neo-Nazi party in Mongolia
Neo-Nazism is a growing political force in Mongolia. From 2008, Mongolian Neo-Nazi groups have defaced buildings in Ulan Bator, smashed Chinese shopkeepers' windows, and killed pro-Chinese Mongols. The Neo-Nazi Mongols' targets for violence are Chinese, Koreans,[119] Mongol women who sleep with Chinese men, and LGBT people.[120] They wear Nazi uniforms and revere the Mongol Empire and Genghis Khan. During World War II, the invading Nazi Germans also recruited Mongol Kalmyks to fight for them against the Soviet Union. Though Tsagaan Khass leaders say they do not support violence, they are self-proclaimed Nazis. "Adolf Hitler was someone we respect. He taught us how to preserve national identity," said the 41-year-old co-founder, who calls himself Big Brother. "We don't agree with his extremism and starting the Second World War. We are against all those killings, but we support his ideology. We support nationalism rather than fascism." Some have ascribed it to poor historical education.[119]
Myanmar[edit]
The Straits Times writes that the 969 Movement, which it says "is described as Myanmar's 'neo-Nazi group'", is facing scrutiny for "its role in spreading anti-Muslim sentiment".[121]
Taiwan[edit]
Main article: National Socialism Association
The National Socialism Association (NSA) is a neo-Nazi political organisation founded in Taiwan in September 2006 by Hsu Na-chi (Chinese: 許娜琦), at that time a 22-year-old female political science graduate of Soochow University. The NSA has an explicit stated goal of obtaining the power to govern the state. The NSA views Adolf Hitler as its leader and often proclaims "Long live Hitler" (Heil Hitler) as one of its slogans. The Simon Wiesenthal Centre condemned the National Socialism Association on March 13, 2007 for championing the former Nazi dictator and blaming democracy for Taiwan's "social unrest."[6]
The Americas[edit]
Brazil[edit]
Further information: Racism in Brazil
Several Brazilian neo-Nazi gangs appeared in the 1990s in Southern and Southeastern Brazil, regions with mostly white people, with their acts gaining more media coverage and public notoriety in the 2000s.[122][123][124][125][126][127][128] Some members of Brazilian neo-Nazi groups have been associated with football hooliganism.[129]
Their targets have included African, South American and Asian immigrants; Jews; Afro-Brazilians and internal migrants with origins in the northern regions of Brazil (who are mostly brown-skinned or Afro-Brazilian);[127][130] homeless people, prostitutes; recreational drug users; feminists and—more frequently reported in the media—homosexuals, bisexuals, the third-gendered and the transgendered.[126][131][132] News of their attacks has played a role in debates about anti-discrimination laws in Brazil (including to some extent hate speech laws) and the issues of sexual orientation and gender identity.[133][134][135]
Canada[edit]
Neo-Nazism in Canada began with the formation of the Canadian Nazi Party in 1965. In the 1970s and 1980s, neo-Nazism continued to spread in the country as organizations including the Western Guard and Church of the Creator (later renamed as Creativity) promoted white supremacist ideals.[136] Founded in the United States in 1973, Creativity calls for white people to wage racial holy war (Rahowa) against Jews and other perceived enemies.[137]
Don Andrews founded the Nationalist Party of Canada in 1977. The purported goals of the unregsistered party are "the promotion and maintenance of European Heritage and Culture in Canada," but the party is known for anti-Semitism and racism. Many influential neo-Nazi Leaders, such as Wolfgang Droege, were affiliated with the party, but many of its members left to join the Heritage Front, which was founded in 1989.[138]
Droege founded the Heritage Front in in Toronto at a time when leaders of the white supremacist movement were "disgruntled about the state of the radical right" and wanted to unite unorganized groups of white supremacists into an influential and efficient group with common objectives.[138] Plans for the organization began in September 1989, and the formation of the Heritage Front was formally announced a couple of months later in November. In the 1990s, George Burdi of Resistance Records and the band Rahowa popularized the Creativity movement and the white power music scene.[139]
Controversy and dissention has left many Canadian neo-Nazi organizations dissolved or weakened.[138]
Chile[edit]
Main article: Nazism in Chile
After the dissolution of the National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNSCH) in 1938, notable former members of MNSCH migrated into Partido Agrario Laborista (PAL), obtaining high positions.[140] Not all former MNSCH members joined the PAL; some continued to form parties that followed the MNSCH model until 1952.[140] A new old-school Nazi party was formed in 1964 by school teacher Franz Pfeiffer.[140] Among the activities of this group were the organization of a Miss Nazi beauty contest and the formation of a Chilean branch of the Ku Klux Klan.[140] The party disbanded in 1970. Pfeiffer attempted to restart it in 1983 in the wake of a wave of protests against the Augusto Pinochet regime.[140]
Nicolás Palacios considered the "Chilean race" to be a mix of two bellicose master races: the Visigoths of Spain and the Mapuche (Araucanians) of Chile.[141] Palacios traces the origins of the Spanish component of the "Chilean race" to the coast of the Baltic Sea, specifically to Götaland in Sweden,[141] one of the supposed homelands of the Goths. Palacios claimed that both the blonde-haired and the bronze-coloured Chilean Mestizo share a "moral physonomy" and a masculine psychology.[142] He opposed immigration from Southern Europe, and argued that Mestizos who are derived from south Europeans lack "cerebral control" and are a social burden.[143]
Costa Rica[edit]
Several neo-Nazi groups exist in Costa Rica, and the first to be in the spotlight was the Costa Rican National Socialist Party, which is now disbanded.[144] Others include Costa Rican National Socialist Youth, Costa Rican National Socialist Alliance, New Social Order, Costa Rican National Socialist Resistance (which is Costa Rica's member of the World Union of National Socialists)[145] and the Hiperborean Spear Society. The groups normally target Jewish-Costa Ricans, Afro-Costa Ricans, Communists, homosexuals and especially Nicaraguan and Colombian immigrants. The media has discovered the existence of an underground neo-Nazi group inside the police.[146]
United States[edit]



 The NSM rally on the West lawn of the US Capitol, Washington DC, 2008
There are several neo-Nazi groups in the United States. The National Socialist Movement (NSM), with about 400 members in 32 states,[147] is currently the largest neo-Nazi organization in the United States.[148] After World War II, new organizations formed with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles. The National States' Rights Party, founded in 1958 by Edward Reed Fields and J. B. Stoner countered racial integration in the Southern United States with Nazi-inspired publications and iconography. The American Nazi Party, founded by George Lincoln Rockwell in 1959, achieved high-profile coverage in the press through its public demonstrations.[149]
The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, which allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, and anti-Semitic views. A First Amendment landmark case was National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie, in which neo-Nazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neo-Nazis to stage a series of demonstrations in Chicago.
The Institute for Historical Review, formed in 1978, is a Holocaust denial body associated with neo-Nazism.
Organizations which report upon American neo-Nazi activities include the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. While a small minority of American neo-Nazis draw public attention, most operate underground, so they can recruit, organize and raise funds without interference or harassment. American neo-Nazis are known to attack, torment, and harass Jews, African Americans, Slavic Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, Asian Americans, Arab Americans, Romani Americans, homosexuals, "race traitors" and people with different political or religious opinions.[150] American neo-Nazi groups often operate websites, occasionally stage public demonstrations, and maintain ties to groups in Europe and elsewhere.[151]
See also[edit]
Alex Linder
American History X
Aryan race
The Believer
Craig Cobb
Documentation Centre of Austrian Resistance
Esoteric Nazism
Far-right politics
Fascism
Fourth Reich
Holocaust denial
List of neo-Nazi bands
List of neo-Nazi organizations
List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
List of white nationalist organizations
National Socialist black metal
Nazi chic
Nazi punk
Nazism
Neo-fascism
Neo-Stalinism
Rock Against Communism
Romper Stomper
Stormfront (website)
Tom Metzger
White nationalism
White power skinhead
Notes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Lee McGowan (2002). The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present. Pearson Education. pp. 9, 178. ISBN 0-582-29193-3. OCLC 49785551.
2.Jump up ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda; Wolfgang Neugebauer. "Right-Wing Extremism in Austria: History, Organisations, Ideology". "Right-wing extremism can be equated neither with Nazism nor with neo-Fascism or neo-Nazism. Neo-Nazism, a legal term, is understood as the attempt to propagate, in direct defiance of the law (Verbotsgesetz), Nazi ideology or measures such as the denial, playing-down, approval or justification of Nazi mass murder, especially the Holocaust."
3.Jump up ^ Martin Frost. "Neo Nazism". "The term neo-Nazism refers to any social or political movement seeking to revive National Socialism, and which postdates the Second World War. Often, especially internationally, those who are part of such movements do not use the term to describe themselves."
4.Jump up ^ Lee, Martin A. 1997. The Beast Reawakens. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, pp. 85–118, 214–234, 277–281, 287–330, 333–378. On Volk concept," and a discussion of ethnonationalist integralism, see pp. 215–218
5.Jump up ^ Peter Vogelsang & Brian B. M. Larsen (2002). "Neo-Nazism". The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism is the name for a modern offshoot of Nazism. It is a radically right-wing ideology, whose main characteristics are extreme nationalism and violent xenophobia. Neo-Nazism is, as the word suggests, a modern version of Nazism. In general, it is an incoherent right-extremist ideology, which is characterised by ‘borrowing’ many of the elements that constituted traditional Nazism."
6.Jump up ^ Ondřej Cakl & Klára Kalibová (2002). "Neo-Nazism". Faculty of Humanities at Charles University in Prague, Department of Civil Society Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism: An ideology which draws upon the legacy of the Nazi Third Reich, the main pillars of which are an admiration for Adolf Hitler, aggressive nationalism ("nothing but the nation"), and hatred of Jews, foreigners, ethnic minorities, homosexuals and everyone who is different in some way."
7.Jump up ^ Werner Bergmann; Rainer Erb (1997). Anti-Semitism in Germany: The Post-Nazi Epoch Since 1945. Transaction Publishers. p. 91. ISBN 1-56000-270-0. OCLC 35318351. "In contrast to today, in which rigid authoritarianism and neo-Nazism are characteristic of marginal groups, open or latent leanings toward Nazi ideology in the 1940s and 1950s"
8.Jump up ^ Martin Polley (200). A-Z of Modern Europe Since 1789. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 0-415-18597-1. OCLC 49569961. "Neo-Nazism, drawing heavily both on the ideology and aesthetics of the NSDAP, emerged in many parts of Europe and elsewhere in the economic crises of the 1970s, and has continued to influence a number of small political groups."
9.Jump up ^ "Neo-Nazism". ApologeticsIndex. "The term Neo-Nazism refers to any social, political and/or (quasi) religious movement seeking to revive Nazism. Neo-Nazi groups are racist hate groups that pattern themselves after Hitler’s philosophies. Examples include: Aryan Nations, National Alliance"
10.Jump up ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda (1997). "'Revisionism' in Germany and Austria: The Evolution of a Doctrine". In Hermann Kurthen, Werner Bergmann, & Rainer Erb. Antisemitism and Xenophobia in Germany After Unification. Oxford University Press. p. 188. ISBN 0-19-510485-4.
11.Jump up ^ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, pp. 80, 116, 117
12.Jump up ^ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 117-118
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18.Jump up ^ Dokumentationsarchiv des österreichischen Widerstandes - Volkstreue außerparlamentarische Opposition (VAPO)
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26.Jump up ^ Des militaires néonazis voulaient commettre des attentats, RTL Belgique, 8 septembre 2006 (French)
27.Jump up ^ Des militaires néonazis voulaient déstabiliser la Belgique par des attentats, AFP, September 8, 2006 (French)
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Bibliography[edit]
Primary sources[edit]
Imperium by Francis Parker Yockey (using the pen name Ulick Varange, 1947, ISBN 0-911038-10-8)
The Lightning and the Sun by Savitri Devi, (1958 (written 1948–56); ISBN 0-937944-14-9)
White Power by George Lincoln Rockwell (1967; John McLaughlin, 1996, ISBN 0-9656492-8-8)
This Time The World by George Lincoln Rockwell (1961; Liberty Bell Publications, 2004, ISBN 1-59364-014-5)
National Socialism: Vanguard of the Future, Selected Writings of Colin Jordan (ISBN 87-87063-40-9)
Merrie England– 2000 by Colin Jordan
The Turner Diaries by William Pierce (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (1978, ISBN 1-56980-086-3) .
Siege: The Collected Writings of James Mason edited and introduced by Michael M. Jenkins (Storm Books, 1992) or introduced by Ryan Schuster (Black Sun Publications, ISBN 0-9724408-0-1)
Hunter by William Pierce (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1984, ISBN 0-937944-09-2)
Faith of the Future by Matt Koehl (New Order; Rev edition, 1995, ISBN 0-9648533-0-2)
Serpent's Walk by Randolph D. Calverhall (pseudonym), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1991, ISBN 0-937944-05-X)
The Nexus periodical edited by Kerry Bolton
Deceived, Damned & Defiant– The Revolutionary Writings of David Lane by David Lane, foreword by Ron McVan, preface by Katja Lane (Fourteen Word Press, 1999, ISBN 0-9678123-2-1)
Resistance Magazine published by National Vanguard Books
Academic surveys[edit]
The Beast Reawakens by Martin A. Lee, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997, ISBN 0-316-51959-6)
Fascism (Oxford Readers) by Roger Griffin (1995, ISBN 0-19-289249-5)
Beyond Eagle and Swastika: German nationalism since 1945 by Kurt P. Tauber (Wesleyan University Press; [1st ed.] edition, 1967)
Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890 edited by Philip Rees, (1991, ISBN 0-13-089301-3)
Hitler's Priestess: Savitri Devi, the Hindu-Aryan Myth, and Neo-Nazism by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (1998, ISBN 0-8147-3111-2 and ISBN 0-8147-3110-4)
Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International by Kevin Coogan, (Autonomedia, Brooklyn, NY 1998, ISBN 1-57027-039-2)
Hate: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by William H. Schmaltz (Potomac Books, 2000, ISBN 1-57488-262-7)
American Fuehrer: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by Frederick J. Simonelli (University of Illinois Press, 1999, ISBN 0-252-02285-8)
Fascism in Britain: A History, 1918–1985 by Richard C. Thurlow (Olympic Marketing Corp, 1987, ISBN 0-631-13618-5)
Fascism Today: A World Survey by Angelo Del Boca and Mario Giovana (Pantheon Books, 1st American edition, 1969)
Swastika and the Eagle: Neo-Naziism in America Today by Clifford L Linedecker (A & W Pub, 1982, ISBN 0-89479-100-1)
The Silent Brotherhood: Inside America's Racist Underground by Kevin Flynn and Gary Gerhardt (Signet Book; Reprint edition, 1995, ISBN 0-451-16786-4)
"White Power, White Pride!": The White Separatist Movement in the United States by Betty A. Dobratz with Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile (hardcover, Twayne Publishers, 1997, ISBN 0-8057-3865-7); a.k.a. The White Separatist Movement in the United States: White Power White Pride (paperback, Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9)
Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right by Jeffrey Kaplan (Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, 2000, ISBN 0-7425-0340-2)
Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads, and the Rise of a New White Culture by James Ridgeway (Thunder's Mouth Press; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 1-56025-100-X)
A Hundred Little Hitlers: The Death of a Black Man, the Trial of a White Racist, and the Rise of the Neo-Nazi Movement in America by Elinor Langer (Metropolitan Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8050-5098-1)
The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen by Raphael S. Ezekiel (Penguin (Non-Classics); Reprint edition, 1996, ISBN 0-14-023449-7)
Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (2001, ISBN 0-8147-3155-4)
Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe by Paul Hockenos (Routledge; Reprint edition, 1994, ISBN 0-415-91058-7)
The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today by Geoff Harris, (Edinburgh University Press; New edition, 1994, ISBN 0-7486-0466-9)
The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe by Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (Longman Publishing Group; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 0-582-23881-1)
The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis by Herbert Kitschelt (University of Michigan Press; Reprint edition, 1997, ISBN 0-472-08441-0)
Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe edited by Martin Schain, Aristide Zolberg, and Patrick Hossay (Palgrave Macmillan; 1st edition, 2002, ISBN 0-312-29593-6)
The Fame of a Dead Man's Deeds: An Up-Close Portrait of White Nationalist William Pierce by Robert S. Griffin (Authorhouse, 2001, ISBN 0-7596-0933-0)
Nation and Race: The Developing Euro-American Racist Subculture by Jeffrey Kaplan, Tore Bjorgo (Northeastern University Press, 1998, ISBN 1-55553-331-0)
Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism by Mattias Gardell (Duke University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8223-3071-7)
The Nazi conception of law (Oxford pamphlets on world affairs) by J. Walter Jones, Clarendon (1939)
Hearst, Ernest, Chip Berlet, and Jack Porter. "Neo-Nazism." Encyclopaedia Judaica. Eds. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 15. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. 74–82. 22 vols. Thomson Gale.
Goodrick-Clark, Nicholas (2002). Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-3155-4. OCLC 47665567.
Blee, Kathleen (2002). Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement. Berkeley, California; London: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24055-3. OCLC 52566455.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neo-Nazism.
Mainstreaming Neo-Nazism
Rjabchikov, S.V., 2014. The Nazi Orders in the So-called "Donetsk People's Republic". The paper was read on the scientific session of the Sergei Rjabchikov Foundation – Research Centre for Studies of Ancient Civilisations and Cultures, September 29, 2014, Krasnodar, Russia
Antisemitism And Racism in the Baltic Republics
The history of modern fascism
The Hate Directory a collection of monitored neo-Nazi web sites
The Neo-Nazi Movement, Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC)


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Kleagle

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

A Kleagle is an officer of the Ku Klux Klan whose main role is to recruit new members.[1]


Contents  [hide]
1 Kleagles
2 King Kleagles
3 See also
4 References

Kleagles[edit]
Edgar Ray Killen, a Mississippi Klansman long suspected of involvement in a notorious civil rights movement murder that were the subject of the movie Mississippi Burning. Killen was found guilty of manslaughter on June 21, 2005.
Robert Byrd, former senior senator in the United States Senate from West Virginia, though he had later disavowed any connection with the Ku Klux Klan, while admitting that it was his decision to join the Ku Klux Klan that started his career in politics.[2][3]
King Kleagles[edit]
King Kleagle was the head of the Kleagles for a geographic area:[1][4]
Arthur H. Bell[5]
George W. Apgar of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey[6]
See also[edit]
Ku Klux Klan recruitment
Ku Klux Klan in Inglewood, California (kleagles on trial).
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b Henry P. Fry. The Modern Ku Klux Klan. ISBN 1-110-51474-3. "The 'Kleagle' or field man makes his reports to the 'King Kleagle' only. All communications sent to or received by him from the headquarters come through ..."
2.Jump up ^ Pianin, Eric. "A Senator's Shame: Byrd, in His New Book, Again Confronts Early Ties to KKK", Washington Post, 2005-06-19, pp. A01. Retrieved on 2006-10-03.(English)
3.Jump up ^ Byrd, Robert C. "Robert C. Byrd: Child of the Appalachian Coalfields", West Virginia University Press; 1st Edition (May 1, 2005) (English)
4.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan To Work With Officers Here: Head of the Oregon Organization Tells Peace Authorities of Plans; Says Stories of Violence Unfounded". Portland Telegram. August 2, 1921. Retrieved 2009-10-20. "While stories were traveling over news wires yesterday telling of outside-of-the-law activities credited to the Ku Klux Klan in other parts of the United States, local peace officers met the head of the Oregon Klan and heard him declare that the klan stands for law and order. "Ninety-five per cent of the stories are false," insisted the King Kleagle, nameless officer at the head of the Ku Klux Klan in the state. City, county, and federal executives were in the group that met the King Kleagle and the Cyclops of Portland Klan No. 1. ... Although the King Kleagle said the organization intended to work with the regularly constituted authorities, he declared openly that in some matters where the law did not reach it would administer its own justice. "There are some cases, of course," he said. "In which we will have to take everything in our hands. Some crimes are not punishable under existing laws, but the criminals should be punished.""
5.Jump up ^ "Jersey Klan Head Sued by Ziegler Kin. Eloping Pastor's Parents Seek $1,596 Paid, They Say, to Avert Embezzlement Action. He Was Freed By Court. Couple Declare They Acted Without Advice. Minister and Wife Now in Virginia.". New York Times. 1926-03-13. Retrieved 2008-06-14. "Alleging that they paid $1,596.96 to Arthur H. Bell of Long Branch, King Kleagle of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey, to save their son, Roscoe Carl Ziegler, from prosecution on a charge of embezzling Klan funds, Mr. and Mrs. William E. Ziegler of Milford, Pa., filed suit today in the Court of Chancery here to recover the money."
6.Jump up ^ "Jersey King Kleagle Hurt by Auto". New York Times. September 9, 1922. Retrieved 2009-10-20. "King Kleagle of the Ku Klux Klan for the realm of New Jersey, is in the North Hudson Hospital in a critical condition from ..."
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Kleagle

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

A Kleagle is an officer of the Ku Klux Klan whose main role is to recruit new members.[1]


Contents  [hide]
1 Kleagles
2 King Kleagles
3 See also
4 References

Kleagles[edit]
Edgar Ray Killen, a Mississippi Klansman long suspected of involvement in a notorious civil rights movement murder that were the subject of the movie Mississippi Burning. Killen was found guilty of manslaughter on June 21, 2005.
Robert Byrd, former senior senator in the United States Senate from West Virginia, though he had later disavowed any connection with the Ku Klux Klan, while admitting that it was his decision to join the Ku Klux Klan that started his career in politics.[2][3]
King Kleagles[edit]
King Kleagle was the head of the Kleagles for a geographic area:[1][4]
Arthur H. Bell[5]
George W. Apgar of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey[6]
See also[edit]
Ku Klux Klan recruitment
Ku Klux Klan in Inglewood, California (kleagles on trial).
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b Henry P. Fry. The Modern Ku Klux Klan. ISBN 1-110-51474-3. "The 'Kleagle' or field man makes his reports to the 'King Kleagle' only. All communications sent to or received by him from the headquarters come through ..."
2.Jump up ^ Pianin, Eric. "A Senator's Shame: Byrd, in His New Book, Again Confronts Early Ties to KKK", Washington Post, 2005-06-19, pp. A01. Retrieved on 2006-10-03.(English)
3.Jump up ^ Byrd, Robert C. "Robert C. Byrd: Child of the Appalachian Coalfields", West Virginia University Press; 1st Edition (May 1, 2005) (English)
4.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan To Work With Officers Here: Head of the Oregon Organization Tells Peace Authorities of Plans; Says Stories of Violence Unfounded". Portland Telegram. August 2, 1921. Retrieved 2009-10-20. "While stories were traveling over news wires yesterday telling of outside-of-the-law activities credited to the Ku Klux Klan in other parts of the United States, local peace officers met the head of the Oregon Klan and heard him declare that the klan stands for law and order. "Ninety-five per cent of the stories are false," insisted the King Kleagle, nameless officer at the head of the Ku Klux Klan in the state. City, county, and federal executives were in the group that met the King Kleagle and the Cyclops of Portland Klan No. 1. ... Although the King Kleagle said the organization intended to work with the regularly constituted authorities, he declared openly that in some matters where the law did not reach it would administer its own justice. "There are some cases, of course," he said. "In which we will have to take everything in our hands. Some crimes are not punishable under existing laws, but the criminals should be punished.""
5.Jump up ^ "Jersey Klan Head Sued by Ziegler Kin. Eloping Pastor's Parents Seek $1,596 Paid, They Say, to Avert Embezzlement Action. He Was Freed By Court. Couple Declare They Acted Without Advice. Minister and Wife Now in Virginia.". New York Times. 1926-03-13. Retrieved 2008-06-14. "Alleging that they paid $1,596.96 to Arthur H. Bell of Long Branch, King Kleagle of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey, to save their son, Roscoe Carl Ziegler, from prosecution on a charge of embezzling Klan funds, Mr. and Mrs. William E. Ziegler of Milford, Pa., filed suit today in the Court of Chancery here to recover the money."
6.Jump up ^ "Jersey King Kleagle Hurt by Auto". New York Times. September 9, 1922. Retrieved 2009-10-20. "King Kleagle of the Ku Klux Klan for the realm of New Jersey, is in the North Hudson Hospital in a critical condition from ..."
Stub icon This United States-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.




  


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This page was last modified on 11 April 2015, at 17:21.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleagle









Ku Klux Klan recruitment

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Kleagles are the individuals responsible for recruiting potential Ku Klux Klan (KKK) members. Kleagles, as defined by the Ku Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia, are organizers or recruiters, “appointed by imperial wizard or his imperial representative to ‘sell’ the KKK among non-members”.[1] These members were paid typically by commission and received a portion of each new member’s initiation fee.[1] Recruitment of new KKK members entailed framing economic, political and social structural changes in favor of and in line with KKK goals. These goals promoted “100 percent Americanism” and benefits for white native-born Protestants.[2] Informal ways Klansmen recruited members included “with eligible co-workers and personal friends and try to enlist them”.[3] Protestant teachers were also targeted for Klan membership.[3]


Contents  [hide]
1 Bloc recruitment
2 Violence
3 Charity work and recruitment
4 Other recruitment factors
5 See also
6 References

Bloc recruitment[edit]
This term was coined by sociologist Anthony Oberschall.[4] Bloc recruitment refers to “the way in which social movement organizers often recruit members and participants among groups of individuals already organized for some other purpose.” [4] This strategy was advantageous to the Klan because it allowed them to recruit large groups of members from one source instead of being faced with the difficult task of recruiting individuals one by one. This strategy was also effective because it allowed the Klan to build upon the solidarity already in place from other organizations. The organizations that the KKK targeted for bloc recruitment were usually fraternal lodges and Protestant churches. Protestant ministers were offered free membership and powerful Chaplain status within the KKK. Recruitment also involved recruitment drives that toured the United States.[5] Members of organizations like churches and fraternal lodges, were easily accessible by Kleagles or Klan recruiters because they were already socially active in public issues through their involvement in these organizations. These recruitment efforts were very successful, as such, Klan membership soared. A primary recruitment leader during the 1920s, Edward Young Clark, supposedly reported that the Klan had gained 48,000 members in just three months.[2] Klan leaders took advantage of this success and used membership fees to finance large purchases such as the Klux Krest, a new home for Imperial Wizard William J. Simmons (founder of the 2nd KKK).[5]
Violence[edit]
In addition to recruitment drives and alliances with fraternal lodges and Protestant churches, the Klan also used controlled instances of violence to attract members.[2] Violence was pronounced in areas of high KKK activity. This intimidated opponents of the KKK and impressed future members. Violence was a method to demonstrate commitment to the Klan philosophy. Violence was used, however monitored closely by Klan Leaders to discourage government intervention and to “avoid a backlash from the general public that could damage recruiting efforts”.[6]
Charity work and recruitment[edit]
To off-set violent acts, the KKK participated in charitable activities. In 1922, the Klan “contributed $25 each to the Volunteers of America and to the African Methodist Episcopal Church, an offer which Webster said proved that the Klan was not anti-black”.[3] The charitable activities demonstrated that the KKK was committed to the welfare of the nation and also “served as an effective public relations device by creating a more favor- able opinion of the secret order and attracting new members”.:[3])
Other recruitment factors[edit]
The allure of the “invisible empire” and its public anonymity were also appeals for potential Klansmen.[2] In addition to the empowerment of membership in an empire that was secretive, Klansmen also enjoyed a kinship-like bond from membership. The activities and events Klan members were impressive to future recruits as they included family picnics and other social events that built solidarity.[2] As other fraternal like organizations the activities reinforced ideals but were also typical social events. These and many other factors made the Klan very appealing to white native-born Protestants during the 1920s.
See also[edit]
Ku Klux Klan
Kleagle
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b Newton, Michael and Judy Anne (1991). The Ku Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia, Garland Publishing, Inc., New York and London.
2.^ Jump up to: a b c d e McVeigh, R The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right Wing Movements and National Politics, University of Minnesota Press, Vol 32, 2009
3.^ Jump up to: a b c d Goldberg, R. The Ku Klux Klan in Madison, 1922-1927, The Wisconsin Magazine of History, Vol. 58, No. 1 (Autumn, 1974), pp. 31-44, JSTOR, Wisconsin Historical Society, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4634926
4.^ Jump up to: a b McVeigh, R. (2009).The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right Wing Movements and National Politics, University of Minnesota Press, Vol 32, p. 34
5.^ Jump up to: a b Quarles, C The Ku Klux Klan and related American Racialist and Anti-Semitic Organizations: A history and an analysis, McFarland and Company Inc. Publishing, 1999
6.Jump up ^ McVeigh, R (2009). The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right Wing Movements and National Politics, University of Minnesota Press, Vol 32, p. 166
  


Categories: Ku Klux Klan
Recruitment


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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_recruitment









Ku Klux Klan recruitment

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Kleagles are the individuals responsible for recruiting potential Ku Klux Klan (KKK) members. Kleagles, as defined by the Ku Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia, are organizers or recruiters, “appointed by imperial wizard or his imperial representative to ‘sell’ the KKK among non-members”.[1] These members were paid typically by commission and received a portion of each new member’s initiation fee.[1] Recruitment of new KKK members entailed framing economic, political and social structural changes in favor of and in line with KKK goals. These goals promoted “100 percent Americanism” and benefits for white native-born Protestants.[2] Informal ways Klansmen recruited members included “with eligible co-workers and personal friends and try to enlist them”.[3] Protestant teachers were also targeted for Klan membership.[3]


Contents  [hide]
1 Bloc recruitment
2 Violence
3 Charity work and recruitment
4 Other recruitment factors
5 See also
6 References

Bloc recruitment[edit]
This term was coined by sociologist Anthony Oberschall.[4] Bloc recruitment refers to “the way in which social movement organizers often recruit members and participants among groups of individuals already organized for some other purpose.” [4] This strategy was advantageous to the Klan because it allowed them to recruit large groups of members from one source instead of being faced with the difficult task of recruiting individuals one by one. This strategy was also effective because it allowed the Klan to build upon the solidarity already in place from other organizations. The organizations that the KKK targeted for bloc recruitment were usually fraternal lodges and Protestant churches. Protestant ministers were offered free membership and powerful Chaplain status within the KKK. Recruitment also involved recruitment drives that toured the United States.[5] Members of organizations like churches and fraternal lodges, were easily accessible by Kleagles or Klan recruiters because they were already socially active in public issues through their involvement in these organizations. These recruitment efforts were very successful, as such, Klan membership soared. A primary recruitment leader during the 1920s, Edward Young Clark, supposedly reported that the Klan had gained 48,000 members in just three months.[2] Klan leaders took advantage of this success and used membership fees to finance large purchases such as the Klux Krest, a new home for Imperial Wizard William J. Simmons (founder of the 2nd KKK).[5]
Violence[edit]
In addition to recruitment drives and alliances with fraternal lodges and Protestant churches, the Klan also used controlled instances of violence to attract members.[2] Violence was pronounced in areas of high KKK activity. This intimidated opponents of the KKK and impressed future members. Violence was a method to demonstrate commitment to the Klan philosophy. Violence was used, however monitored closely by Klan Leaders to discourage government intervention and to “avoid a backlash from the general public that could damage recruiting efforts”.[6]
Charity work and recruitment[edit]
To off-set violent acts, the KKK participated in charitable activities. In 1922, the Klan “contributed $25 each to the Volunteers of America and to the African Methodist Episcopal Church, an offer which Webster said proved that the Klan was not anti-black”.[3] The charitable activities demonstrated that the KKK was committed to the welfare of the nation and also “served as an effective public relations device by creating a more favor- able opinion of the secret order and attracting new members”.:[3])
Other recruitment factors[edit]
The allure of the “invisible empire” and its public anonymity were also appeals for potential Klansmen.[2] In addition to the empowerment of membership in an empire that was secretive, Klansmen also enjoyed a kinship-like bond from membership. The activities and events Klan members were impressive to future recruits as they included family picnics and other social events that built solidarity.[2] As other fraternal like organizations the activities reinforced ideals but were also typical social events. These and many other factors made the Klan very appealing to white native-born Protestants during the 1920s.
See also[edit]
Ku Klux Klan
Kleagle
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b Newton, Michael and Judy Anne (1991). The Ku Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia, Garland Publishing, Inc., New York and London.
2.^ Jump up to: a b c d e McVeigh, R The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right Wing Movements and National Politics, University of Minnesota Press, Vol 32, 2009
3.^ Jump up to: a b c d Goldberg, R. The Ku Klux Klan in Madison, 1922-1927, The Wisconsin Magazine of History, Vol. 58, No. 1 (Autumn, 1974), pp. 31-44, JSTOR, Wisconsin Historical Society, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4634926
4.^ Jump up to: a b McVeigh, R. (2009).The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right Wing Movements and National Politics, University of Minnesota Press, Vol 32, p. 34
5.^ Jump up to: a b Quarles, C The Ku Klux Klan and related American Racialist and Anti-Semitic Organizations: A history and an analysis, McFarland and Company Inc. Publishing, 1999
6.Jump up ^ McVeigh, R (2009). The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right Wing Movements and National Politics, University of Minnesota Press, Vol 32, p. 166
  


Categories: Ku Klux Klan
Recruitment


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Ku Klux Klan

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

"KKK" redirects here. For other uses, see KKK (disambiguation).
Ku Klux Klan
KKK.svg
Ku Klux Klan's emblem

In existence

1st Klan
1865–1870s
2nd Klan
1915–1944
3rd Klan
1946–present
Members

1st Klan
unknown
2nd Klan
3,000,000–6,000,000[1] (peaked in 1924–25)
3rd Klan
5,000-8,000[2]
Properties

Origin
United States of America
Political position
Far-right racism
Religion
Protestantism

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK), or simply "the Klan", includes three distinct movements in the United States. The first sought to overthrow the Republican state governments in the South during the Reconstruction Era, especially by violence against African American leaders. It ended about 1871. The second was a very large, controversial, nationwide organization in the 1920s that especially opposed Catholics. The current manifestation consists of numerous small unconnected groups that use the KKK name. They have all emphasized racism, secrecy and distinctive costumes. All have called for purification of American society, and all are considered part of right-wing extremism.[3][4]
The current manifestation is classified as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center.[5] It is estimated to have between 5,000 and 8,000 members as of 2012.[2]
The first Ku Klux Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes: robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be outlandish and terrifying, and to hide their identities.[6][7] The second KKK flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, and adopted a standard white costume (sales of which together with initiation fees financed the movement) and code words as the first Klan, while adding cross burnings and mass parades. It stressed opposition to the Catholic Church.[8] The third KKK emerged in the form of small local unconnected groups after 1950. They focused on opposition to the Civil Rights Movement, often using threats of violence. The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent reference to the America's "Anglo-Saxon" blood, harking back to 19th-century nativism.[9] Though most members of the KKK saw themselves as holding to American values and Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination officially denounced the Ku Klux Klan.[10]


Contents  [hide]
1 Overview: Three Klans 1.1 First KKK
1.2 Second KKK
1.3 Third KKK
2 First Klan: 1865–1871 2.1 Creation and naming
2.2 Activities
2.3 Resistance
2.4 End of first Klan
3 Second Klan: 1915–1944 3.1 Refounding in 1915 3.1.1 The Birth of a Nation
3.2 Goals
3.3 Organization
3.4 Moral threats
3.5 Rapid growth 3.5.1 Prohibition
3.6 Urbanization
3.7 Costumes and a burning cross
3.8 Women
3.9 Political role
3.10 Resistance and decline 3.10.1 Labor and anti-unionism
3.11 Historiography of the second Klan 3.11.1 Anti-modern interpretations
3.11.2 New social history interpretations
3.11.3 Indiana and Alabama

4 Later Klans: 1950–1960s 4.1 Resistance
5 Contemporary Klan: 1970s–present 5.1 Altercation with Communist Workers Party
5.2 Jerry Thompson infiltration
5.3 Tennessee shooting
5.4 Michael Donald lynching
5.5 Neo-Nazi alliances and Stormfront
5.6 Current developments
5.7 Current Klan organizations
5.8 Other countries
6 Titles and vocabulary
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading 9.1 Historiography
10 Further reading
11 External links

Overview: Three Klans
First KKK
The first Klan was founded in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee, by six veterans of the Confederate Army.[11] The name is probably derived from the Greek word kuklos (κύκλος) which means circle.[12]
Although there was little organizational structure above the local level, similar groups rose across the South and adopted the same name and methods.[13] Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement during the Reconstruction era in the United States. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies; it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the federal government passed the Force Acts, which were used to prosecute Klan crimes.[14] Prosecution of Klan crimes and enforcement of the Force Acts suppressed Klan activity.
The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives. It seriously weakened the black political establishment through its use of assassinations and threats of violence; it drove some carpetbaggers out of politics. On the other hand, it caused a sharp backlash and unleashed new federal laws that Foner says were a success in terms of "restoring order, reinvigorating the morale of Southern Republicans, and enabling blacks to exercise their rights as citizens."[15] historian George C. Rable argues that the Klan was a political failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic leaders of the South. He says:
the Klan declined in strength in part because of internal weaknesses; its lack of central organization and the failure of its leaders to control criminal elements and sadists. More fundamentally, it declined because it failed to achieve its central objective – the overthrow of Republican state governments in the South.[16]
Second KKK
See also: Ku Klux Klan in Canada
In 1915, the second Klan was founded in Atlanta, Georgia. Starting in 1921, it adopted a modern business system of using full-time paid recruiters. The national headquarters made its profit through a monopoly of costume sales, while the organizers were paid through initiation fees. It grew rapidly nationwide at a time of prosperity. Reflecting the social tensions pitting urban versus rural America, it spread to every state. The second KKK preached "One Hundred Percent Americanism" and demanded the purification of politics, calling for strict morality and better enforcement of prohibition. Its official rhetoric focused on the threat of the Catholic Church, using anti-Catholicism and nativism.[17] Its appeal was directed exclusively at white Protestants.[18] Some local groups threatened violence against rum runners and notorious sinners; the violent episodes were generally in the South.[19]
The second Klan was a formal fraternal organization, with a national and state structure. At its peak in the mid-1920s, the organization claimed to include about 15% of the nation's eligible population, approximately 4–5 million men. Internal divisions, criminal behavior by leaders, and external opposition brought about a collapse in membership, which had dropped to about 30,000 by 1930. It finally faded away in the 1940s.[20] Klan organizers also operated in Canada, especially in Saskatchewan in 1926-28, where Klansmen denounced immigrants from Eastern Europe as a threat to Canada's British heritage.[21][22]
Third KKK
The "Ku Klux Klan" name was used by a numerous independent local groups opposing the Civil Rights Movement and desegregation, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. During this period, they often forged alliances with Southern police departments, as in Birmingham, Alabama; or with governor's offices, as with George Wallace of Alabama.[23] Several members of KKK groups were convicted of murder in the deaths of civil rights workers and children in the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham. Today, researchers estimate that there may be 150 Klan chapters with upwards of 5,000 members nationwide.[24]
Today, many sources classify the Klan as a "subversive or terrorist organization".[25][26][27][28] In April 1997, FBI agents arrested four members of the True Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in Dallas for conspiracy to commit robbery and to blow up a natural gas processing plant.[29] In 1999, the city council of Charleston, South Carolina passed a resolution declaring the Klan to be a terrorist organization.[30] In 2004, a professor at the University of Louisville began a campaign to have the Klan declared a terrorist organization in order to ban it from campus.[31]
First Klan: 1865–1871
Creation and naming



 A cartoon threatening that the KKK would lynch carpetbaggers. From the Independent Monitor, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1868.
Six well-educated Confederate veterans from Pulaski, Tennessee created the original Ku Klux Klan on December 24, 1865, during the Reconstruction of the South after the Civil War.[32][33] The name was formed by combining the Greek kyklos (κύκλος, circle) with clan.[34] The group was known for a short time as the "Kuklux Clan". The Ku Klux Klan was one of a number of secret, oath-bound organizations using violence, which included the Southern Cross in New Orleans (1865) and the Knights of the White Camelia (1867) in Louisiana.[35]
Historians generally see the KKK as part of the post Civil War insurgent violence related not only to the high number of veterans in the population, but also to their effort to control the dramatically changed social situation by using extrajudicial means to restore white supremacy. In 1866, Mississippi Governor William L. Sharkey reported that disorder, lack of control and lawlessness were widespread; in some states armed bands of Confederate soldiers roamed at will. The Klan used public violence against blacks as intimidation. They burned houses, and attacked and killed blacks, leaving their bodies on the roads.[36]



 A political cartoon depicting the KKK and the Democratic Party as continuations of the Confederacy
At an 1867 meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, Klan members gathered to try to create a hierarchical organization with local chapters eventually reporting up to a national headquarters. Since most of the Klan's members were veterans, they were used to the hierarchical structure of the organization, but the Klan never operated under this centralized structure. Local chapters and bands were highly independent.



Nathan Bedford Forrest
Former Confederate Brigadier General George Gordon developed the Prescript, which espoused white supremacist belief. For instance, an applicant should be asked if he was in favor of "a white man's government", "the reenfranchisement and emancipation of the white men of the South, and the restitution of the Southern people to all their rights."[37] The latter is a reference to the Ironclad Oath, which stripped the vote from white persons who refused to swear that they had not borne arms against the Union. Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest became Grand Wizard, claiming to be the Klan's national leader.[11][38]
In an 1868 newspaper interview, Forrest stated that the Klan's primary opposition was to the Loyal Leagues, Republican state governments, people like Tennessee governor Brownlow and other ″carpetbaggers″ and ″scalawags″.[39] He argued that many southerners believed that blacks were voting for the Republican Party because they were being hoodwinked by the Loyal Leagues.[40] One Alabama newspaper editor declared "The League is nothing more than a nigger Ku Klux Klan."[41]
Despite Gordon’s and Forrest’s work, local Klan units never accepted the Prescript and continued to operate autonomously. There were never hierarchical levels or state headquarters. Klan members used violence to settle old feuds and local grudges, as they worked to restore white dominance in the disrupted postwar society. The historian Elaine Frantz Parsons describes the membership:
Lifting the Klan mask revealed a chaotic multitude of antiblack vigilante groups, disgruntled poor white farmers, wartime guerrilla bands, displaced Democratic politicians, illegal whiskey distillers, coercive moral reformers, sadists, rapists, white workmen fearful of black competition, employers trying to enforce labor discipline, common thieves, neighbors with decades-old grudges, and even a few freedmen and white Republicans who allied with Democratic whites or had criminal agendas of their own. Indeed, all they had in common, besides being overwhelmingly white, southern, and Democratic, was that they called themselves, or were called, Klansmen.[42]
Historian Eric Foner observed:
In effect, the Klan was a military force serving the interests of the Democratic party, the planter class, and all those who desired restoration of white supremacy. Its purposes were political, but political in the broadest sense, for it sought to affect power relations, both public and private, throughout Southern society. It aimed to reverse the interlocking changes sweeping over the South during Reconstruction: to destroy the Republican party’s infrastructure, undermine the Reconstruction state, reestablish control of the black labor force, and restore racial subordination in every aspect of Southern life.[43]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Interview with Nathan Bedford Forrest

To that end they worked to curb the education, economic advancement, voting rights, and right to keep and bear arms of blacks.[43] The Klan soon spread into nearly every southern state, launching a "reign of terror against Republican leaders both black and white. Those political leaders assassinated during the campaign included Arkansas Congressman James M. Hinds, three members of the South Carolina legislature, and several men who served in constitutional conventions."[44]
Activities



 Three Ku Klux Klan members arrested in Tishomingo County, Mississippi, September 1871, for the attempted murder of an entire family [45]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Why the Ku Klux

Klan members adopted masks and robes that hid their identities and added to the drama of their night rides, their chosen time for attacks. Many of them operated in small towns and rural areas where people otherwise knew each other's faces, and sometimes still recognized the attackers. "The kind of thing that men are afraid or ashamed to do openly, and by day, they accomplish secretly, masked, and at night."[46] The Ku Klux Klan night riders "sometimes claimed to be ghosts of Confederate soldiers so, as they claimed, to frighten superstitious blacks. Few freedmen took such nonsense seriously."[47]
The Klan attacked black members of the Loyal Leagues and intimidated southern Republicans and Freedmen's Bureau workers. When they killed black political leaders, they also took heads of families, along with the leaders of churches and community groups, because these people had many roles in society. Agents of the Freedmen's Bureau reported weekly assaults and murders of blacks. "Armed guerrilla warfare killed thousands of Negroes; political riots were staged; their causes or occasions were always obscure, their results always certain: ten to one hundred times as many Negroes were killed as whites." Masked men shot into houses and burned them, sometimes with the occupants still inside. They drove successful black farmers off their land. "Generally, it can be reported that in North and South Carolina, in 18 months ending in June 1867, there were 197 murders and 548 cases of aggravated assault."[48]



George W. Ashburn was assassinated for his pro-black sentiments.
Klan violence worked to suppress black voting. More than 2,000 persons were killed, wounded and otherwise injured in Louisiana within a few weeks prior to the Presidential election of November 1868. Although St. Landry Parish had a registered Republican majority of 1,071, after the murders, no Republicans voted in the fall elections. White Democrats cast the full vote of the parish for Grant's opponent. The KKK killed and wounded more than 200 black Republicans, hunting and chasing them through the woods. Thirteen captives were taken from jail and shot; a half-buried pile of 25 bodies was found in the woods. The KKK made people vote Democratic and gave them certificates of the fact.[49]
In the April 1868 Georgia gubernatorial election, Columbia County cast 1,222 votes for Republican Rufus Bullock. By the November presidential election, Klan intimidation led to suppression of the Republican vote and only one person voted for Ulysses S. Grant.[50]
Klansmen killed more than 150 African Americans in a county in Florida, and hundreds more in other counties. Freedmen's Bureau records provided a detailed recounting of Klansmen's beatings and murders of freedmen and their white allies.[51]
Milder encounters also occurred. In Mississippi, according to the Congressional inquiry:[52]

One of these teachers (Miss Allen of Illinois), whose school was at Cotton Gin Port in Monroe County, was visited ... between one and two o'clock in the morning on March 1871, by about fifty men mounted and disguised. Each man wore a long white robe and his face was covered by a loose mask with scarlet stripes. She was ordered to get up and dress which she did at once and then admitted to her room the captain and lieutenant who in addition to the usual disguise had long horns on their heads and a sort of device in front. The lieutenant had a pistol in his hand and he and the captain sat down while eight or ten men stood inside the door and the porch was full. They treated her "gentlemanly and quietly" but complained of the heavy school-tax, said she must stop teaching and go away and warned her that they never gave a second notice. She heeded the warning and left the county.
By 1868, two years after the Klan's creation, its activity was beginning to decrease.[53] Members were hiding behind Klan masks and robes as a way to avoid prosecution for freelance violence. Many influential southern Democrats feared that Klan lawlessness provided an excuse for the federal government to retain its power over the South, and they began to turn against it.[54] There were outlandish claims made, such as Georgian B. H. Hill stating "that some of these outrages were actually perpetrated by the political friends of the parties slain."[53]
Resistance
Union Army veterans in mountainous Blount County, Alabama, organized "the anti-Ku Klux". They put an end to violence by threatening Klansmen with reprisals unless they stopped whipping Unionists and burning black churches and schools. Armed blacks formed their own defense in Bennettsville, South Carolina and patrolled the streets to protect their homes.[55]
National sentiment gathered to crack down on the Klan, even though some Democrats at the national level questioned whether the Klan really existed or believed that it was just a creation of nervous Southern Republican governors.[56] Many southern states began to pass anti-Klan legislation.[57]
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Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871

In January 1871, Pennsylvania Republican Senator John Scott convened a Congressional committee which took testimony from 52 witnesses about Klan atrocities. They accumulated 12 volumes of horrifying testimony. In February, former Union General and Congressman Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts introduced the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Ku Klux Klan Act). This added to the enmity that southern white Democrats bore toward him.[58] While the bill was being considered, further violence in the South swung support for its passage. The Governor of South Carolina appealed for federal troops to assist his efforts in keeping control of the state. A riot and massacre in a Meridian, Mississippi, courthouse were reported, from which a black state representative escaped only by taking to the woods.[59] The 1871 Civil Rights Act allowed President Ulysses S. Grant to suspend Habeas Corpus.[60]



 Benjamin Franklin Butler wrote the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Klan Act)
In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant signed Butler's legislation. The Ku Klux Klan Act was used by the Federal government together with the 1870 Force Act, to enforce the civil rights provisions for individuals under the constitution. Under the 1871 Klan Act, after the Klan refused to voluntarily dissolve, Grant issued a suspension of Habeas Corpus, and stationed Federal troops in 9 South Carolina counties. The Klansmen were apprehended and prosecuted in court. Judges Hugh Lennox Bond and George S. Bryan presided over the trial of Ku Klux Klan members in Columbia, South Carolina during December 1871.[61] The defendants were sentenced to five years to three months incarceration with fines.[62] More African Americans served on juries in Federal court than were selected for local or state juries, so they had a chance to participate in the process.[60][63] In the crackdown, hundreds of Klan members were fined or imprisoned.
End of first Klan
Although Forrest boasted that the Klan was a nationwide organization of 550,000 men and that he could muster 40,000 Klansmen within five days' notice, as a secret or "invisible" group, it had no membership rosters, no chapters, and no local officers. It was difficult for observers to judge its actual membership.[64] It had created a sensation by the dramatic nature of its masked forays and because of its many murders.
In 1870 a federal grand jury determined that the Klan was a "terrorist organization".[65] It issued hundreds of indictments for crimes of violence and terrorism. Klan members were prosecuted, and many fled from areas that were under federal government jurisdiction, particularly in South Carolina.[66] Many people not formally inducted into the Klan had used the Klan's costume for anonymity, to hide their identities when carrying out acts of violence. Forrest called for the Klan to disband in 1869, arguing that the Klan was "being perverted from its original honorable and patriotic purposes, becoming injurious instead of subservient to the public peace".[67] Historian Stanley Horn argues that "generally speaking, the Klan's end was more in the form of spotty, slow, and gradual disintegration than a formal and decisive disbandment".[68] Moreover, a Georgia-based reporter wrote in 1870 that, "A true statement of the case is not that the Ku Klux are an organized band of licensed criminals, but that men who commit crimes call themselves Ku Klux".[69]



 Gov. William Holden of North Carolina.
In many states, officials were reluctant to use black militia against the Klan out of fear that racial tensions would be raised.[63] When Republican Governor of North Carolina William Woods Holden called out the militia against the Klan in 1870, it added to his unpopularity. Combined with violence and fraud at the polls, the Republicans lost their majority in the state legislature. Disaffection with Holden's actions led to white Democratic legislators' impeaching Holden and removing him from office, but their reasons were numerous.[70]
Klan operations ended in South Carolina[71] and gradually withered away throughout the rest of the South where it had gradually been faltering in prominence. Attorney General Amos Tappan Ackerman led the prosecutions.[72]
Foner argues that:
“ By 1872, the federal government's evident willingness to bring its legal and coercive authority to bear had broken the Klan's back and produced a dramatic decline in violence throughout the South. So ended the Reconstruction career of the Ku Klux Klan."[73] ”
However, in some areas, non-KKK local paramilitary organizations such as the White League, Red Shirts, saber clubs, and rifle clubs continued to intimidate and murder black political leaders.[74]
In 1882, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Harris that the Klan Act was partially unconstitutional. It ruled that Congress's power under the Fourteenth Amendment did not extend to the right to regulate against private conspiracies.[75]
Klan costumes, also called "regalia", disappeared from use by the early 1870s.[76] The fact that the Klan did not exist for decades was shown when Simmons's 1915 recreation of the Klan attracted only two aging "former Reconstruction Klansmen." All other members were new.[77] By 1872, the Klan was broken as an organization.[78]
Second Klan: 1915–1944
Refounding in 1915
In 1915 the film The Birth of a Nation was released, mythologising and glorifying the first Klan and its endeavors. The second Ku Klux Klan was founded in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons at Stone Mountain, outside Atlanta, with fifteen "charter members".[79] Its growth was based on a new anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, prohibitionist and antisemitic agenda, which developed in response to contemporary social tensions. The new organization and chapters adopted regalia featured in The Birth of a Nation.
The Birth of a Nation



 Movie poster for The Birth of a Nation. It has been widely noted for reviving the Ku Klux Klan.
Director D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation glorified the original Klan. His film was based on the book and play The Clansman and the book The Leopard's Spots, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr.
Much of the modern Klan's iconography, including the standardized white costume and the lighted cross, are derived from the film. Its imagery was based on Dixon's romanticized concept of old England and Scotland, as portrayed in the novels and poetry of Sir Walter Scott. The film's influence was enhanced by a purported endorsement by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, a Southerner. A Hollywood press agent claimed that after seeing the film Wilson said, "It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true." Historians doubt he said it.[80] Wilson felt betrayed by Dixon, who had been a classmate. Wilson's staff issued a denial, saying he was entirely unaware of the nature of the play before it was presented and at no time has expressed his approbation of it."[81]
The new Klan was inaugurated in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons on top of Stone Mountain. It was a small local organization until 1921. Simmons said he had been inspired by the original Klan's Prescripts, written in 1867 by Confederate veteran George Gordon, but they were never adopted by the first Klan.[82]
Goals



 Three Ku Klux Klan members standing at a 1922 parade.


 In this 1926 cartoon the Ku Klux Klan chases the Roman Catholic Church, personified by St. Patrick, from the shores of America. Among the "snakes" are various supposed negative attributes of the Church, including superstition, the union of church and state, control of public schools, and intolerance
The Second Klan saw threats from every direction. A religious tone was present in its activities; "two-thirds of the national Klan lecturers were Protestant ministers," says historian Brian R. Farmer.[83] Much of the Klan's energy went into guarding "the home;" the historian Kathleen Blee said its members wanted to protect "the interests of white womanhood."[84] The pamphlet ABC of the Invisible Empire, published in Atlanta by Simmons in 1917, identified the Klan's goals as "to shield the sanctity of the home and the chastity of womanhood; to maintain white supremacy; to teach and faithfully inculcate a high spiritual philosophy through an exalted ritualism; and by a practical devotedness to conserve, protect and maintain the distinctive institutions, rights, privileges, principles and ideals of a pure Americanism."[85]
Organization
The founder of the new Klan, William J. Simmons, joined twelve different fraternal organizations. He recruited for the Klan with his chest covered with fraternal badges, and consciously modeled the Klan after fraternal organizations.[86]
Klan organizers, called "Kleagles", signed up hundreds of new members, who paid initiation fees and received KKK costumes in return. The organizer kept half the money and sent the rest to state or national officials. When the organizer was done with an area, he organized a huge rally, often with burning crosses, and perhaps presented a Bible to a local Protestant preacher. He left town with the money collected. The local units operated like many fraternal organizations and occasionally brought in speakers.
Simmons initially met with little success in either recruiting members or in raising money, and the Klan remained a small operation in the Atlanta area until 1920.
Moral threats
The second Klan grew primarily in response to issues of declining morality as typified by divorce, adultery, defiance of prohibition, and criminal gangs In the news every day. Secondly, it was a response to the growing power of Catholics and American Jews with non-Protestant cultural values. By the mid 1920s the second Klan had a nationwide reach, with its densest per capita membership in Indiana. The Klan became most prominent in cities with high growth rates between 1910 and 1930, as rural Protestants flocked to jobs in Detroit, and Dayton in the Midwest; and Atlanta, Dallas, Memphis, and Houston in the South. In Michigan, close to half of the state's 80,000 Klansmen lived in Detroit.[87]
Rapid growth
In 1920 Simmons handed the day-to-day activities of the national office over to two professional publicists, Elizabeth Tyler and Edward Young Clarke.[88] The new leadership envigorated the Klan and it grew rapidly. It appealed to new members based on current social tensions, and stressed responses to fears raised by defiance of prohibition and new sexual freedoms. It emphasized anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant and later anti-Communist. It presented itself as a fraternal, nativist and strenuously patriotic organization; and its leaders emphasized support for vigorous enforcement of prohibition laws. It expanded membership dramatically; by the 1920s, most of its members lived in the Midwest and West. It had a national base by 1925. In the South, where the great majority of whites were Democrats, the Klansmen were Democrats. In the rest of the country, the membership comprised both Republicans and Democrats, as well as independents. Klan leaders tried to infiltrate political parties; as Cumnmings notes, " it was non- partisan in the sense that it pressed its nativist issues to both parties."[89] Historian Rory McVeigh has explained the Klan’s strategy in appealing to members of both parties:
Klan leaders hope to have all major candidates competing to win the movement's endorsement....The Klan’s leadership wanted to keep their options open and repeatedly announced that the movement was not aligned with any political party. This non-alliance strategy was also valuable as a recruiting tool. The Klan drew its members from Democratic as well as Republican voters. If the movement had aligned itself with a single political party, it would have substantially narrowed its pool of potential recruits.[90]
Religion was a major selling point. Baker argues that Klansmen seriously embraced Protestantism as an essential component of their white supremacist, anti-Catholic, and paternalistic formulation of American democracy and national culture. Their cross was a religious symbol, and their ritual honored Bibles and local ministers. No nationally prominent religious leader said he was a Klan member.[91]
Prohibition
Historians agree that the Klan's resurgence in the 1920s was aided by the national debate over prohibition.[92] The historian Prendergast says that the KKK's "support for Prohibition represented the single most important bond between Klansmen throughout the nation".[93] The Klan opposed bootleggers, sometimes with violence. In 1922, two hundred Klan members set fire to saloons in Union County, Arkansas. The national Klan office was established in Dallas, Texas, but Little Rock, Arkansas was the home of the Women of the Ku Klux Klan. The first head of this auxiliary was a former president of the Arkansas WCTU.[94][verification needed] Membership in the Klan and in other prohibition groups overlapped, and they often coordinated activities.[95]
Urbanization



 "The End" Referring to the end of Catholic influence in the US. Klansmen: Guardians of Liberty 1926
A significant characteristic of the second Klan was that it was an organization based in urban areas, reflecting the major shifts of population to cities in both the North and the South. In Michigan, for instance, 40,000 members lived in Detroit, where they made up more than half of the state's membership. Most Klansmen were lower- to middle-class whites who were trying to protect their jobs and housing from the waves of newcomers to the industrial cities: immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, who tended to be Catholic and Jewish in numbers higher than earlier groups of immigrants; and black and white migrants from the South. As new populations poured into cities, rapidly changing neighborhoods created social tensions. Because of the rapid pace of population growth in industrializing cities such as Detroit and Chicago, the Klan grew rapidly in the U.S. Midwest. The Klan also grew in booming Southern cities such as Dallas and Houston.[96]
In the medium-size industrial city of Worcester, Massachusetts in the 1920s, the Klan ascended to power quickly but declined as a result of opposition from the Catholic Church. There was no violence and the local newspaper ridiculed Klansmen as "night-shirt knights". Half of the members were Swedish American, including some first-generation immigrants. The ethnic and religious conflicts among more recent immigrants contributed to the rise of the Klan in the city. Swedish Protestants were struggling against Irish Catholics, who had been entrenched longer, for political and ideological control of the city.[97]
For some states, historians have obtained membership rosters of some local units and matched the names against city directory and local records to create statistical profiles of the membership. Big city newspapers were often hostile and ridiculed Klansmen as ignorant farmers. Detailed analysis from Indiana showed the rural stereotype was false for that state:

Indiana's Klansmen represented a wide cross section of society: they were not disproportionately urban or rural, nor were they significantly more or less likely than other members of society to be from the working class, middle class, or professional ranks. Klansmen were Protestants, of course, but they cannot be described exclusively or even predominantly as fundamentalists. In reality, their religious affiliations mirrored the whole of white Protestant society, including those who did not belong to any church.[98]
The Klan attracted people but most of them did not remain in the organization for long. Membership in the Klan turned over rapidly as people found out that it was not the group they wanted. Millions joined, and at its peak in the 1920s, the organization included about 15% of the nation's eligible population. The lessening of social tensions contributed to the Klan's decline.
Costumes and a burning cross



Cross burning was introduced by William J. Simmons, the founder of the second Klan in 1915.
The distinctive white costume permitted large-scale public activities – especially parades and cross-burning ceremonies while keeping secret the membership rolls. Sales of the costumes provided the main financing for the national organization, while initiation fees funded local and state organizers.
The second Klan embraced a burning Latin cross as a dramatic display of symbolism, with a tone of intimidation.[99] No crosses had been used as a symbol by the first Klan. Additionally, the cross was henceforth a representation of the Klan's Christian message. Thus, its lighting during meetings was often accompanied by prayer, the singing of hymns, and other overtly religious symbolism.[100]
In The Clansman novel Dixon had invented the notion that the first Klan had used fiery crosses. Film director Griffith brought this image to the screen in The Birth of a Nation. Simmons adopted the symbol wholesale from the movie. The symbol has been associated with the Klan ever since.[101]
Women
By the 1920s, the KKK developed a women's auxiliary, with chapters in many areas. Its activities included participation in parades, cross lighting, lectures, rallies, and boycotts of local businesses owned by Catholics and Jews. The Women's Klan was active in promoting prohibition, stressing liquor's negative impact on wives and children. Its efforts in public schools included distributing Bibles and petitioning for the dismissal of Roman Catholic teachers. As a result of the Women's Klan's efforts, Texas would not hire Catholic teachers to work in its public schools. As scandals rocked the Klan leadership late in the 1920s, the organization's popularity among both men and women dropped off sharply.[102]
Political role



 Sheet music to "We Are All Loyal Klansmen", 1923
The members of the first Klan in the South were exclusively Democrats. The second Klan expanded with new chapters in the Midwest and West, and reached both Republicans and Democrats, as well as men without a party affiliation. The KKK state organizations endorsed candidates from either party that supported its goals; Prohibition in particular helped the Klan and some Republicans to make common cause in the Midwest.
The Klan had numerous members in every part of the United States, but was particularly strong in the South and Midwest. At its peak, claimed Klan membership exceeded four million and comprised 20% of the adult white male population in many broad geographic regions, and 40% in some areas.[103] The Klan also moved north into Canada, especially Saskatchewan, where it opposed Catholics.[104]
In Indiana, members were American-born, white Protestants and covered a wide range of incomes and social levels. The Indiana Klan was perhaps the most powerful Ku Klux Klan in the nation. It claimed over 30% of white male Hoosiers.[105] In 1924 supported Republican Edward Jackson in his successful campaign for governor.[106]
Catholic and liberal Democrats—who were strongest in the northeastern cities—decided to make the Klan an issue at the 1924 Democratic National Convention in New York City. Their delegates proposed a resolution indirectly attacking the Klan; it was defeated by one vote out of 1100.[107] The leading candidates were William Gibbs McAdoo, a Protestant with a base in the South and West where the Klan was strong, and New York Governor Al Smith, a Catholic with a base in the large cities. After weeks of stalemate and bitter argumentation, both candidates withdrew in favor of a compromise candidate.[108][109]



 Two children wearing Ku Klux Klan robes and hoods stand on either side of Dr. Samuel Green, a Ku Klux Klan Grand Dragon, at Stone Mountain, Georgia on July 24, 1948.
In some states, such as Alabama and California, KKK chapters had worked for political reform. In 1924, Klan members were elected to the city council in Anaheim, California. The city had been controlled by an entrenched commercial-civic elite that was mostly German American. Given their tradition of moderate social drinking, the German Americans did not strongly support prohibition laws—the mayor had been a saloon keeper. Led by the minister of the First Christian Church, the Klan represented a rising group of politically oriented non-ethnic Germans who denounced the elite as corrupt, undemocratic and self-serving. The historian Christopher Cocoltchos says the Klansmen tried to create a model, orderly community. The Klan had about 1200 members in Orange County, California. The economic and occupational profile of the pro and anti-Klan groups shows the two were similar and about equally prosperous. Klan members were Protestants, as were most of their opponents, but the latter also included many Catholic Germans. Individuals who joined the Klan had earlier demonstrated a much higher rate of voting and civic activism than did their opponents. Cocoltchos suggests that many of the individuals in Orange County joined the Klan out of that sense of civic activism. The Klan representatives easily won the local election in Anaheim in April 1924. They fired known city employees who were Catholic and replaced them with Klan appointees. The new city council tried to enforce prohibition. After its victory, the Klan chapter held large rallies and initiation ceremonies over the summer.[110]
The opposition organized, bribed a Klansman for the secret membership list, and exposed the Klansmen running in the state primaries; they defeated most of the candidates. Klan opponents in 1925 took back local government, and succeeded in a special election in recalling the Klansmen who had been elected in April 1924. The Klan in Anaheim quickly collapsed, its newspaper closed after losing a libel suit, and the minister who led the local Klavern moved to Kansas.[110]
In the South, Klan members were still Democratic, as it was a one-party region for whites. Klan chapters were closely allied with Democratic police, sheriffs, and other functionaries of local government. Since disfranchisement of most African Americans and many poor whites around the start of the 20th century, the only political activity for whites took place within the Democratic Party.
In Alabama, Klan members advocated better public schools, effective prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other political measures to benefit lower-class white people. By 1925, the Klan was a political force in the state, as leaders such as J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black tried to build political power against the Black Belt planters, who had long dominated the state.[111] In 1926, with Klan support, Bibb Graves won the Alabama governor's office. He was a former Klan chapter head. He pushed for increased education funding, better public health, new highway construction, and pro-labor legislation. Because the Alabama state legislature refused to redistrict until 1972, and then under court order, the Klan was unable to break the planters' and rural areas' hold on legislative power. Scholars and biographers have recently examined Hugo Black's Klan role. Ball finds regarding the KKK that Black "sympathized with the group's economic, nativist, and anti-Catholic beliefs."[112] Newman says Black "disliked the Catholic Church as an institution" and gave over 100 anti-Catholic speeches in his 1926 election campaign to KKK meetings across Alabama.[113] Black was elected US senator in 1926 as a Democrat. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937 appointed Black to the Supreme Court without knowing how active in the Klan he had been in the 1920s. He was confirmed by his fellow Senators before the full KKK connection was known; Justice Black said he left the Klan when he became a senator.[114]
Resistance and decline



D. C. Stephenson, Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan. His conviction in 1925 for the murder of Madge Oberholtzer, a white schoolteacher, led to the decline of the Indiana Klan.
Many groups and leaders, including prominent Protestant ministers such as Reinhold Niebuhr in Detroit, spoke out against the Klan, gaining national attention. The Jewish Anti-Defamation League was formed in the early 20th century in response to attacks against Jewish Americans and the Klan's campaign to outlaw private schools. Opposing groups worked to penetrate the Klan's secrecy. After one civic group began to publish Klan membership lists, there was a rapid decline in members. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People created public education campaigns in order to inform people about Klan activities and lobbied in Congress against Klan abuses. After its peak in 1925, Klan membership in most areas began to decline rapidly.[96]
Specific events contributed to the decline as well. In Indiana, the scandal surrounding the 1925 murder trial of Grand Dragon D.C. Stephenson destroyed the image of the KKK as upholders of law and order. By 1926 the Klan was "crippled and discredited."[106] D. C. Stephenson was the Grand Dragon of Indiana and 22 northern states. In 1923 he had led the states under his control to separate from the national KKK organization. In his 1925 trial, he was convicted for second degree murder for his part in the rape, and subsequent death of Madge Oberholtzer.[115] After Stephenson's conviction, the Klan declined dramatically in Indiana. The historian Leonard Moore says that a failure in leadership caused the Klan's collapse:

Stephenson and the other salesmen and office seekers who maneuvered for control of Indiana's Invisible Empire lacked both the ability and the desire to use the political system to carry out the Klan's stated goals. They were uninterested in, or perhaps even unaware of, grass roots concerns within the movement. For them, the Klan had been nothing more than a means for gaining wealth and power. These marginal men had risen to the top of the hooded order because, until it became a political force, the Klan had never required strong, dedicated leadership. More established and experienced politicians who endorsed the Klan, or who pursued some of the interests of their Klan constituents, also accomplished little. Factionalism created one barrier, but many politicians had supported the Klan simply out of expedience. When charges of crime and corruption began to taint the movement, those concerned about their political futures had even less reason to work on the Klan's behalf.[116]
By 1920 Klan membership in Alabama dropped to less than 6,000. Small independent units continued to be active in the industrial city of Birmingham. In the late 1940s and 1950s, members launched a reign of terror by bombing the homes of upwardly mobile African Americans. Activism by such independent KKK groups increased as a reaction against the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.



 Ku Klux Klan members march down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. in 1928
In Alabama, KKK vigilantes launched a wave of physical terror in 1927. They targeted both blacks and whites for violation of racial norms and for perceived moral lapses.[117] This led to a strong backlash, beginning in the media. Grover C. Hall, Sr., editor of the Montgomery Advertiser from 1926, wrote a series of editorials and articles that attacked the Klan. (Today the paper says it "waged war on the resurgent [KKK]".)[118] Hall won a Pulitzer Prize for the crusade, the 1928 Editorial Writing Pulitzer, citing "his editorials against gangsterism, floggings and racial and religious intolerance."[119][120] Other newspapers kept up a steady, loud attack on the Klan, referring to the organization as violent and "un-American". Sheriffs cracked down on activities. In the 1928 presidential election, the state voters overcame initial opposition to the Catholic candidate Al Smith, and voted the Democratic Party line as usual.
Although in decline, a measure of the Klan's influence was its march along Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC in 1928.
Labor and anti-unionism
In southern cities such as Birmingham, Alabama, Klan members kept control of access to the better-paying industrial jobs and opposed unions. During the 1930s and 1940s, Klan leaders urged members to disrupt the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which advocated industrial unions and accepted African-American members, unlike earlier unions. With access to dynamite and using the skills from their jobs in mining and steel, in the late 1940s some Klan members in Birmingham used bombings in order to intimidate upwardly mobile blacks who moved into middle-class neighborhoods. "By mid-1949, there were so many charred house carcasses that the area [College Hills] was informally named Dynamite Hill."[121] Independent Klan groups remained active in Birmingham and violently opposed the Civil Rights Movement.[121]
In 1939, after years of the Great Depression, the Imperial Wizard Hiram Wesley Evans sold the national organization to James Colescott, an Indiana veterinarian, and Samuel Green, an Atlanta obstetrician. They could not revive the declining membership. In 1944, the IRS filed a lien for $685,000 in back taxes against the Klan, and Colescott dissolved the organization that year. Local Klan groups closed over the following years.[122]
After World War II, the folklorist and author Stetson Kennedy infiltrated the Klan; he provided internal data to media and law enforcement agencies. He also provided secret code words to the writers of the Superman radio program, resulting in episodes in which Superman took on the KKK. Kennedy stripped away the Klan's mystique and trivialized its rituals and code words, which may have contributed to the decline in Klan recruiting and membership.[123] In the 1950s, Kennedy wrote a bestselling book about his experiences, which further damaged the Klan.[124]
The following table shows the change in the Klan's estimated membership over time.[125] (The years given in the table represent approximate time periods.)


Year
Membership

1920
4,000,000 [126]
1924
6,000,000 
1930
30,000 
Historiography of the second Klan
The historiography of the second Klan of the 1920s can be sharply divided into two opposing interpretations, one based on elite sources and the other based on the new social history.[127][128] [129]
Anti-modern interpretations
The KKK was a secret organization; apart from a few top leaders the members never revealed their membership and wore masks in public. Investigators in the 1920s used KKK publicity, court cases, exposés by disgruntled Klansman, newspaper reports, and speculation to write stories about what the Klan was doing. Almost all the major newspapers and magazines were hostile. Published accounts exaggerated the official viewpoint of the Klan leadership, and repeated the interpretations of hostile newspapers and the Klan's enemies. There was almost no evidence regarding the actual behavior or beliefs of individual Klansmen. The resulting popular and scholarly interpretation of the Klan from the 1920s into recent decades, based on those sources, says Pegram, emphasized the Southern roots, and violent vigilante-style actions of the Klan in its efforts to turn back the clock of modernity. Scholars compared it to fascism, which in the 1920s took over Italy.[130] Pegram says this original interpretation:
Depicted the Klan movement as an irrational rebuke of modernity by undereducated, economically marginal bigots, religious zealots, and dupes willing to be manipulated by the Klan's cynical, mendacious leaders. It was, in this view, a movement of country parsons and small-town malcontents who were out of step with the dynamism of twentieth-century urban America."[131]
New social history interpretations
The "social history" revolution in historiography after the 1960s called for history from the bottom up, that would focus on the characteristics, beliefs, and behavior of the typical membership, and downplay claims from elite sources.[132][133] This approach was made possible by the discovery of membership lists and the minutes of local meetings from chapters scattered around the country. Historians apply the newest techniques of methodology to test the original interpretation. They discovered that the original interpretation was very largely mistaken about the membership and activities of the Klan. The membership was not anti-modern rural or rustic. It comprised fairly well educated middle-class joiners and community activists. Half the members lived in the fast-growing cities; Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia, Denver, and Portland, Oregon, were the Klan strongholds rather than the sleepy rural areas.[134]
Studies using the new social history find that in general, the membership was from the stable, successful middle classes, with few members drawn from the elite or the working classes. Pegram, reviewing the studies, concludes, "the popular Klan of the 1920s, while diverse, was more of a civic exponent of white Protestant social values than a repressive hate group."[135]
Indiana and Alabama
In Indiana, traditional political historians focused on notorious leaders, especially D. C. Stephenson, the Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan, whose conviction for 1925 kidnap, rape, and murder of Madge Oberholtzer helped destroy the Klu Klux Klan movement nationwide. By contrast new social historian Leonard Moore titled his monograph Citizen Klansmen, and contrasted the sordid and intolerant rhetoric of the group's leaders with that of its much better behaved membership. The Klan was indeed white Protestant, and was highly suspicious of Catholics, Jews and blacks who were accused of subverting the ideal Protestant moral standards. Violence was quite uncommon in the chapters. Threats and vocational actions were directed primarily against fellow white Protestants for transgressions of community moral standards, such as adultery, wife-beating, gambling and heavy drinking. Up to one third of Indiana's Protestant men joined the order making it, Moore argued, "a kind of interest group for average white Protestants who believed that their values should be dominant in their community and state.[136]
Moore goes on to say that they joined:
because it stood for the most organized means of resisting the social and economic forces that had transformed community life, undermined traditional values, and made average citizens feel more isolated from one another and more powerless in their relationships with the major institutions that governed their lives.[137]
In Alabama, the young urban activists, such as Hugo Black, were reformers fighting against the old guard in state politics. The Klan in rural Alabama also had much more recourse to violence.[138]
Later Klans: 1950–1960s
The name "Ku Klux Klan" began to be used by several independent groups. Beginning in the 1950s, for instance, individual Klan groups in Birmingham, Alabama, began to resist social change and blacks' efforts to improve their lives by bombing houses in transitional neighborhoods. There were so many bombings in Birmingham of blacks' homes by Klan groups in the 1950s that the city's nickname was "Bombingham".[23]
During the tenure of Bull Connor as police commissioner in the city, Klan groups were closely allied with the police and operated with impunity. When the Freedom Riders arrived in Birmingham, Connor gave Klan members fifteen minutes to attack the riders before sending in the police to quell the attack.[23] When local and state authorities failed to protect the Freedom Riders and activists, the federal government established effective intervention.
In states such as Alabama and Mississippi, Klan members forged alliances with governors' administrations.[23] In Birmingham and elsewhere, the KKK groups bombed the houses of civil rights activists. In some cases they used physical violence, intimidation and assassination directly against individuals. Continuing disfranchisement of blacks across the South meant that most could not serve on juries, which were all white.



 Goodman, Chaney, and Schwerner were three civil rights workers abducted and murdered by members of the Ku Klux Klan.
According to a report from the Southern Regional Council in Atlanta, the homes of 40 black Southern families were bombed during 1951 and 1952. Some of the bombing victims were social activists whose work exposed them to danger, but most were either people who refused to bow to racist convention or were innocent bystanders, unsuspecting victims of random violence.[139] Among the more notorious murders by Klan members:
The 1951 Christmas Eve bombing of the home of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) activists Harry and Harriette Moore in Mims, Florida, resulting in their deaths.[140]
The 1957 murder of Willie Edwards, Jr. Klansmen forced Edwards to jump to his death from a bridge into the Alabama River.[141]
The 1963 assassination of NAACP organizer Medgar Evers in Mississippi. In 1994, former Ku Klux Klansman Byron De La Beckwith was convicted.
The 1963 bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, which killed four African-American girls. The perpetrators were Klan members Robert Chambliss, convicted in 1977, Thomas Edwin Blanton, Jr. and Bobby Frank Cherry, convicted in 2001 and 2002. The fourth suspect, Herman Cash, died before he was indicted.
The 1964 murders of three civil rights workers, Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner, in Mississippi. In June 2005, Klan member Edgar Ray Killen was convicted of manslaughter.[142]
The 1964 murder of two black teenagers, Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore in Mississippi. In August 2007, based on the confession of Klansman Charles Marcus Edwards, James Ford Seale, a reputed Ku Klux Klansman, was convicted. Seale was sentenced to serve three life sentences. Seale was a former Mississippi policeman and sheriff's deputy.[143]
The 1965 Alabama murder of Viola Liuzzo. She was a Southern-raised Detroit mother of five who was visiting the state in order to attend a civil rights march. At the time of her murder Liuzzo was transporting Civil Rights Marchers.
The 1966 firebombing death of NAACP leader Vernon Dahmer Sr., 58, in Mississippi. In 1998 former Ku Klux Klan wizard Sam Bowers was convicted of his murder and sentenced to life. Two other Klan members were indicted with Bowers, but one died before trial, and the other's indictment was dismissed.
The 1967 multiple bombings in Jackson, Mississippi of the residence of a Methodist activist, Robert Kochtitzky, and those at the synagogue and at the residence of Rabbi Perry Nussbaum on Old Canton Road were executed by a Klan member named Thomas Albert Tarrants III who was convicted in 1968. Another Klan bombing was averted in Meridian the same year.[144]
Resistance
There was also resistance to the Klan. In 1953, newspaper publishers W. Horace Carter (Tabor City, NC), who had campaigned for three years, and Willard Cole (Whiteville, NC) shared the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service citing "their successful campaign against the Ku Klux Klan, waged on their own doorstep at the risk of economic loss and personal danger, culminating in the conviction of over one hundred Klansmen and an end to terrorism in their communities."[145] In a 1958 incident in North Carolina, the Klan burned crosses at the homes of two Lumbee Native Americans who had associated with white people, and they threatened to return with more men. When the KKK held a nighttime rally nearby, they were quickly surrounded by hundreds of armed Lumbees. Gunfire was exchanged, and the Klan was routed at what became known as the Battle of Hayes Pond.[146]
While the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had paid informants in the Klan, for instance in Birmingham in the early 1960s, its relations with local law enforcement agencies and the Klan were often ambiguous. The head of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, appeared more concerned about Communist links to civil rights activists than about controlling Klan excesses against citizens. In 1964, the FBI's COINTELPRO program began attempts to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights groups.[23]
As 20th-century Supreme Court rulings extended federal enforcement of citizens' civil rights, the government revived the Force Acts and the Klan Act from Reconstruction days. Federal prosecutors used these laws as the basis for investigations and indictments in the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner;[147] and the 1965 murder of Viola Liuzzo. They were also the basis for prosecution in 1991 in Bray v. Alexandria Women's Health Clinic.
Contemporary Klan: 1970s–present



 Violence at a Klan march in Mobile, Alabama, 1977
Once African Americans secured federal legislation to protect civil and voting rights, the KKK shifted its focus to opposing court-ordered busing to desegregate schools, affirmative action and more open immigration. In 1971, KKK members used bombs to destroy 10 school buses in Pontiac, Michigan.
Altercation with Communist Workers Party
Main article: Greensboro massacre
On November 3, 1979, five communist protesters were killed by KKK and American Nazi Party members in the Greensboro massacre in Greensboro, North Carolina.[148] This incident took place during the Death to the Klan rally sponsored by the Communist Workers Party, in their efforts to organize predominantly black industrial workers in the area.[149]
Jerry Thompson infiltration
Jerry Thompson, a newspaper reporter who infiltrated the KKK in 1979, reported that the FBI's COINTELPRO efforts were highly successful. Rival KKK factions accused each other's leaders of being FBI informants. Bill Wilkinson of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was revealed to have been working for the FBI.[150]
Thompson also related that KKK leaders who appeared indifferent to the threat of arrest showed great concern about a series of civil lawsuits filed by the Southern Poverty Law Center for damages amounting to millions of dollars. These were filed after KKK members shot into a group of African Americans. Klansmen curtailed activities to conserve money for defense against the lawsuits. The KKK also used lawsuits as tools; they filed a libel suit to prevent publication of a paperback edition of Thompson's book.
Tennessee shooting
In 1980, three KKK members shot four elderly black women (Viola Ellison, Lela Evans, Opal Jackson and Katherine Johnson) in Chattanooga, Tennessee, following a KKK initiation rally. A fifth woman, Fannie Crumsey, was injured by flying glass in the incident. Attempted murder charges were filed against the three KKK members, two of whom—Bill Church and Larry Payne—were acquitted by an all-white jury, and the other of whom—Marshall Thrash—was sentenced by the same jury to nine months on lesser charges. He was released after three months.[151][152][153] In 1982, a jury awarded the five women $535,000 in a civil rights trial.[154]
Michael Donald lynching
After Michael Donald was lynched in 1981 in Alabama, the FBI investigated his death and two local KKK members were convicted of having a role, including Henry Francis Hays, who was sentenced to death.[citation needed] With the support of attorneys Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), Donald's mother, Beulah Mae Donald, sued the KKK in civil court in Alabama. Her lawsuit against the United Klans of America was tried in February 1987. The all-white jury found the Klan responsible for the lynching of Donald and ordered the Klan to pay US$7 million.[citation needed] To pay the judgment, the KKK turned over all of its assets, including its national headquarters building in Tuscaloosa. After exhausting the appeals process, Hays was executed for Donald's death in Alabama on June 6, 1997. It was the first time since 1913 that a white man had been executed in Alabama for a crime against an African American.
Neo-Nazi alliances and Stormfront
Main article: Stormfront (website)
In 1995, Don Black and Chloê Hardin, former KKK Grand Wizard David Duke's ex-wife, began a small bulletin board system (BBS) called Stormfront. Today, Stormfront has become a prominent online forum for white nationalism, Neo-Nazism, hate speech, racism, and antisemitism.[155][156][157] Duke has an account on Stormfront which he uses to post articles from his own website, as well as polling forum members for opinions and questions, in particular during his internet broadcasts. Duke has worked with Don Black on numerous projects including Operation Red Dog in 1980.[158][159]
Current developments
The modern KKK is not one organization; rather it is composed of small independent chapters across the U.S.[160] The formation of independent chapters has made KKK groups more difficult to infiltrate, and researchers find it hard to estimate their numbers. Estimates are that about two-thirds of KKK members are concentrated in the Southern United States, with another third situated primarily in the lower Midwest.[161][162][163]
The Klan has expanded its recruitment efforts to white supremacists at the international level.[164] For some time the Klan's numbers are steadily dropping. This decline has been attributed to the Klan's lack of competence in the use of the Internet, their history of violence, a proliferation of competing hate groups, and a decline in the number of young racist activists who are willing to join groups at all.[165]
Recent membership campaigns have been based on issues such as people's anxieties about illegal immigration, urban crime, civil unions and same-sex marriage.[166] Akins argues that, "Klan literature and propaganda is rabidly homophobic and encourages violence against gays and lesbians....Since the late 1970s, the Klan has increasingly focused its ire on this previously ignored population.[167] Many KKK groups have formed strong alliances with other white supremacist groups, such as neo-Nazis. Some KKK groups have become increasingly "nazified", adopting the look and emblems of white power skinheads.[168]
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has provided legal support to various factions of the KKK in defense of their First Amendment rights to hold public rallies, parades, and marches, as well as their right to field political candidates.[169]
Current Klan organizations



 The flag of the Knights Party, the political branch of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.
A list is maintained by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL):[170]
Bayou Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, prevalent in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana and other areas of the Southern U.S.
Church of the American Knights of the Ku Klux Klan[161]
Imperial Klans of America[171]
Knights of the White Camelia[172]
Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, headed by national director and self-claimed pastor Thom Robb, and based in Zinc, Arkansas.[173] It claims to be the biggest Klan organization in America today.
Other countries
Aside from Canada, there have been various attempts to organise KKK chapters outside the United States. In Australia in the late 1990s, former One Nation founding member Peter Coleman established branches throughout the country,[174][175] and in recent years the KKK has attempted to infiltrate other political parties such as Australia First.[176] Recruitment activity has also been reported in the United Kingdom,[177][178] dating back to the 1960s when Robert Relf was involved in establishing a British KKK.[179]
In Germany a KKK-related group, the European White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, has organised and it gained notoriety in 2012 when it was widely reported in the German media that two police officers who held membership in the organisation would be allowed to keep their jobs.[180][181][182] A group was even established in Fiji in the early 1870s by white settlers, although it was put down by the British who, although not officially established as Fiji's colonial rulers, had played a leading role in establishing a new constitutional monarchy that was being threatened by the Fijian Klan.[183] In São Paulo, Brazil, the website of a group called Imperial Klans of Brazil was shut down in 2003, and the group's leader was arrested.[184]
Titles and vocabulary
Main article: Ku Klux Klan titles and vocabulary
Membership in the Klan is secret. Like many fraternal organizations, the Klan has signs which members can use to recognize one another. A member may use the acronym AYAK (Are you a Klansman?) in conversation to surreptitiously identify himself to another potential member. The response AKIA (A Klansman I am) completes the greeting.[185]
Throughout its varied history, the Klan has coined many words[186] beginning with "Kl" including:
Klabee - treasurers
Klavern - local organization
Imperial Kleagle - recruiter
Klecktoken - initiation fee
Kligrapp - secretary
Klonvocation - gathering
Kloran - ritual book
Kloreroe - delegate
Imperial Kludd - chaplain
All of the above terminology was created by William Joseph Simmons, as part of his 1915 revival of the Klan.[187] The Reconstruction-era Klan used different titles; the only titles to carry over were "Wizard" for the overall leader of the Klan and "Night Hawk" for the official in charge of security.
The Imperial Kludd was the chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and he performed "such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard."
The Imperial Kaliff was the second highest position after the Imperial Wizard.[188]
See also

Portal icon Discrimination portal
Anti-mask laws
Black Legion (political movement)
History of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey
Ku Klux Klan in Canada
Ku Klux Klan in Inglewood, California
Ku Klux Klan in Maine
Ku Klux Klan members in United States politics
Ku Klux Klan recruitment
Ku Klux Klan regalia and insignia
Leaders of the Ku Klux Klan
List of Ku Klux Klan organizations
List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
List of white nationalist organizations
Rosewood massacre
White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan
References
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3.Jump up ^ Rory McVeigh, The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (2009)
4.Jump up ^ Matthew N. Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America (2000) ch 3, 5, 13
5.Jump up ^ Both the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center include it in their lists of hate groups. See also Brian Levin, "Cyberhate: A Legal and Historical Analysis of Extremists' Use of Computer Networks in America" in Perry, Barbara, editor. Hate and Bias Crime: A Reader. p. 112 p. Google Books.
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7.Jump up ^ Elaine Frantz Parsons, "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". Journal of American History 92.3 (2005): 811–36.
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20.Jump up ^ Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College.
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28.Jump up ^ Brush, Pete (May 28, 2002). "Court Will Review Cross Burning Ban". CBS News. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
29.Jump up ^ Dallas.FBI.gov "Domestic terrorism by the Klan remained a key concern", FBI, Dallas office
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31.Jump up ^ "Ban the Klan? Professor has court strategy". Associated Press. May 21, 2004. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
32.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 9. The founders were John C. Lester, John B. Kennedy, James R. Crowe, Frank O. McCord, Richard R. Reed, and J. Calvin Jones.
33.Jump up ^ Fleming, Walter J., Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment, p. 27, 1905, Neale Publishing.
34.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 11, states that Reed proposed κύκλος (kyklos) and Kennedy added clan. Wade 1987, p. 33 says that Kennedy came up with both words, but Crowe suggested transforming κύκλος into kuklux.
35.Jump up ^ W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 679–680.
36.Jump up ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, p. 671–675.
37.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan, Organization and Principles, 1868". State University of New York at Albany.
38.Jump up ^ Wills, Brian Steel (1992). A Battle from the Start: The Life of Nathan Bedford Forrest. New York, New York: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 336. ISBN 0-06-092445-4.
39.Jump up ^ The Sun. "Civil War Threatened in Tennessee." September 3, 1868: 2; The Charleston Daily News. "A Talk with General Forrest." September 8, 1868: 1.
40.Jump up ^ Cincinnati Commercial, August 28, 1868, quoted in Wade, 1987.
41.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 27.
42.Jump up ^ Parsons 2005, p. 816.
43.^ Jump up to: a b Foner 1988, p. 425–426.
44.Jump up ^ Foner 1988, p. 342.
45.Jump up ^ "History of the Ku Klux Klan - Preach the Cross". preachthecross.net. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
46.Jump up ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 677–678.
47.Jump up ^ Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988) p. 432.
48.Jump up ^ Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880 pp. 674–675.
49.Jump up ^ Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, pp.680–681.
50.Jump up ^ Bryant, Jonathan M. "Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Georgia Southern University.
51.Jump up ^ Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida, pp. 1–30. Newton quotes from the Testimony Taken by the Joint Select Committee to Enquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States, Vol. 13. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1872. Among historians of the Klan, this volume is also known as The KKK testimony.
52.Jump up ^ Rhodes 1920, pp. 157–158.
53.^ Jump up to: a b Horn 1939, p. 375.
54.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 102.
55.Jump up ^ Foner 1988, p. 435.
56.Jump up ^ Wade 1987.
57.Jump up ^ Ranney, Joseph A (Jan 1, 2006). In the Wake of Slavery: Civil War, Civil Rights, and the Reconstruction of Southern Law. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 57–58. ISBN 0275989720.
58.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 373.
59.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 88.
60.^ Jump up to: a b Scaturro, Frank (October 26, 2006). "The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, 1869–1877". The College of St. Scholastica. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
61.Jump up ^ p. 5, United States Circuit Court (4th Circuit). Proceedings in the Ku Klux Trials at Columbia, S.C. in the United States Circuit Court. Edited by Benn Pitman and Louis Freeland Post. Columbia, SC: Republican Printing Company, 1872.
62.Jump up ^ The New York Times. "Kuklux Trials — Sentence of the Prisoners." December 29, 1871.
63.^ Jump up to: a b Wormser, Richard. "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow—The Enforcement Acts (1870–1871)". Public Broadcasting Service.
64.Jump up ^ The New York Times. "N. B. Forrest." September 3, 1868.
65.Jump up ^ "White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction by Allen W. Trelease (Louisiana State University Press: 1995)".
66.Jump up ^ Trelease 1995.
67.Jump up ^ Quotes from Wade 1987.
68.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 360.
69.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 362.
70.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 85.
71.Jump up ^ Wade, p. 102.
72.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 109, writes that by ca. 1871–1874, "For many, the lapse of the enforcement acts was justified since their reason for being—the Ku-Klux Klan—had been effectively smashed as a result of the dramatic showdown in South Carolina".
73.Jump up ^ Foner, Reconstruction (1988) p. 458-459.
74.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 109–110.
75.Jump up ^ Balkin, Jack M. (2002). "History Lesson" (PDF). Yale University.
76.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 109
77.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 144.
78.Jump up ^ "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow: The Enforcement Acts, 1870–1871", Public Broadcast Service. Retrieved April 5, 2008.
79.Jump up ^ "The Various Shady Lives of the Ku Klux Klan". Time magazine. April 9, 1965. "An itinerant Methodist preacher named William Joseph Simmons started up the Klan again in Atlanta in 1915. Simmons, an ascetic-looking man, was a fetishist on fraternal organizations. He was already a "colonel" in the Woodmen of the World, but he decided to build an organization all his own. He was an effective speaker, with an affinity for alliteration; he had preached on "Women, Weddings and Wives," "Red Heads, Dead Heads and No Heads," and the "Kinship of Kourtship and Kissing." On Thanksgiving Eve 1915, Simmons took 15 friends to the top of Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, built an altar on which he placed an American flag, a Bible and an unsheathed sword, set fire to a crude wooden cross, muttered a few incantations about a "practical fraternity among men," and declared himself Imperial Wizard of the Invisible Empire of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan."
80.Jump up ^ Dray 2002, p. 198. Griffith quickly relayed the comment to the press, where it was widely reported.
81.Jump up ^ John Milton Cooper, Jr. (2011). Woodrow Wilson: A Biography. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 273.
82.Jump up ^ Chester L. Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan and Related American Racialist and Antisemitic Organizations: A History and Analysis, p. 219. The second Klan's constitution and preamble attributed debt to the original Klan's Prescripts.
83.Jump up ^ Brian R. Farmer, American Conservatism: History, Theory and Practice (2005), p. 208.
84.Jump up ^ Kathleen M. Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (2008), p. 47.
85.Jump up ^ McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-8050-8906-6.
86.Jump up ^ "Nation: The Various Shady Lives of The Ku Klux Klan". TIME. April 9, 1965. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
87.Jump up ^ Jackson 1967, p. 241.
88.Jump up ^ Michael Newton, The Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi: a history, p. 70.
89.Jump up ^ Stephen D. Cummings (2008). Red States, Blue States, and the Coming Sharecropper Society. p. 119.
90.Jump up ^ Rory McVeigh (2009). The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-wing Movements and National Politics. U of Minnesota Press. p. 184.
91.Jump up ^ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915–1930 (University Press of Kansas, 2011)
92.Jump up ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American, pp. 119-56.
93.Jump up ^ Prendergast 1987, pp. 25–52, 27.
94.Jump up ^ Lender et al. 1982, p. 33.
95.Jump up ^ Barr 1999, p. 370.
96.^ Jump up to: a b Jackson 1992.
97.Jump up ^ Emily Parker, "'Night-Shirt Knights' in the City: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Worcester, Massachusetts", New England Journal of History, Fall 2009, Vol. 66 Issue 1, pp. 62–78.
98.Jump up ^ Moore 1991.
99.Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (May 29, 2002). "Supreme Court Roundup; Free Speech or Hate Speech? Court Weighs Cross Burning". New York Times. Retrieved February 20, 2010.
100.Jump up ^ Wade, Wyn Craig (1998). The fiery cross: the Ku Klux Klan in America. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-19-512357-9. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
101.Jump up ^ Cecil Adams (June 18, 1993). "Why does the Ku Klux Klan burn crosses?". The Straight Dope. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
102.Jump up ^ Kathleen M. Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (University of California Press, 2008).
103.Jump up ^ Marty Gitlin, The Ku Klux Klan: A Guide to an American Subculture (2009) p. 20.
104.Jump up ^ Julian Sher, White Hoods: Canada's Ku Klux Klan (1983)
105.Jump up ^ "Indiana History Chapter Seven". Northern Indiana Center for History. Archived from the original on April 11, 2008. Retrieved October 7, 2008.
106.^ Jump up to: a b "Ku Klux Klan in Indiana". Indiana State Library. November 2000. Retrieved September 27, 2009.
107.Jump up ^ Robert A. Slayton, Empire Statesman: The Rise and Redemption of Al Smith (2001) pp 211-13
108.Jump up ^ Allen, Lee N. (1963). "The McAdoo Campaign for the Presidential Nomination in 1924". Journal of Southern History 29 (2): 211–228. JSTOR 2205041.
109.Jump up ^ Craig, Douglas B. (1992). After Wilson: The Struggle for the Democratic Party, 1920–1934. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ch. 2–3. ISBN 0-8078-2058-X.
110.^ Jump up to: a b Christopher N. Cocoltchos, "The Invisible Empire and the Search for the Orderly Community: The Ku Klux Klan in Anaheim, California", in Shawn Lay, ed. The invisible empire in the West (2004), pp. 97-120.
111.Jump up ^ Feldman 1999.
112.Jump up ^ Howard Ball, Hugo L. Black: cold steel warrior (1996) p. 16
113.Jump up ^ Roger K. Newman, Hugo Black: a biography (1997) pp 87, 104
114.Jump up ^ Ball, Hugo L. Black: cold steel warrior (1996) p. 96
115.Jump up ^ "D. C. Stephenson manuscript collection". Indiana Historical Society. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
116.Jump up ^ Moore 1991, p. 186
117.Jump up ^ Rogers et al., pp. 432–433.
118.Jump up ^ "History of the Montgomery Advertiser". Montgomery Advertiser: a Gannett Company. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
119.Jump up ^ Rogers et al., p. 433.
120.Jump up ^ "Editorial Writing". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
121.^ Jump up to: a b Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution, New York: Touchstone Book, 2002, p. 75.
122.Jump up ^ "Georgia Orders Action to Revoke Charter of Klan. Federal Lien Also Put on File to Collect Income Taxes Dating Back to 1921. Governor Warns of a Special Session if Needed to Enact 'De-Hooding' Measures Tells of Phone Threats Georgia Acts to Crush the Klan. Federal Tax Lien Also Is Filed". New York Times. May 31, 1946. Retrieved January 12, 2010. "Governor Ellis Arnall today ordered the State's legal department to bring action to revoke the Georgia charter of the Ku Klux Klan. ... 'It is my further information that on June 4, 1944, the Ku Klux Klan ..."
123.Jump up ^ von Busack, Richard. "Superman Versus the KKK". MetroActive.
124.Jump up ^ Kennedy 1990.
125.Jump up ^ "The Ku Klux Klan, a brief biography". The African American Registry. Retrieved July 19, 2012. and Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College.
126.Jump up ^ "The Various Shady Lives of The Ku Klux Klan". TIME. April 9, 1965. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
127.Jump up ^ Craig Fox, "Changing interpretations of the 1920s Klan: A selected historiography" in Fox, Everyday Klansfolk: White Protestant Life and the KKK in 1920s Michigan (2012), Introduction online
128.Jump up ^ Thomas R. Pegram (2011). One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. Ivan R. Dee. pp. 221–28.
129.Jump up ^ Jesse Walker, "Hooded Progressivism: The secret reformist history of the Ku Klux Klan," Reason.com December 2, 2005 online
130.Jump up ^ The best scholarly study in this approach is David M. Chalmers, Hooded Americanism: The First Century of the Ku Klux Klan, 1865-1965 (1965), with excellent national and state coverage.
131.Jump up ^ Pegram. One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. p. 222.
132.Jump up ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American p 225
133.Jump up ^ Leonard J. Moore, "Good Old-Fashioned New Social History and the Twentieth-Century American Right." Reviews in American History (1996) 24#4 pp: 555-573 online.
134.Jump up ^ Kenneth T. Jackson, The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915-1930 (1967)
135.Jump up ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American p.225
136.Jump up ^ Leonard J. Moore (1997). Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921-1928. U. North Carolina Press. p. 188.
137.Jump up ^ Moore, Citizen Klansmen p 188
138.Jump up ^ Glenn Feldman, Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915-1949 (1999)
139.Jump up ^ Egerton 1994, p. 562–563.
140.Jump up ^ "Who Was Harry T. Moore?" — The Palm Beach Post, August 16, 1999.
141.Jump up ^ Cox, Major W. (March 2, 1999). "Justice Still Absent in Bridge Death". Montgomery Advertiser.[dead link]
142.Jump up ^ Axtman, Kris (June 23, 2005). "Mississippi verdict greeted by a generation gap". The Christian Science Monitor.
143.Jump up ^ "Reputed Klansman, Ex-Cop, and Sheriff's Deputy Indicted For The 1964 Murders of Two Young African-American Men in Mississippi; U.S. v. James Ford Seale". January 24, 2007. Retrieved March 23, 2008.
144.Jump up ^ Nelson, Jack. (1993). Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 208-211. ISBN 0671692232.
145.Jump up ^ "Public Service". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
146.Jump up ^ Ingalls 1979; Graham, Nicholas (January 2005). "January 1958 – The Lumbees face the Klan". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
147.Jump up ^ Simon, Dennis M. "The Civil Rights Movement, 1964–1968". Southern Methodist University.
148.Jump up ^ "Remembering the 1979 Greensboro Massacre: 25 Years Later Survivors Form Country's First Truth and Reconciliation Commission". Democracy Now. November 18, 2004. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
149.Jump up ^ Mark Hand (November 18, 2004). "The Greensboro Massacre". Press Action.
150.Jump up ^ Thompson 1982.
151.Jump up ^ The White Separatist Movement in the United States: "White Power, White Pride!", by Betty A. Dobratz & Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile. November 2000. ISBN 978-0-8018-6537-4. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
152.Jump up ^ "Women's Appeal for Justice in Chattanooga – US Department of Justice" (PDF). Retrieved February 20, 2011.
153.Jump up ^ "The Victoria Advocate: Bonds for Klan Upheld". News.google.com. April 22, 1980. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
154.Jump up ^ UPI (February 28, 1982). "New York Times: History Around the Nation; Jury Award to 5 Blacks Hailed as Blow to Klan". Nytimes.com (Tennessee; Chattanooga (Tenn)). Retrieved February 20, 2011.
155.Jump up ^ "RedState, White Supremacy, and Responsibility", Daily Kos, December 5, 2005.
156.Jump up ^ Bill O'Reilly, "Circling the Wagons in Georgia", Fox News Channel, May 8, 2003.
157.Jump up ^ "WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center: Case No. DTV2001-0023", World Intellectual Property Organization, January 13, 2002.
158.Jump up ^ Captmike works undercover with the US Government to stop the invasion of the Island Nation of Dominica, manana.com.
159.Jump up ^ Operation Red Dog: Canadian neo-nazis were central to the planned invasion of Dominica in 1981,[dead link] canadiancontent.ca.
160.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. According to the report, the KKK's estimated size then was "No more than a few thousand, organized into slightly more than 100 units."
161.^ Jump up to: a b "Church of the American Knights of the KKK". Anti-Defamation League. October 22, 1999. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
162.Jump up ^ "Active U.S. Hate Groups". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center.
163.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
164.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan warns race war if Obama wins". Sify News. November 3, 2008. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
165.Jump up ^ Palmer, Brian (March 8, 2012). "Ku Klux Kontraction: How did the KKK lose nearly one-third of its chapters in one year?". Slate Magazine. Retrieved March 25, 2012.
166.Jump up ^ Knickerbocker, Brad (February 9, 2007). "Anti-Immigrant Sentiments Fuel Ku Klux Klan Resurgence". The Christian Science Monitor.
167.Jump up ^ Akins, J. Keith (January 2006). "The Ku Klux Klan: America's Forgotten Terrorists". Law Enforcement Executive Forum. p. 137.
168.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan – Affiliations – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
169.Jump up ^ See, e.g., "A.C.L.U. Lawsuit Backs Klan In Seeking Permit for Cross". The New York Times. December 16, 1993. (accessed August 2009); "ACLU Defends KKK, Wins". Channel3000. January 4, 1999. Retrieved July 28, 2010. The ACLU professes a mission to defend the constitutional rights of all groups, whether left, center, or right.
170.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America – Active Groups (by state)". adl.org. Anti-Defamation League. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
171.Jump up ^ "No. 2 Klan group on trial in Ky. teen's beating". Associated Press. November 11, 2008. Retrieved November 22, 2008.
172.Jump up ^ "White Camelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan – Home page". wckkkk.org. White Camelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
173.Jump up ^ "Arkansas Klan Group Loses Legal Battle with North Carolina Newspaper". Anti-Defamation League. July 9, 2009. Retrieved August 15, 2008.
174.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan sets up Australian branch". BBC News. June 2, 1999. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
175.Jump up ^ Ansley, Greg (June 5, 1999). "Dark mystique of the KKK". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
176.Jump up ^ Jensen, Erik (July 10, 2009). "We have infiltrated party: KKK". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
177.Jump up ^ Hosken, Andy (June 10, 1999). "KKK plans 'infiltration' of the UK". BBC News. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
178.Jump up ^ Parry, Ryan (October 19, 2011). "We expose vile racist biker as British leader of the Ku Klux Klan". Daily Mail. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
179.Jump up ^ Peter Barberis, John McHugh, Mike Tyldesley, Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations, 2002, p. 184
180.Jump up ^ German Police Kept Jobs Despite KKK Involvement, Der Spiegel
181.Jump up ^ Ku Klux Klan: German Police Officers Allowed to Stay on Job Despite Links with European Branch of White Supremacists, International Business Times
182.Jump up ^ 'KKK cops' scandal uncovered amid German neo-Nazi terror probe, Russia Today
183.Jump up ^ Kim Gravelle, Fiji's Times: A History of Fiji, Suva: The Fiji Times, 1988, pp. 120-124
184.Jump up ^ Jovem ligado à Ku Klux Klan é detido em São Paulo
185.Jump up ^ "A Visual Database of Extremist Symbols, Logos and Tattoos". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
186.Jump up ^ Axelrod 1997, p. 160.
187.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 142. "'It was rather difficult, sometimes, to make the two letters fit in,' he recalled later, 'but I did it somehow.'"
188.Jump up ^ Chester L. Quarles (1999). The Ku Klux Klan and related American racialist and antisemitic organizations. McFarland Publishing. ISBN 0-7864-0647-X. "Imperial Kludd: Is the Chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and shall perform such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard ..."
Further reading
Axelrod, Alan (1997). The International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies & Fraternal Orders. New York: Facts On File.
Baker, Kelly J. Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915-1930 (University Press of Kansas, 2011) ISBN 978-0700617920.
Barr, Andrew (1999). Drink: A Social History of America. New York: Carroll & Graf.
Chalmers, David M. (1987). Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan. Durahm, N.C.: Duke University Press. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-8223-0730-3.
Chalmers, David M. (2003). Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement. ISBN 0-7425-2310-1.
Cunningham, David. Klansville, USA: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-Era Ku Klux Klan (Oxford University Press, 2013). 360pp.
Dray, Philip (2002). At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America. New York: Random House.
Egerton, John (1994). Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South. Alfred and Knopf Inc.
Feldman, Glenn (1999). Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press.
Fleming, Walter J. Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment (1905)
Foner, Eric (1989). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. Perennial (HarperCollins).
Fox, Craig. Everyday Klansfolk: White Protestant Life and the KKK in 1920s Michigan (Michigan State University Press, 2011), 274 pp. ISBN 978-0-87013-995-6.
Franklin, John Hope (1992). Race and History: Selected Essays 1938–1988. Louisiana State University Press.
Fryer, Roland G., Jr; Levitt, Steven D. (September 2007), Hatred and Profits: Getting Under the Hood of the Ku Klux Klan, National Bureau of Economic Research, retrieved 22 January 2015
Horn, Stanley F. (1939). Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871. Montclair, New Jersey: Patterson Smith Publishing Corporation.
Ingalls, Robert P. (1979). Hoods: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Jackson, Kenneth T. (1967). The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (1992 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Kennedy, Stetson (1990). The Klan Unmasked. University Press of Florida.
McVeigh, Rory. The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (2009), on 1920s.
Lender, Mark E.; Martin, James K. (1982). Drinking in America. New York: Free Press.
Lewis, George. ""An Amorphous Code": The Ku Klux Klan and Un-Americanism, 1915–1965." Journal of American Studies (2013) 47#4 pp: 971-992.
McWhorter, Diane (2001). Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Moore, Leonard J. (1991). Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Newton, Michael; Newton, Judy Ann (1991). The Ku Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia. New York & London: Garland Publishing.
Parsons, Elaine Frantz (2005). "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". The Journal of American History 92 (3): 811–836. doi:10.2307/3659969.
Pegram, Thomas R. One hundred percent American: the rebirth and decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (Rowman & Littlefield, 2011)
Pitsula, James M. Keeping Canada British: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Saskatchewan (University of British Columbia Press, 2013)
Prendergast, Michael L. (1987). "A History of Alcohol Problem Prevention Efforts in the United States". In Holder, Harold D. Control Issues in Alcohol Abuse Prevention: Strategies for States and Communities. Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press.
Rhodes, James Ford (1920). History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896 7. Winner of the 1918 Pulitzer Prize for history.
Rogers, William; Ward, Robert; Atkins, Leah; Flynt, Wayne (1994). Alabama: The History of a Deep South State. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press.
Steinberg, Alfred (1962). The man from Missouri; the life and times of Harry S. Truman. New York: Putnam. OCLC 466366.
Taylor, Joe G. (1974). Louisiana Reconstructed, 1863–1877. Baton Rouge.
Thompson, Jerry (1982). My Life in the Klan. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-12695-3.
Trelease, Allen W. (1995). White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction. Louisiana State University Press.
Wade, Wyn Craig. The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (Oxford University Press, 1998)
Historiography
Eagles, Charles W. "Urban‐Rural Conflict in the 1920s: A Historiographical Assessment." Historian (1986) 49#1 pp: 26-48.
Horowitz, David A. "The Normality of Extremism: The Ku Klux Klan Revisited." Society (1998) 35#6 pp: 71-77.
Lay, Shawn, ed. "The invisible empire in the west: Toward a new historical appraisal of the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s" (University of Illinois Press, 2004)
Lewis, Michael, and Jacqueline Serbu. "Kommemorating the Ku Klux Klan." Sociological Quarterly (1999) 40#1: 139-158. Deals with the memory of the KKK in Pulaski, Tennessee. Online
Moore, Leonard J. "Historical Interpretations of the 1920's Klan: The Traditional View and the Populist Revision" Journal of Social History (1990) 24#2 pp 341–357.
Sneed, Edgar P. "A Historiography of Reconstruction in Texas: Some Myths and Problems." Southwestern Historical Quarterly (1969): 435-448. in JSTOR
Further reading
Blee, Kathleen M. (1992). Women of the Klan. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07876-4.
Brooks, Michael E. The Ku Klux Klan in Wood County, Ohio. Charleston: The History Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1626193345.
Cunningham, David. Klansville, USA: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-Era Ku Klux Klan. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
"White supremacist groups flourishing". Gainesville Press. Associated Press. February 6, 2007.
Nelson, Jack (1993). Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69223-2.
Chalmers, David M. (2003). Backfire: how the Ku Klux Klan helped the civil rights movement. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-2310-1.
External links
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ku Klux Klan.
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Portal:Ku Klux Klan

Prescript of the * * first edition of the Klans 1867 prescript
Revised and Amended Prescript of the Order of the * * * first edition of the Klans 1868 prescript
Civil Rights Greensboro
The Ku Klux Klan in Washington State, from the Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, examines the influence of the second KKK in the State during the 1920s.
"Ku Klux Klan", Southern Poverty Law Center
"KKK", Anti-Defamation League
"Inside Today's KKK", multimedia, Life magazine, April 13, 2009
Interview with Stanley F. Horn, author of Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871 (1939), Forest History Society, Inc., May 1978
Booknotes interview with Jack Nelson on Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews, February 7, 1993


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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan








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Ku Klux Klan

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"KKK" redirects here. For other uses, see KKK (disambiguation).
Ku Klux Klan
KKK.svg
Ku Klux Klan's emblem

In existence

1st Klan
1865–1870s
2nd Klan
1915–1944
3rd Klan
1946–present
Members

1st Klan
unknown
2nd Klan
3,000,000–6,000,000[1] (peaked in 1924–25)
3rd Klan
5,000-8,000[2]
Properties

Origin
United States of America
Political position
Far-right racism
Religion
Protestantism

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK), or simply "the Klan", includes three distinct movements in the United States. The first sought to overthrow the Republican state governments in the South during the Reconstruction Era, especially by violence against African American leaders. It ended about 1871. The second was a very large, controversial, nationwide organization in the 1920s that especially opposed Catholics. The current manifestation consists of numerous small unconnected groups that use the KKK name. They have all emphasized racism, secrecy and distinctive costumes. All have called for purification of American society, and all are considered part of right-wing extremism.[3][4]
The current manifestation is classified as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center.[5] It is estimated to have between 5,000 and 8,000 members as of 2012.[2]
The first Ku Klux Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes: robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be outlandish and terrifying, and to hide their identities.[6][7] The second KKK flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, and adopted a standard white costume (sales of which together with initiation fees financed the movement) and code words as the first Klan, while adding cross burnings and mass parades. It stressed opposition to the Catholic Church.[8] The third KKK emerged in the form of small local unconnected groups after 1950. They focused on opposition to the Civil Rights Movement, often using threats of violence. The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent reference to the America's "Anglo-Saxon" blood, harking back to 19th-century nativism.[9] Though most members of the KKK saw themselves as holding to American values and Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination officially denounced the Ku Klux Klan.[10]


Contents  [hide]
1 Overview: Three Klans 1.1 First KKK
1.2 Second KKK
1.3 Third KKK
2 First Klan: 1865–1871 2.1 Creation and naming
2.2 Activities
2.3 Resistance
2.4 End of first Klan
3 Second Klan: 1915–1944 3.1 Refounding in 1915 3.1.1 The Birth of a Nation
3.2 Goals
3.3 Organization
3.4 Moral threats
3.5 Rapid growth 3.5.1 Prohibition
3.6 Urbanization
3.7 Costumes and a burning cross
3.8 Women
3.9 Political role
3.10 Resistance and decline 3.10.1 Labor and anti-unionism
3.11 Historiography of the second Klan 3.11.1 Anti-modern interpretations
3.11.2 New social history interpretations
3.11.3 Indiana and Alabama

4 Later Klans: 1950–1960s 4.1 Resistance
5 Contemporary Klan: 1970s–present 5.1 Altercation with Communist Workers Party
5.2 Jerry Thompson infiltration
5.3 Tennessee shooting
5.4 Michael Donald lynching
5.5 Neo-Nazi alliances and Stormfront
5.6 Current developments
5.7 Current Klan organizations
5.8 Other countries
6 Titles and vocabulary
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading 9.1 Historiography
10 Further reading
11 External links

Overview: Three Klans
First KKK
The first Klan was founded in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee, by six veterans of the Confederate Army.[11] The name is probably derived from the Greek word kuklos (κύκλος) which means circle.[12]
Although there was little organizational structure above the local level, similar groups rose across the South and adopted the same name and methods.[13] Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement during the Reconstruction era in the United States. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies; it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the federal government passed the Force Acts, which were used to prosecute Klan crimes.[14] Prosecution of Klan crimes and enforcement of the Force Acts suppressed Klan activity.
The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives. It seriously weakened the black political establishment through its use of assassinations and threats of violence; it drove some carpetbaggers out of politics. On the other hand, it caused a sharp backlash and unleashed new federal laws that Foner says were a success in terms of "restoring order, reinvigorating the morale of Southern Republicans, and enabling blacks to exercise their rights as citizens."[15] historian George C. Rable argues that the Klan was a political failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic leaders of the South. He says:
the Klan declined in strength in part because of internal weaknesses; its lack of central organization and the failure of its leaders to control criminal elements and sadists. More fundamentally, it declined because it failed to achieve its central objective – the overthrow of Republican state governments in the South.[16]
Second KKK
See also: Ku Klux Klan in Canada
In 1915, the second Klan was founded in Atlanta, Georgia. Starting in 1921, it adopted a modern business system of using full-time paid recruiters. The national headquarters made its profit through a monopoly of costume sales, while the organizers were paid through initiation fees. It grew rapidly nationwide at a time of prosperity. Reflecting the social tensions pitting urban versus rural America, it spread to every state. The second KKK preached "One Hundred Percent Americanism" and demanded the purification of politics, calling for strict morality and better enforcement of prohibition. Its official rhetoric focused on the threat of the Catholic Church, using anti-Catholicism and nativism.[17] Its appeal was directed exclusively at white Protestants.[18] Some local groups threatened violence against rum runners and notorious sinners; the violent episodes were generally in the South.[19]
The second Klan was a formal fraternal organization, with a national and state structure. At its peak in the mid-1920s, the organization claimed to include about 15% of the nation's eligible population, approximately 4–5 million men. Internal divisions, criminal behavior by leaders, and external opposition brought about a collapse in membership, which had dropped to about 30,000 by 1930. It finally faded away in the 1940s.[20] Klan organizers also operated in Canada, especially in Saskatchewan in 1926-28, where Klansmen denounced immigrants from Eastern Europe as a threat to Canada's British heritage.[21][22]
Third KKK
The "Ku Klux Klan" name was used by a numerous independent local groups opposing the Civil Rights Movement and desegregation, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. During this period, they often forged alliances with Southern police departments, as in Birmingham, Alabama; or with governor's offices, as with George Wallace of Alabama.[23] Several members of KKK groups were convicted of murder in the deaths of civil rights workers and children in the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham. Today, researchers estimate that there may be 150 Klan chapters with upwards of 5,000 members nationwide.[24]
Today, many sources classify the Klan as a "subversive or terrorist organization".[25][26][27][28] In April 1997, FBI agents arrested four members of the True Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in Dallas for conspiracy to commit robbery and to blow up a natural gas processing plant.[29] In 1999, the city council of Charleston, South Carolina passed a resolution declaring the Klan to be a terrorist organization.[30] In 2004, a professor at the University of Louisville began a campaign to have the Klan declared a terrorist organization in order to ban it from campus.[31]
First Klan: 1865–1871
Creation and naming



 A cartoon threatening that the KKK would lynch carpetbaggers. From the Independent Monitor, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1868.
Six well-educated Confederate veterans from Pulaski, Tennessee created the original Ku Klux Klan on December 24, 1865, during the Reconstruction of the South after the Civil War.[32][33] The name was formed by combining the Greek kyklos (κύκλος, circle) with clan.[34] The group was known for a short time as the "Kuklux Clan". The Ku Klux Klan was one of a number of secret, oath-bound organizations using violence, which included the Southern Cross in New Orleans (1865) and the Knights of the White Camelia (1867) in Louisiana.[35]
Historians generally see the KKK as part of the post Civil War insurgent violence related not only to the high number of veterans in the population, but also to their effort to control the dramatically changed social situation by using extrajudicial means to restore white supremacy. In 1866, Mississippi Governor William L. Sharkey reported that disorder, lack of control and lawlessness were widespread; in some states armed bands of Confederate soldiers roamed at will. The Klan used public violence against blacks as intimidation. They burned houses, and attacked and killed blacks, leaving their bodies on the roads.[36]



 A political cartoon depicting the KKK and the Democratic Party as continuations of the Confederacy
At an 1867 meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, Klan members gathered to try to create a hierarchical organization with local chapters eventually reporting up to a national headquarters. Since most of the Klan's members were veterans, they were used to the hierarchical structure of the organization, but the Klan never operated under this centralized structure. Local chapters and bands were highly independent.



Nathan Bedford Forrest
Former Confederate Brigadier General George Gordon developed the Prescript, which espoused white supremacist belief. For instance, an applicant should be asked if he was in favor of "a white man's government", "the reenfranchisement and emancipation of the white men of the South, and the restitution of the Southern people to all their rights."[37] The latter is a reference to the Ironclad Oath, which stripped the vote from white persons who refused to swear that they had not borne arms against the Union. Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest became Grand Wizard, claiming to be the Klan's national leader.[11][38]
In an 1868 newspaper interview, Forrest stated that the Klan's primary opposition was to the Loyal Leagues, Republican state governments, people like Tennessee governor Brownlow and other ″carpetbaggers″ and ″scalawags″.[39] He argued that many southerners believed that blacks were voting for the Republican Party because they were being hoodwinked by the Loyal Leagues.[40] One Alabama newspaper editor declared "The League is nothing more than a nigger Ku Klux Klan."[41]
Despite Gordon’s and Forrest’s work, local Klan units never accepted the Prescript and continued to operate autonomously. There were never hierarchical levels or state headquarters. Klan members used violence to settle old feuds and local grudges, as they worked to restore white dominance in the disrupted postwar society. The historian Elaine Frantz Parsons describes the membership:
Lifting the Klan mask revealed a chaotic multitude of antiblack vigilante groups, disgruntled poor white farmers, wartime guerrilla bands, displaced Democratic politicians, illegal whiskey distillers, coercive moral reformers, sadists, rapists, white workmen fearful of black competition, employers trying to enforce labor discipline, common thieves, neighbors with decades-old grudges, and even a few freedmen and white Republicans who allied with Democratic whites or had criminal agendas of their own. Indeed, all they had in common, besides being overwhelmingly white, southern, and Democratic, was that they called themselves, or were called, Klansmen.[42]
Historian Eric Foner observed:
In effect, the Klan was a military force serving the interests of the Democratic party, the planter class, and all those who desired restoration of white supremacy. Its purposes were political, but political in the broadest sense, for it sought to affect power relations, both public and private, throughout Southern society. It aimed to reverse the interlocking changes sweeping over the South during Reconstruction: to destroy the Republican party’s infrastructure, undermine the Reconstruction state, reestablish control of the black labor force, and restore racial subordination in every aspect of Southern life.[43]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Interview with Nathan Bedford Forrest

To that end they worked to curb the education, economic advancement, voting rights, and right to keep and bear arms of blacks.[43] The Klan soon spread into nearly every southern state, launching a "reign of terror against Republican leaders both black and white. Those political leaders assassinated during the campaign included Arkansas Congressman James M. Hinds, three members of the South Carolina legislature, and several men who served in constitutional conventions."[44]
Activities



 Three Ku Klux Klan members arrested in Tishomingo County, Mississippi, September 1871, for the attempted murder of an entire family [45]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Why the Ku Klux

Klan members adopted masks and robes that hid their identities and added to the drama of their night rides, their chosen time for attacks. Many of them operated in small towns and rural areas where people otherwise knew each other's faces, and sometimes still recognized the attackers. "The kind of thing that men are afraid or ashamed to do openly, and by day, they accomplish secretly, masked, and at night."[46] The Ku Klux Klan night riders "sometimes claimed to be ghosts of Confederate soldiers so, as they claimed, to frighten superstitious blacks. Few freedmen took such nonsense seriously."[47]
The Klan attacked black members of the Loyal Leagues and intimidated southern Republicans and Freedmen's Bureau workers. When they killed black political leaders, they also took heads of families, along with the leaders of churches and community groups, because these people had many roles in society. Agents of the Freedmen's Bureau reported weekly assaults and murders of blacks. "Armed guerrilla warfare killed thousands of Negroes; political riots were staged; their causes or occasions were always obscure, their results always certain: ten to one hundred times as many Negroes were killed as whites." Masked men shot into houses and burned them, sometimes with the occupants still inside. They drove successful black farmers off their land. "Generally, it can be reported that in North and South Carolina, in 18 months ending in June 1867, there were 197 murders and 548 cases of aggravated assault."[48]



George W. Ashburn was assassinated for his pro-black sentiments.
Klan violence worked to suppress black voting. More than 2,000 persons were killed, wounded and otherwise injured in Louisiana within a few weeks prior to the Presidential election of November 1868. Although St. Landry Parish had a registered Republican majority of 1,071, after the murders, no Republicans voted in the fall elections. White Democrats cast the full vote of the parish for Grant's opponent. The KKK killed and wounded more than 200 black Republicans, hunting and chasing them through the woods. Thirteen captives were taken from jail and shot; a half-buried pile of 25 bodies was found in the woods. The KKK made people vote Democratic and gave them certificates of the fact.[49]
In the April 1868 Georgia gubernatorial election, Columbia County cast 1,222 votes for Republican Rufus Bullock. By the November presidential election, Klan intimidation led to suppression of the Republican vote and only one person voted for Ulysses S. Grant.[50]
Klansmen killed more than 150 African Americans in a county in Florida, and hundreds more in other counties. Freedmen's Bureau records provided a detailed recounting of Klansmen's beatings and murders of freedmen and their white allies.[51]
Milder encounters also occurred. In Mississippi, according to the Congressional inquiry:[52]

One of these teachers (Miss Allen of Illinois), whose school was at Cotton Gin Port in Monroe County, was visited ... between one and two o'clock in the morning on March 1871, by about fifty men mounted and disguised. Each man wore a long white robe and his face was covered by a loose mask with scarlet stripes. She was ordered to get up and dress which she did at once and then admitted to her room the captain and lieutenant who in addition to the usual disguise had long horns on their heads and a sort of device in front. The lieutenant had a pistol in his hand and he and the captain sat down while eight or ten men stood inside the door and the porch was full. They treated her "gentlemanly and quietly" but complained of the heavy school-tax, said she must stop teaching and go away and warned her that they never gave a second notice. She heeded the warning and left the county.
By 1868, two years after the Klan's creation, its activity was beginning to decrease.[53] Members were hiding behind Klan masks and robes as a way to avoid prosecution for freelance violence. Many influential southern Democrats feared that Klan lawlessness provided an excuse for the federal government to retain its power over the South, and they began to turn against it.[54] There were outlandish claims made, such as Georgian B. H. Hill stating "that some of these outrages were actually perpetrated by the political friends of the parties slain."[53]
Resistance
Union Army veterans in mountainous Blount County, Alabama, organized "the anti-Ku Klux". They put an end to violence by threatening Klansmen with reprisals unless they stopped whipping Unionists and burning black churches and schools. Armed blacks formed their own defense in Bennettsville, South Carolina and patrolled the streets to protect their homes.[55]
National sentiment gathered to crack down on the Klan, even though some Democrats at the national level questioned whether the Klan really existed or believed that it was just a creation of nervous Southern Republican governors.[56] Many southern states began to pass anti-Klan legislation.[57]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871

In January 1871, Pennsylvania Republican Senator John Scott convened a Congressional committee which took testimony from 52 witnesses about Klan atrocities. They accumulated 12 volumes of horrifying testimony. In February, former Union General and Congressman Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts introduced the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Ku Klux Klan Act). This added to the enmity that southern white Democrats bore toward him.[58] While the bill was being considered, further violence in the South swung support for its passage. The Governor of South Carolina appealed for federal troops to assist his efforts in keeping control of the state. A riot and massacre in a Meridian, Mississippi, courthouse were reported, from which a black state representative escaped only by taking to the woods.[59] The 1871 Civil Rights Act allowed President Ulysses S. Grant to suspend Habeas Corpus.[60]



 Benjamin Franklin Butler wrote the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Klan Act)
In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant signed Butler's legislation. The Ku Klux Klan Act was used by the Federal government together with the 1870 Force Act, to enforce the civil rights provisions for individuals under the constitution. Under the 1871 Klan Act, after the Klan refused to voluntarily dissolve, Grant issued a suspension of Habeas Corpus, and stationed Federal troops in 9 South Carolina counties. The Klansmen were apprehended and prosecuted in court. Judges Hugh Lennox Bond and George S. Bryan presided over the trial of Ku Klux Klan members in Columbia, South Carolina during December 1871.[61] The defendants were sentenced to five years to three months incarceration with fines.[62] More African Americans served on juries in Federal court than were selected for local or state juries, so they had a chance to participate in the process.[60][63] In the crackdown, hundreds of Klan members were fined or imprisoned.
End of first Klan
Although Forrest boasted that the Klan was a nationwide organization of 550,000 men and that he could muster 40,000 Klansmen within five days' notice, as a secret or "invisible" group, it had no membership rosters, no chapters, and no local officers. It was difficult for observers to judge its actual membership.[64] It had created a sensation by the dramatic nature of its masked forays and because of its many murders.
In 1870 a federal grand jury determined that the Klan was a "terrorist organization".[65] It issued hundreds of indictments for crimes of violence and terrorism. Klan members were prosecuted, and many fled from areas that were under federal government jurisdiction, particularly in South Carolina.[66] Many people not formally inducted into the Klan had used the Klan's costume for anonymity, to hide their identities when carrying out acts of violence. Forrest called for the Klan to disband in 1869, arguing that the Klan was "being perverted from its original honorable and patriotic purposes, becoming injurious instead of subservient to the public peace".[67] Historian Stanley Horn argues that "generally speaking, the Klan's end was more in the form of spotty, slow, and gradual disintegration than a formal and decisive disbandment".[68] Moreover, a Georgia-based reporter wrote in 1870 that, "A true statement of the case is not that the Ku Klux are an organized band of licensed criminals, but that men who commit crimes call themselves Ku Klux".[69]



 Gov. William Holden of North Carolina.
In many states, officials were reluctant to use black militia against the Klan out of fear that racial tensions would be raised.[63] When Republican Governor of North Carolina William Woods Holden called out the militia against the Klan in 1870, it added to his unpopularity. Combined with violence and fraud at the polls, the Republicans lost their majority in the state legislature. Disaffection with Holden's actions led to white Democratic legislators' impeaching Holden and removing him from office, but their reasons were numerous.[70]
Klan operations ended in South Carolina[71] and gradually withered away throughout the rest of the South where it had gradually been faltering in prominence. Attorney General Amos Tappan Ackerman led the prosecutions.[72]
Foner argues that:
“ By 1872, the federal government's evident willingness to bring its legal and coercive authority to bear had broken the Klan's back and produced a dramatic decline in violence throughout the South. So ended the Reconstruction career of the Ku Klux Klan."[73] ”
However, in some areas, non-KKK local paramilitary organizations such as the White League, Red Shirts, saber clubs, and rifle clubs continued to intimidate and murder black political leaders.[74]
In 1882, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Harris that the Klan Act was partially unconstitutional. It ruled that Congress's power under the Fourteenth Amendment did not extend to the right to regulate against private conspiracies.[75]
Klan costumes, also called "regalia", disappeared from use by the early 1870s.[76] The fact that the Klan did not exist for decades was shown when Simmons's 1915 recreation of the Klan attracted only two aging "former Reconstruction Klansmen." All other members were new.[77] By 1872, the Klan was broken as an organization.[78]
Second Klan: 1915–1944
Refounding in 1915
In 1915 the film The Birth of a Nation was released, mythologising and glorifying the first Klan and its endeavors. The second Ku Klux Klan was founded in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons at Stone Mountain, outside Atlanta, with fifteen "charter members".[79] Its growth was based on a new anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, prohibitionist and antisemitic agenda, which developed in response to contemporary social tensions. The new organization and chapters adopted regalia featured in The Birth of a Nation.
The Birth of a Nation



 Movie poster for The Birth of a Nation. It has been widely noted for reviving the Ku Klux Klan.
Director D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation glorified the original Klan. His film was based on the book and play The Clansman and the book The Leopard's Spots, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr.
Much of the modern Klan's iconography, including the standardized white costume and the lighted cross, are derived from the film. Its imagery was based on Dixon's romanticized concept of old England and Scotland, as portrayed in the novels and poetry of Sir Walter Scott. The film's influence was enhanced by a purported endorsement by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, a Southerner. A Hollywood press agent claimed that after seeing the film Wilson said, "It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true." Historians doubt he said it.[80] Wilson felt betrayed by Dixon, who had been a classmate. Wilson's staff issued a denial, saying he was entirely unaware of the nature of the play before it was presented and at no time has expressed his approbation of it."[81]
The new Klan was inaugurated in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons on top of Stone Mountain. It was a small local organization until 1921. Simmons said he had been inspired by the original Klan's Prescripts, written in 1867 by Confederate veteran George Gordon, but they were never adopted by the first Klan.[82]
Goals



 Three Ku Klux Klan members standing at a 1922 parade.


 In this 1926 cartoon the Ku Klux Klan chases the Roman Catholic Church, personified by St. Patrick, from the shores of America. Among the "snakes" are various supposed negative attributes of the Church, including superstition, the union of church and state, control of public schools, and intolerance
The Second Klan saw threats from every direction. A religious tone was present in its activities; "two-thirds of the national Klan lecturers were Protestant ministers," says historian Brian R. Farmer.[83] Much of the Klan's energy went into guarding "the home;" the historian Kathleen Blee said its members wanted to protect "the interests of white womanhood."[84] The pamphlet ABC of the Invisible Empire, published in Atlanta by Simmons in 1917, identified the Klan's goals as "to shield the sanctity of the home and the chastity of womanhood; to maintain white supremacy; to teach and faithfully inculcate a high spiritual philosophy through an exalted ritualism; and by a practical devotedness to conserve, protect and maintain the distinctive institutions, rights, privileges, principles and ideals of a pure Americanism."[85]
Organization
The founder of the new Klan, William J. Simmons, joined twelve different fraternal organizations. He recruited for the Klan with his chest covered with fraternal badges, and consciously modeled the Klan after fraternal organizations.[86]
Klan organizers, called "Kleagles", signed up hundreds of new members, who paid initiation fees and received KKK costumes in return. The organizer kept half the money and sent the rest to state or national officials. When the organizer was done with an area, he organized a huge rally, often with burning crosses, and perhaps presented a Bible to a local Protestant preacher. He left town with the money collected. The local units operated like many fraternal organizations and occasionally brought in speakers.
Simmons initially met with little success in either recruiting members or in raising money, and the Klan remained a small operation in the Atlanta area until 1920.
Moral threats
The second Klan grew primarily in response to issues of declining morality as typified by divorce, adultery, defiance of prohibition, and criminal gangs In the news every day. Secondly, it was a response to the growing power of Catholics and American Jews with non-Protestant cultural values. By the mid 1920s the second Klan had a nationwide reach, with its densest per capita membership in Indiana. The Klan became most prominent in cities with high growth rates between 1910 and 1930, as rural Protestants flocked to jobs in Detroit, and Dayton in the Midwest; and Atlanta, Dallas, Memphis, and Houston in the South. In Michigan, close to half of the state's 80,000 Klansmen lived in Detroit.[87]
Rapid growth
In 1920 Simmons handed the day-to-day activities of the national office over to two professional publicists, Elizabeth Tyler and Edward Young Clarke.[88] The new leadership envigorated the Klan and it grew rapidly. It appealed to new members based on current social tensions, and stressed responses to fears raised by defiance of prohibition and new sexual freedoms. It emphasized anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant and later anti-Communist. It presented itself as a fraternal, nativist and strenuously patriotic organization; and its leaders emphasized support for vigorous enforcement of prohibition laws. It expanded membership dramatically; by the 1920s, most of its members lived in the Midwest and West. It had a national base by 1925. In the South, where the great majority of whites were Democrats, the Klansmen were Democrats. In the rest of the country, the membership comprised both Republicans and Democrats, as well as independents. Klan leaders tried to infiltrate political parties; as Cumnmings notes, " it was non- partisan in the sense that it pressed its nativist issues to both parties."[89] Historian Rory McVeigh has explained the Klan’s strategy in appealing to members of both parties:
Klan leaders hope to have all major candidates competing to win the movement's endorsement....The Klan’s leadership wanted to keep their options open and repeatedly announced that the movement was not aligned with any political party. This non-alliance strategy was also valuable as a recruiting tool. The Klan drew its members from Democratic as well as Republican voters. If the movement had aligned itself with a single political party, it would have substantially narrowed its pool of potential recruits.[90]
Religion was a major selling point. Baker argues that Klansmen seriously embraced Protestantism as an essential component of their white supremacist, anti-Catholic, and paternalistic formulation of American democracy and national culture. Their cross was a religious symbol, and their ritual honored Bibles and local ministers. No nationally prominent religious leader said he was a Klan member.[91]
Prohibition
Historians agree that the Klan's resurgence in the 1920s was aided by the national debate over prohibition.[92] The historian Prendergast says that the KKK's "support for Prohibition represented the single most important bond between Klansmen throughout the nation".[93] The Klan opposed bootleggers, sometimes with violence. In 1922, two hundred Klan members set fire to saloons in Union County, Arkansas. The national Klan office was established in Dallas, Texas, but Little Rock, Arkansas was the home of the Women of the Ku Klux Klan. The first head of this auxiliary was a former president of the Arkansas WCTU.[94][verification needed] Membership in the Klan and in other prohibition groups overlapped, and they often coordinated activities.[95]
Urbanization



 "The End" Referring to the end of Catholic influence in the US. Klansmen: Guardians of Liberty 1926
A significant characteristic of the second Klan was that it was an organization based in urban areas, reflecting the major shifts of population to cities in both the North and the South. In Michigan, for instance, 40,000 members lived in Detroit, where they made up more than half of the state's membership. Most Klansmen were lower- to middle-class whites who were trying to protect their jobs and housing from the waves of newcomers to the industrial cities: immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, who tended to be Catholic and Jewish in numbers higher than earlier groups of immigrants; and black and white migrants from the South. As new populations poured into cities, rapidly changing neighborhoods created social tensions. Because of the rapid pace of population growth in industrializing cities such as Detroit and Chicago, the Klan grew rapidly in the U.S. Midwest. The Klan also grew in booming Southern cities such as Dallas and Houston.[96]
In the medium-size industrial city of Worcester, Massachusetts in the 1920s, the Klan ascended to power quickly but declined as a result of opposition from the Catholic Church. There was no violence and the local newspaper ridiculed Klansmen as "night-shirt knights". Half of the members were Swedish American, including some first-generation immigrants. The ethnic and religious conflicts among more recent immigrants contributed to the rise of the Klan in the city. Swedish Protestants were struggling against Irish Catholics, who had been entrenched longer, for political and ideological control of the city.[97]
For some states, historians have obtained membership rosters of some local units and matched the names against city directory and local records to create statistical profiles of the membership. Big city newspapers were often hostile and ridiculed Klansmen as ignorant farmers. Detailed analysis from Indiana showed the rural stereotype was false for that state:

Indiana's Klansmen represented a wide cross section of society: they were not disproportionately urban or rural, nor were they significantly more or less likely than other members of society to be from the working class, middle class, or professional ranks. Klansmen were Protestants, of course, but they cannot be described exclusively or even predominantly as fundamentalists. In reality, their religious affiliations mirrored the whole of white Protestant society, including those who did not belong to any church.[98]
The Klan attracted people but most of them did not remain in the organization for long. Membership in the Klan turned over rapidly as people found out that it was not the group they wanted. Millions joined, and at its peak in the 1920s, the organization included about 15% of the nation's eligible population. The lessening of social tensions contributed to the Klan's decline.
Costumes and a burning cross



Cross burning was introduced by William J. Simmons, the founder of the second Klan in 1915.
The distinctive white costume permitted large-scale public activities – especially parades and cross-burning ceremonies while keeping secret the membership rolls. Sales of the costumes provided the main financing for the national organization, while initiation fees funded local and state organizers.
The second Klan embraced a burning Latin cross as a dramatic display of symbolism, with a tone of intimidation.[99] No crosses had been used as a symbol by the first Klan. Additionally, the cross was henceforth a representation of the Klan's Christian message. Thus, its lighting during meetings was often accompanied by prayer, the singing of hymns, and other overtly religious symbolism.[100]
In The Clansman novel Dixon had invented the notion that the first Klan had used fiery crosses. Film director Griffith brought this image to the screen in The Birth of a Nation. Simmons adopted the symbol wholesale from the movie. The symbol has been associated with the Klan ever since.[101]
Women
By the 1920s, the KKK developed a women's auxiliary, with chapters in many areas. Its activities included participation in parades, cross lighting, lectures, rallies, and boycotts of local businesses owned by Catholics and Jews. The Women's Klan was active in promoting prohibition, stressing liquor's negative impact on wives and children. Its efforts in public schools included distributing Bibles and petitioning for the dismissal of Roman Catholic teachers. As a result of the Women's Klan's efforts, Texas would not hire Catholic teachers to work in its public schools. As scandals rocked the Klan leadership late in the 1920s, the organization's popularity among both men and women dropped off sharply.[102]
Political role



 Sheet music to "We Are All Loyal Klansmen", 1923
The members of the first Klan in the South were exclusively Democrats. The second Klan expanded with new chapters in the Midwest and West, and reached both Republicans and Democrats, as well as men without a party affiliation. The KKK state organizations endorsed candidates from either party that supported its goals; Prohibition in particular helped the Klan and some Republicans to make common cause in the Midwest.
The Klan had numerous members in every part of the United States, but was particularly strong in the South and Midwest. At its peak, claimed Klan membership exceeded four million and comprised 20% of the adult white male population in many broad geographic regions, and 40% in some areas.[103] The Klan also moved north into Canada, especially Saskatchewan, where it opposed Catholics.[104]
In Indiana, members were American-born, white Protestants and covered a wide range of incomes and social levels. The Indiana Klan was perhaps the most powerful Ku Klux Klan in the nation. It claimed over 30% of white male Hoosiers.[105] In 1924 supported Republican Edward Jackson in his successful campaign for governor.[106]
Catholic and liberal Democrats—who were strongest in the northeastern cities—decided to make the Klan an issue at the 1924 Democratic National Convention in New York City. Their delegates proposed a resolution indirectly attacking the Klan; it was defeated by one vote out of 1100.[107] The leading candidates were William Gibbs McAdoo, a Protestant with a base in the South and West where the Klan was strong, and New York Governor Al Smith, a Catholic with a base in the large cities. After weeks of stalemate and bitter argumentation, both candidates withdrew in favor of a compromise candidate.[108][109]



 Two children wearing Ku Klux Klan robes and hoods stand on either side of Dr. Samuel Green, a Ku Klux Klan Grand Dragon, at Stone Mountain, Georgia on July 24, 1948.
In some states, such as Alabama and California, KKK chapters had worked for political reform. In 1924, Klan members were elected to the city council in Anaheim, California. The city had been controlled by an entrenched commercial-civic elite that was mostly German American. Given their tradition of moderate social drinking, the German Americans did not strongly support prohibition laws—the mayor had been a saloon keeper. Led by the minister of the First Christian Church, the Klan represented a rising group of politically oriented non-ethnic Germans who denounced the elite as corrupt, undemocratic and self-serving. The historian Christopher Cocoltchos says the Klansmen tried to create a model, orderly community. The Klan had about 1200 members in Orange County, California. The economic and occupational profile of the pro and anti-Klan groups shows the two were similar and about equally prosperous. Klan members were Protestants, as were most of their opponents, but the latter also included many Catholic Germans. Individuals who joined the Klan had earlier demonstrated a much higher rate of voting and civic activism than did their opponents. Cocoltchos suggests that many of the individuals in Orange County joined the Klan out of that sense of civic activism. The Klan representatives easily won the local election in Anaheim in April 1924. They fired known city employees who were Catholic and replaced them with Klan appointees. The new city council tried to enforce prohibition. After its victory, the Klan chapter held large rallies and initiation ceremonies over the summer.[110]
The opposition organized, bribed a Klansman for the secret membership list, and exposed the Klansmen running in the state primaries; they defeated most of the candidates. Klan opponents in 1925 took back local government, and succeeded in a special election in recalling the Klansmen who had been elected in April 1924. The Klan in Anaheim quickly collapsed, its newspaper closed after losing a libel suit, and the minister who led the local Klavern moved to Kansas.[110]
In the South, Klan members were still Democratic, as it was a one-party region for whites. Klan chapters were closely allied with Democratic police, sheriffs, and other functionaries of local government. Since disfranchisement of most African Americans and many poor whites around the start of the 20th century, the only political activity for whites took place within the Democratic Party.
In Alabama, Klan members advocated better public schools, effective prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other political measures to benefit lower-class white people. By 1925, the Klan was a political force in the state, as leaders such as J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black tried to build political power against the Black Belt planters, who had long dominated the state.[111] In 1926, with Klan support, Bibb Graves won the Alabama governor's office. He was a former Klan chapter head. He pushed for increased education funding, better public health, new highway construction, and pro-labor legislation. Because the Alabama state legislature refused to redistrict until 1972, and then under court order, the Klan was unable to break the planters' and rural areas' hold on legislative power. Scholars and biographers have recently examined Hugo Black's Klan role. Ball finds regarding the KKK that Black "sympathized with the group's economic, nativist, and anti-Catholic beliefs."[112] Newman says Black "disliked the Catholic Church as an institution" and gave over 100 anti-Catholic speeches in his 1926 election campaign to KKK meetings across Alabama.[113] Black was elected US senator in 1926 as a Democrat. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937 appointed Black to the Supreme Court without knowing how active in the Klan he had been in the 1920s. He was confirmed by his fellow Senators before the full KKK connection was known; Justice Black said he left the Klan when he became a senator.[114]
Resistance and decline



D. C. Stephenson, Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan. His conviction in 1925 for the murder of Madge Oberholtzer, a white schoolteacher, led to the decline of the Indiana Klan.
Many groups and leaders, including prominent Protestant ministers such as Reinhold Niebuhr in Detroit, spoke out against the Klan, gaining national attention. The Jewish Anti-Defamation League was formed in the early 20th century in response to attacks against Jewish Americans and the Klan's campaign to outlaw private schools. Opposing groups worked to penetrate the Klan's secrecy. After one civic group began to publish Klan membership lists, there was a rapid decline in members. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People created public education campaigns in order to inform people about Klan activities and lobbied in Congress against Klan abuses. After its peak in 1925, Klan membership in most areas began to decline rapidly.[96]
Specific events contributed to the decline as well. In Indiana, the scandal surrounding the 1925 murder trial of Grand Dragon D.C. Stephenson destroyed the image of the KKK as upholders of law and order. By 1926 the Klan was "crippled and discredited."[106] D. C. Stephenson was the Grand Dragon of Indiana and 22 northern states. In 1923 he had led the states under his control to separate from the national KKK organization. In his 1925 trial, he was convicted for second degree murder for his part in the rape, and subsequent death of Madge Oberholtzer.[115] After Stephenson's conviction, the Klan declined dramatically in Indiana. The historian Leonard Moore says that a failure in leadership caused the Klan's collapse:

Stephenson and the other salesmen and office seekers who maneuvered for control of Indiana's Invisible Empire lacked both the ability and the desire to use the political system to carry out the Klan's stated goals. They were uninterested in, or perhaps even unaware of, grass roots concerns within the movement. For them, the Klan had been nothing more than a means for gaining wealth and power. These marginal men had risen to the top of the hooded order because, until it became a political force, the Klan had never required strong, dedicated leadership. More established and experienced politicians who endorsed the Klan, or who pursued some of the interests of their Klan constituents, also accomplished little. Factionalism created one barrier, but many politicians had supported the Klan simply out of expedience. When charges of crime and corruption began to taint the movement, those concerned about their political futures had even less reason to work on the Klan's behalf.[116]
By 1920 Klan membership in Alabama dropped to less than 6,000. Small independent units continued to be active in the industrial city of Birmingham. In the late 1940s and 1950s, members launched a reign of terror by bombing the homes of upwardly mobile African Americans. Activism by such independent KKK groups increased as a reaction against the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.



 Ku Klux Klan members march down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. in 1928
In Alabama, KKK vigilantes launched a wave of physical terror in 1927. They targeted both blacks and whites for violation of racial norms and for perceived moral lapses.[117] This led to a strong backlash, beginning in the media. Grover C. Hall, Sr., editor of the Montgomery Advertiser from 1926, wrote a series of editorials and articles that attacked the Klan. (Today the paper says it "waged war on the resurgent [KKK]".)[118] Hall won a Pulitzer Prize for the crusade, the 1928 Editorial Writing Pulitzer, citing "his editorials against gangsterism, floggings and racial and religious intolerance."[119][120] Other newspapers kept up a steady, loud attack on the Klan, referring to the organization as violent and "un-American". Sheriffs cracked down on activities. In the 1928 presidential election, the state voters overcame initial opposition to the Catholic candidate Al Smith, and voted the Democratic Party line as usual.
Although in decline, a measure of the Klan's influence was its march along Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC in 1928.
Labor and anti-unionism
In southern cities such as Birmingham, Alabama, Klan members kept control of access to the better-paying industrial jobs and opposed unions. During the 1930s and 1940s, Klan leaders urged members to disrupt the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which advocated industrial unions and accepted African-American members, unlike earlier unions. With access to dynamite and using the skills from their jobs in mining and steel, in the late 1940s some Klan members in Birmingham used bombings in order to intimidate upwardly mobile blacks who moved into middle-class neighborhoods. "By mid-1949, there were so many charred house carcasses that the area [College Hills] was informally named Dynamite Hill."[121] Independent Klan groups remained active in Birmingham and violently opposed the Civil Rights Movement.[121]
In 1939, after years of the Great Depression, the Imperial Wizard Hiram Wesley Evans sold the national organization to James Colescott, an Indiana veterinarian, and Samuel Green, an Atlanta obstetrician. They could not revive the declining membership. In 1944, the IRS filed a lien for $685,000 in back taxes against the Klan, and Colescott dissolved the organization that year. Local Klan groups closed over the following years.[122]
After World War II, the folklorist and author Stetson Kennedy infiltrated the Klan; he provided internal data to media and law enforcement agencies. He also provided secret code words to the writers of the Superman radio program, resulting in episodes in which Superman took on the KKK. Kennedy stripped away the Klan's mystique and trivialized its rituals and code words, which may have contributed to the decline in Klan recruiting and membership.[123] In the 1950s, Kennedy wrote a bestselling book about his experiences, which further damaged the Klan.[124]
The following table shows the change in the Klan's estimated membership over time.[125] (The years given in the table represent approximate time periods.)


Year
Membership

1920
4,000,000 [126]
1924
6,000,000 
1930
30,000 
Historiography of the second Klan
The historiography of the second Klan of the 1920s can be sharply divided into two opposing interpretations, one based on elite sources and the other based on the new social history.[127][128] [129]
Anti-modern interpretations
The KKK was a secret organization; apart from a few top leaders the members never revealed their membership and wore masks in public. Investigators in the 1920s used KKK publicity, court cases, exposés by disgruntled Klansman, newspaper reports, and speculation to write stories about what the Klan was doing. Almost all the major newspapers and magazines were hostile. Published accounts exaggerated the official viewpoint of the Klan leadership, and repeated the interpretations of hostile newspapers and the Klan's enemies. There was almost no evidence regarding the actual behavior or beliefs of individual Klansmen. The resulting popular and scholarly interpretation of the Klan from the 1920s into recent decades, based on those sources, says Pegram, emphasized the Southern roots, and violent vigilante-style actions of the Klan in its efforts to turn back the clock of modernity. Scholars compared it to fascism, which in the 1920s took over Italy.[130] Pegram says this original interpretation:
Depicted the Klan movement as an irrational rebuke of modernity by undereducated, economically marginal bigots, religious zealots, and dupes willing to be manipulated by the Klan's cynical, mendacious leaders. It was, in this view, a movement of country parsons and small-town malcontents who were out of step with the dynamism of twentieth-century urban America."[131]
New social history interpretations
The "social history" revolution in historiography after the 1960s called for history from the bottom up, that would focus on the characteristics, beliefs, and behavior of the typical membership, and downplay claims from elite sources.[132][133] This approach was made possible by the discovery of membership lists and the minutes of local meetings from chapters scattered around the country. Historians apply the newest techniques of methodology to test the original interpretation. They discovered that the original interpretation was very largely mistaken about the membership and activities of the Klan. The membership was not anti-modern rural or rustic. It comprised fairly well educated middle-class joiners and community activists. Half the members lived in the fast-growing cities; Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia, Denver, and Portland, Oregon, were the Klan strongholds rather than the sleepy rural areas.[134]
Studies using the new social history find that in general, the membership was from the stable, successful middle classes, with few members drawn from the elite or the working classes. Pegram, reviewing the studies, concludes, "the popular Klan of the 1920s, while diverse, was more of a civic exponent of white Protestant social values than a repressive hate group."[135]
Indiana and Alabama
In Indiana, traditional political historians focused on notorious leaders, especially D. C. Stephenson, the Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan, whose conviction for 1925 kidnap, rape, and murder of Madge Oberholtzer helped destroy the Klu Klux Klan movement nationwide. By contrast new social historian Leonard Moore titled his monograph Citizen Klansmen, and contrasted the sordid and intolerant rhetoric of the group's leaders with that of its much better behaved membership. The Klan was indeed white Protestant, and was highly suspicious of Catholics, Jews and blacks who were accused of subverting the ideal Protestant moral standards. Violence was quite uncommon in the chapters. Threats and vocational actions were directed primarily against fellow white Protestants for transgressions of community moral standards, such as adultery, wife-beating, gambling and heavy drinking. Up to one third of Indiana's Protestant men joined the order making it, Moore argued, "a kind of interest group for average white Protestants who believed that their values should be dominant in their community and state.[136]
Moore goes on to say that they joined:
because it stood for the most organized means of resisting the social and economic forces that had transformed community life, undermined traditional values, and made average citizens feel more isolated from one another and more powerless in their relationships with the major institutions that governed their lives.[137]
In Alabama, the young urban activists, such as Hugo Black, were reformers fighting against the old guard in state politics. The Klan in rural Alabama also had much more recourse to violence.[138]
Later Klans: 1950–1960s
The name "Ku Klux Klan" began to be used by several independent groups. Beginning in the 1950s, for instance, individual Klan groups in Birmingham, Alabama, began to resist social change and blacks' efforts to improve their lives by bombing houses in transitional neighborhoods. There were so many bombings in Birmingham of blacks' homes by Klan groups in the 1950s that the city's nickname was "Bombingham".[23]
During the tenure of Bull Connor as police commissioner in the city, Klan groups were closely allied with the police and operated with impunity. When the Freedom Riders arrived in Birmingham, Connor gave Klan members fifteen minutes to attack the riders before sending in the police to quell the attack.[23] When local and state authorities failed to protect the Freedom Riders and activists, the federal government established effective intervention.
In states such as Alabama and Mississippi, Klan members forged alliances with governors' administrations.[23] In Birmingham and elsewhere, the KKK groups bombed the houses of civil rights activists. In some cases they used physical violence, intimidation and assassination directly against individuals. Continuing disfranchisement of blacks across the South meant that most could not serve on juries, which were all white.



 Goodman, Chaney, and Schwerner were three civil rights workers abducted and murdered by members of the Ku Klux Klan.
According to a report from the Southern Regional Council in Atlanta, the homes of 40 black Southern families were bombed during 1951 and 1952. Some of the bombing victims were social activists whose work exposed them to danger, but most were either people who refused to bow to racist convention or were innocent bystanders, unsuspecting victims of random violence.[139] Among the more notorious murders by Klan members:
The 1951 Christmas Eve bombing of the home of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) activists Harry and Harriette Moore in Mims, Florida, resulting in their deaths.[140]
The 1957 murder of Willie Edwards, Jr. Klansmen forced Edwards to jump to his death from a bridge into the Alabama River.[141]
The 1963 assassination of NAACP organizer Medgar Evers in Mississippi. In 1994, former Ku Klux Klansman Byron De La Beckwith was convicted.
The 1963 bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, which killed four African-American girls. The perpetrators were Klan members Robert Chambliss, convicted in 1977, Thomas Edwin Blanton, Jr. and Bobby Frank Cherry, convicted in 2001 and 2002. The fourth suspect, Herman Cash, died before he was indicted.
The 1964 murders of three civil rights workers, Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner, in Mississippi. In June 2005, Klan member Edgar Ray Killen was convicted of manslaughter.[142]
The 1964 murder of two black teenagers, Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore in Mississippi. In August 2007, based on the confession of Klansman Charles Marcus Edwards, James Ford Seale, a reputed Ku Klux Klansman, was convicted. Seale was sentenced to serve three life sentences. Seale was a former Mississippi policeman and sheriff's deputy.[143]
The 1965 Alabama murder of Viola Liuzzo. She was a Southern-raised Detroit mother of five who was visiting the state in order to attend a civil rights march. At the time of her murder Liuzzo was transporting Civil Rights Marchers.
The 1966 firebombing death of NAACP leader Vernon Dahmer Sr., 58, in Mississippi. In 1998 former Ku Klux Klan wizard Sam Bowers was convicted of his murder and sentenced to life. Two other Klan members were indicted with Bowers, but one died before trial, and the other's indictment was dismissed.
The 1967 multiple bombings in Jackson, Mississippi of the residence of a Methodist activist, Robert Kochtitzky, and those at the synagogue and at the residence of Rabbi Perry Nussbaum on Old Canton Road were executed by a Klan member named Thomas Albert Tarrants III who was convicted in 1968. Another Klan bombing was averted in Meridian the same year.[144]
Resistance
There was also resistance to the Klan. In 1953, newspaper publishers W. Horace Carter (Tabor City, NC), who had campaigned for three years, and Willard Cole (Whiteville, NC) shared the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service citing "their successful campaign against the Ku Klux Klan, waged on their own doorstep at the risk of economic loss and personal danger, culminating in the conviction of over one hundred Klansmen and an end to terrorism in their communities."[145] In a 1958 incident in North Carolina, the Klan burned crosses at the homes of two Lumbee Native Americans who had associated with white people, and they threatened to return with more men. When the KKK held a nighttime rally nearby, they were quickly surrounded by hundreds of armed Lumbees. Gunfire was exchanged, and the Klan was routed at what became known as the Battle of Hayes Pond.[146]
While the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had paid informants in the Klan, for instance in Birmingham in the early 1960s, its relations with local law enforcement agencies and the Klan were often ambiguous. The head of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, appeared more concerned about Communist links to civil rights activists than about controlling Klan excesses against citizens. In 1964, the FBI's COINTELPRO program began attempts to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights groups.[23]
As 20th-century Supreme Court rulings extended federal enforcement of citizens' civil rights, the government revived the Force Acts and the Klan Act from Reconstruction days. Federal prosecutors used these laws as the basis for investigations and indictments in the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner;[147] and the 1965 murder of Viola Liuzzo. They were also the basis for prosecution in 1991 in Bray v. Alexandria Women's Health Clinic.
Contemporary Klan: 1970s–present



 Violence at a Klan march in Mobile, Alabama, 1977
Once African Americans secured federal legislation to protect civil and voting rights, the KKK shifted its focus to opposing court-ordered busing to desegregate schools, affirmative action and more open immigration. In 1971, KKK members used bombs to destroy 10 school buses in Pontiac, Michigan.
Altercation with Communist Workers Party
Main article: Greensboro massacre
On November 3, 1979, five communist protesters were killed by KKK and American Nazi Party members in the Greensboro massacre in Greensboro, North Carolina.[148] This incident took place during the Death to the Klan rally sponsored by the Communist Workers Party, in their efforts to organize predominantly black industrial workers in the area.[149]
Jerry Thompson infiltration
Jerry Thompson, a newspaper reporter who infiltrated the KKK in 1979, reported that the FBI's COINTELPRO efforts were highly successful. Rival KKK factions accused each other's leaders of being FBI informants. Bill Wilkinson of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was revealed to have been working for the FBI.[150]
Thompson also related that KKK leaders who appeared indifferent to the threat of arrest showed great concern about a series of civil lawsuits filed by the Southern Poverty Law Center for damages amounting to millions of dollars. These were filed after KKK members shot into a group of African Americans. Klansmen curtailed activities to conserve money for defense against the lawsuits. The KKK also used lawsuits as tools; they filed a libel suit to prevent publication of a paperback edition of Thompson's book.
Tennessee shooting
In 1980, three KKK members shot four elderly black women (Viola Ellison, Lela Evans, Opal Jackson and Katherine Johnson) in Chattanooga, Tennessee, following a KKK initiation rally. A fifth woman, Fannie Crumsey, was injured by flying glass in the incident. Attempted murder charges were filed against the three KKK members, two of whom—Bill Church and Larry Payne—were acquitted by an all-white jury, and the other of whom—Marshall Thrash—was sentenced by the same jury to nine months on lesser charges. He was released after three months.[151][152][153] In 1982, a jury awarded the five women $535,000 in a civil rights trial.[154]
Michael Donald lynching
After Michael Donald was lynched in 1981 in Alabama, the FBI investigated his death and two local KKK members were convicted of having a role, including Henry Francis Hays, who was sentenced to death.[citation needed] With the support of attorneys Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), Donald's mother, Beulah Mae Donald, sued the KKK in civil court in Alabama. Her lawsuit against the United Klans of America was tried in February 1987. The all-white jury found the Klan responsible for the lynching of Donald and ordered the Klan to pay US$7 million.[citation needed] To pay the judgment, the KKK turned over all of its assets, including its national headquarters building in Tuscaloosa. After exhausting the appeals process, Hays was executed for Donald's death in Alabama on June 6, 1997. It was the first time since 1913 that a white man had been executed in Alabama for a crime against an African American.
Neo-Nazi alliances and Stormfront
Main article: Stormfront (website)
In 1995, Don Black and Chloê Hardin, former KKK Grand Wizard David Duke's ex-wife, began a small bulletin board system (BBS) called Stormfront. Today, Stormfront has become a prominent online forum for white nationalism, Neo-Nazism, hate speech, racism, and antisemitism.[155][156][157] Duke has an account on Stormfront which he uses to post articles from his own website, as well as polling forum members for opinions and questions, in particular during his internet broadcasts. Duke has worked with Don Black on numerous projects including Operation Red Dog in 1980.[158][159]
Current developments
The modern KKK is not one organization; rather it is composed of small independent chapters across the U.S.[160] The formation of independent chapters has made KKK groups more difficult to infiltrate, and researchers find it hard to estimate their numbers. Estimates are that about two-thirds of KKK members are concentrated in the Southern United States, with another third situated primarily in the lower Midwest.[161][162][163]
The Klan has expanded its recruitment efforts to white supremacists at the international level.[164] For some time the Klan's numbers are steadily dropping. This decline has been attributed to the Klan's lack of competence in the use of the Internet, their history of violence, a proliferation of competing hate groups, and a decline in the number of young racist activists who are willing to join groups at all.[165]
Recent membership campaigns have been based on issues such as people's anxieties about illegal immigration, urban crime, civil unions and same-sex marriage.[166] Akins argues that, "Klan literature and propaganda is rabidly homophobic and encourages violence against gays and lesbians....Since the late 1970s, the Klan has increasingly focused its ire on this previously ignored population.[167] Many KKK groups have formed strong alliances with other white supremacist groups, such as neo-Nazis. Some KKK groups have become increasingly "nazified", adopting the look and emblems of white power skinheads.[168]
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has provided legal support to various factions of the KKK in defense of their First Amendment rights to hold public rallies, parades, and marches, as well as their right to field political candidates.[169]
Current Klan organizations



 The flag of the Knights Party, the political branch of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.
A list is maintained by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL):[170]
Bayou Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, prevalent in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana and other areas of the Southern U.S.
Church of the American Knights of the Ku Klux Klan[161]
Imperial Klans of America[171]
Knights of the White Camelia[172]
Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, headed by national director and self-claimed pastor Thom Robb, and based in Zinc, Arkansas.[173] It claims to be the biggest Klan organization in America today.
Other countries
Aside from Canada, there have been various attempts to organise KKK chapters outside the United States. In Australia in the late 1990s, former One Nation founding member Peter Coleman established branches throughout the country,[174][175] and in recent years the KKK has attempted to infiltrate other political parties such as Australia First.[176] Recruitment activity has also been reported in the United Kingdom,[177][178] dating back to the 1960s when Robert Relf was involved in establishing a British KKK.[179]
In Germany a KKK-related group, the European White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, has organised and it gained notoriety in 2012 when it was widely reported in the German media that two police officers who held membership in the organisation would be allowed to keep their jobs.[180][181][182] A group was even established in Fiji in the early 1870s by white settlers, although it was put down by the British who, although not officially established as Fiji's colonial rulers, had played a leading role in establishing a new constitutional monarchy that was being threatened by the Fijian Klan.[183] In São Paulo, Brazil, the website of a group called Imperial Klans of Brazil was shut down in 2003, and the group's leader was arrested.[184]
Titles and vocabulary
Main article: Ku Klux Klan titles and vocabulary
Membership in the Klan is secret. Like many fraternal organizations, the Klan has signs which members can use to recognize one another. A member may use the acronym AYAK (Are you a Klansman?) in conversation to surreptitiously identify himself to another potential member. The response AKIA (A Klansman I am) completes the greeting.[185]
Throughout its varied history, the Klan has coined many words[186] beginning with "Kl" including:
Klabee - treasurers
Klavern - local organization
Imperial Kleagle - recruiter
Klecktoken - initiation fee
Kligrapp - secretary
Klonvocation - gathering
Kloran - ritual book
Kloreroe - delegate
Imperial Kludd - chaplain
All of the above terminology was created by William Joseph Simmons, as part of his 1915 revival of the Klan.[187] The Reconstruction-era Klan used different titles; the only titles to carry over were "Wizard" for the overall leader of the Klan and "Night Hawk" for the official in charge of security.
The Imperial Kludd was the chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and he performed "such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard."
The Imperial Kaliff was the second highest position after the Imperial Wizard.[188]
See also

Portal icon Discrimination portal
Anti-mask laws
Black Legion (political movement)
History of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey
Ku Klux Klan in Canada
Ku Klux Klan in Inglewood, California
Ku Klux Klan in Maine
Ku Klux Klan members in United States politics
Ku Klux Klan recruitment
Ku Klux Klan regalia and insignia
Leaders of the Ku Klux Klan
List of Ku Klux Klan organizations
List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
List of white nationalist organizations
Rosewood massacre
White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan
References
1.Jump up ^ McVeigh, Rory. "Structural Incentives for Conservative Mobilization: Power Devaluation and the Rise of the Ku Klux Klan, 1915–1925". Social Forces, Vol. 77, No. 4 (June 1999), p. 1463.
2.^ Jump up to: a b "Ku Klux Klan". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
3.Jump up ^ Rory McVeigh, The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (2009)
4.Jump up ^ Matthew N. Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America (2000) ch 3, 5, 13
5.Jump up ^ Both the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center include it in their lists of hate groups. See also Brian Levin, "Cyberhate: A Legal and Historical Analysis of Extremists' Use of Computer Networks in America" in Perry, Barbara, editor. Hate and Bias Crime: A Reader. p. 112 p. Google Books.
6.Jump up ^ See, e.g., Klanwatch Project (2011), illustrations, pp. 9-10
7.Jump up ^ Elaine Frantz Parsons, "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". Journal of American History 92.3 (2005): 811–36.
8.Jump up ^ Wyn Craig Wade, The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (Oxford University Press, 1998)
9.Jump up ^ Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida.
10.Jump up ^ Perlmutter, Philip (1 January 1999). Legacy of Hate: A Short History of Ethnic, Religious, and Racial Prejudice in America. M.E. Sharpe. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-7656-0406-4. "Kenneth T. Jackson, in his The Ku Klux Klan in the City 1915-1930, reminds us that "virtually every" Protestant denomination denounced the KKK, but that most KKK members were not "innately depraved or anxious to subvert American institutions," but rather saw their membership in keeping with "one-hundred percent Americanism" and Christianity morality."
11.^ Jump up to: a b "Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Adl.org. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
12.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era". New Georgia Encyclopedia. October 3, 2002. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
13.Jump up ^ Trelease, White Terror (1971), p. 18.
14.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan Act (1871): Major Acts of Congress". Enotes.com. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
15.Jump up ^ Foner, Reconstruction (1988 ) p 458
16.Jump up ^ George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction (2007) pp 101, 110-11
17.Jump up ^ Thomas R. Pegram, One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (2011), pp. 47-88.
18.Jump up ^ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915-1930 (2011), p. 248.
19.Jump up ^ Jackson 1992 ed., pp. 241–242.
20.Jump up ^ Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College.
21.Jump up ^ Julian Sher, White Hoods: Canada's Ku Klux Klan (1983), pp. 52-53.
22.Jump up ^ James M. Pitsula, Keeping Canada British: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Saskatchewan (2013)
23.^ Jump up to: a b c d e McWhorter 2001.
24.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved February 19, 2010.
25.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
26.Jump up ^ "Inquiry Begun on Klan Ties Of 2 Icons at Virginia Tech". NY Times. November 16, 1997. p. 138. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
27.Jump up ^ Lee, Jennifer (November 6, 2006). "Samuel Bowers, 82, Klan Leader Convicted in Fatal Bombing, Dies". NY Times. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
28.Jump up ^ Brush, Pete (May 28, 2002). "Court Will Review Cross Burning Ban". CBS News. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
29.Jump up ^ Dallas.FBI.gov "Domestic terrorism by the Klan remained a key concern", FBI, Dallas office
30.Jump up ^ "Klan named terrorist organization in Charleston". Reuters. October 14, 1999. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
31.Jump up ^ "Ban the Klan? Professor has court strategy". Associated Press. May 21, 2004. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
32.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 9. The founders were John C. Lester, John B. Kennedy, James R. Crowe, Frank O. McCord, Richard R. Reed, and J. Calvin Jones.
33.Jump up ^ Fleming, Walter J., Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment, p. 27, 1905, Neale Publishing.
34.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 11, states that Reed proposed κύκλος (kyklos) and Kennedy added clan. Wade 1987, p. 33 says that Kennedy came up with both words, but Crowe suggested transforming κύκλος into kuklux.
35.Jump up ^ W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 679–680.
36.Jump up ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, p. 671–675.
37.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan, Organization and Principles, 1868". State University of New York at Albany.
38.Jump up ^ Wills, Brian Steel (1992). A Battle from the Start: The Life of Nathan Bedford Forrest. New York, New York: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 336. ISBN 0-06-092445-4.
39.Jump up ^ The Sun. "Civil War Threatened in Tennessee." September 3, 1868: 2; The Charleston Daily News. "A Talk with General Forrest." September 8, 1868: 1.
40.Jump up ^ Cincinnati Commercial, August 28, 1868, quoted in Wade, 1987.
41.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 27.
42.Jump up ^ Parsons 2005, p. 816.
43.^ Jump up to: a b Foner 1988, p. 425–426.
44.Jump up ^ Foner 1988, p. 342.
45.Jump up ^ "History of the Ku Klux Klan - Preach the Cross". preachthecross.net. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
46.Jump up ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 677–678.
47.Jump up ^ Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988) p. 432.
48.Jump up ^ Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880 pp. 674–675.
49.Jump up ^ Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, pp.680–681.
50.Jump up ^ Bryant, Jonathan M. "Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Georgia Southern University.
51.Jump up ^ Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida, pp. 1–30. Newton quotes from the Testimony Taken by the Joint Select Committee to Enquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States, Vol. 13. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1872. Among historians of the Klan, this volume is also known as The KKK testimony.
52.Jump up ^ Rhodes 1920, pp. 157–158.
53.^ Jump up to: a b Horn 1939, p. 375.
54.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 102.
55.Jump up ^ Foner 1988, p. 435.
56.Jump up ^ Wade 1987.
57.Jump up ^ Ranney, Joseph A (Jan 1, 2006). In the Wake of Slavery: Civil War, Civil Rights, and the Reconstruction of Southern Law. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 57–58. ISBN 0275989720.
58.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 373.
59.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 88.
60.^ Jump up to: a b Scaturro, Frank (October 26, 2006). "The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, 1869–1877". The College of St. Scholastica. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
61.Jump up ^ p. 5, United States Circuit Court (4th Circuit). Proceedings in the Ku Klux Trials at Columbia, S.C. in the United States Circuit Court. Edited by Benn Pitman and Louis Freeland Post. Columbia, SC: Republican Printing Company, 1872.
62.Jump up ^ The New York Times. "Kuklux Trials — Sentence of the Prisoners." December 29, 1871.
63.^ Jump up to: a b Wormser, Richard. "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow—The Enforcement Acts (1870–1871)". Public Broadcasting Service.
64.Jump up ^ The New York Times. "N. B. Forrest." September 3, 1868.
65.Jump up ^ "White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction by Allen W. Trelease (Louisiana State University Press: 1995)".
66.Jump up ^ Trelease 1995.
67.Jump up ^ Quotes from Wade 1987.
68.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 360.
69.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 362.
70.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 85.
71.Jump up ^ Wade, p. 102.
72.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 109, writes that by ca. 1871–1874, "For many, the lapse of the enforcement acts was justified since their reason for being—the Ku-Klux Klan—had been effectively smashed as a result of the dramatic showdown in South Carolina".
73.Jump up ^ Foner, Reconstruction (1988) p. 458-459.
74.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 109–110.
75.Jump up ^ Balkin, Jack M. (2002). "History Lesson" (PDF). Yale University.
76.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 109
77.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 144.
78.Jump up ^ "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow: The Enforcement Acts, 1870–1871", Public Broadcast Service. Retrieved April 5, 2008.
79.Jump up ^ "The Various Shady Lives of the Ku Klux Klan". Time magazine. April 9, 1965. "An itinerant Methodist preacher named William Joseph Simmons started up the Klan again in Atlanta in 1915. Simmons, an ascetic-looking man, was a fetishist on fraternal organizations. He was already a "colonel" in the Woodmen of the World, but he decided to build an organization all his own. He was an effective speaker, with an affinity for alliteration; he had preached on "Women, Weddings and Wives," "Red Heads, Dead Heads and No Heads," and the "Kinship of Kourtship and Kissing." On Thanksgiving Eve 1915, Simmons took 15 friends to the top of Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, built an altar on which he placed an American flag, a Bible and an unsheathed sword, set fire to a crude wooden cross, muttered a few incantations about a "practical fraternity among men," and declared himself Imperial Wizard of the Invisible Empire of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan."
80.Jump up ^ Dray 2002, p. 198. Griffith quickly relayed the comment to the press, where it was widely reported.
81.Jump up ^ John Milton Cooper, Jr. (2011). Woodrow Wilson: A Biography. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 273.
82.Jump up ^ Chester L. Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan and Related American Racialist and Antisemitic Organizations: A History and Analysis, p. 219. The second Klan's constitution and preamble attributed debt to the original Klan's Prescripts.
83.Jump up ^ Brian R. Farmer, American Conservatism: History, Theory and Practice (2005), p. 208.
84.Jump up ^ Kathleen M. Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (2008), p. 47.
85.Jump up ^ McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-8050-8906-6.
86.Jump up ^ "Nation: The Various Shady Lives of The Ku Klux Klan". TIME. April 9, 1965. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
87.Jump up ^ Jackson 1967, p. 241.
88.Jump up ^ Michael Newton, The Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi: a history, p. 70.
89.Jump up ^ Stephen D. Cummings (2008). Red States, Blue States, and the Coming Sharecropper Society. p. 119.
90.Jump up ^ Rory McVeigh (2009). The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-wing Movements and National Politics. U of Minnesota Press. p. 184.
91.Jump up ^ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915–1930 (University Press of Kansas, 2011)
92.Jump up ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American, pp. 119-56.
93.Jump up ^ Prendergast 1987, pp. 25–52, 27.
94.Jump up ^ Lender et al. 1982, p. 33.
95.Jump up ^ Barr 1999, p. 370.
96.^ Jump up to: a b Jackson 1992.
97.Jump up ^ Emily Parker, "'Night-Shirt Knights' in the City: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Worcester, Massachusetts", New England Journal of History, Fall 2009, Vol. 66 Issue 1, pp. 62–78.
98.Jump up ^ Moore 1991.
99.Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (May 29, 2002). "Supreme Court Roundup; Free Speech or Hate Speech? Court Weighs Cross Burning". New York Times. Retrieved February 20, 2010.
100.Jump up ^ Wade, Wyn Craig (1998). The fiery cross: the Ku Klux Klan in America. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-19-512357-9. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
101.Jump up ^ Cecil Adams (June 18, 1993). "Why does the Ku Klux Klan burn crosses?". The Straight Dope. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
102.Jump up ^ Kathleen M. Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (University of California Press, 2008).
103.Jump up ^ Marty Gitlin, The Ku Klux Klan: A Guide to an American Subculture (2009) p. 20.
104.Jump up ^ Julian Sher, White Hoods: Canada's Ku Klux Klan (1983)
105.Jump up ^ "Indiana History Chapter Seven". Northern Indiana Center for History. Archived from the original on April 11, 2008. Retrieved October 7, 2008.
106.^ Jump up to: a b "Ku Klux Klan in Indiana". Indiana State Library. November 2000. Retrieved September 27, 2009.
107.Jump up ^ Robert A. Slayton, Empire Statesman: The Rise and Redemption of Al Smith (2001) pp 211-13
108.Jump up ^ Allen, Lee N. (1963). "The McAdoo Campaign for the Presidential Nomination in 1924". Journal of Southern History 29 (2): 211–228. JSTOR 2205041.
109.Jump up ^ Craig, Douglas B. (1992). After Wilson: The Struggle for the Democratic Party, 1920–1934. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ch. 2–3. ISBN 0-8078-2058-X.
110.^ Jump up to: a b Christopher N. Cocoltchos, "The Invisible Empire and the Search for the Orderly Community: The Ku Klux Klan in Anaheim, California", in Shawn Lay, ed. The invisible empire in the West (2004), pp. 97-120.
111.Jump up ^ Feldman 1999.
112.Jump up ^ Howard Ball, Hugo L. Black: cold steel warrior (1996) p. 16
113.Jump up ^ Roger K. Newman, Hugo Black: a biography (1997) pp 87, 104
114.Jump up ^ Ball, Hugo L. Black: cold steel warrior (1996) p. 96
115.Jump up ^ "D. C. Stephenson manuscript collection". Indiana Historical Society. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
116.Jump up ^ Moore 1991, p. 186
117.Jump up ^ Rogers et al., pp. 432–433.
118.Jump up ^ "History of the Montgomery Advertiser". Montgomery Advertiser: a Gannett Company. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
119.Jump up ^ Rogers et al., p. 433.
120.Jump up ^ "Editorial Writing". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
121.^ Jump up to: a b Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution, New York: Touchstone Book, 2002, p. 75.
122.Jump up ^ "Georgia Orders Action to Revoke Charter of Klan. Federal Lien Also Put on File to Collect Income Taxes Dating Back to 1921. Governor Warns of a Special Session if Needed to Enact 'De-Hooding' Measures Tells of Phone Threats Georgia Acts to Crush the Klan. Federal Tax Lien Also Is Filed". New York Times. May 31, 1946. Retrieved January 12, 2010. "Governor Ellis Arnall today ordered the State's legal department to bring action to revoke the Georgia charter of the Ku Klux Klan. ... 'It is my further information that on June 4, 1944, the Ku Klux Klan ..."
123.Jump up ^ von Busack, Richard. "Superman Versus the KKK". MetroActive.
124.Jump up ^ Kennedy 1990.
125.Jump up ^ "The Ku Klux Klan, a brief biography". The African American Registry. Retrieved July 19, 2012. and Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College.
126.Jump up ^ "The Various Shady Lives of The Ku Klux Klan". TIME. April 9, 1965. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
127.Jump up ^ Craig Fox, "Changing interpretations of the 1920s Klan: A selected historiography" in Fox, Everyday Klansfolk: White Protestant Life and the KKK in 1920s Michigan (2012), Introduction online
128.Jump up ^ Thomas R. Pegram (2011). One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. Ivan R. Dee. pp. 221–28.
129.Jump up ^ Jesse Walker, "Hooded Progressivism: The secret reformist history of the Ku Klux Klan," Reason.com December 2, 2005 online
130.Jump up ^ The best scholarly study in this approach is David M. Chalmers, Hooded Americanism: The First Century of the Ku Klux Klan, 1865-1965 (1965), with excellent national and state coverage.
131.Jump up ^ Pegram. One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. p. 222.
132.Jump up ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American p 225
133.Jump up ^ Leonard J. Moore, "Good Old-Fashioned New Social History and the Twentieth-Century American Right." Reviews in American History (1996) 24#4 pp: 555-573 online.
134.Jump up ^ Kenneth T. Jackson, The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915-1930 (1967)
135.Jump up ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American p.225
136.Jump up ^ Leonard J. Moore (1997). Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921-1928. U. North Carolina Press. p. 188.
137.Jump up ^ Moore, Citizen Klansmen p 188
138.Jump up ^ Glenn Feldman, Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915-1949 (1999)
139.Jump up ^ Egerton 1994, p. 562–563.
140.Jump up ^ "Who Was Harry T. Moore?" — The Palm Beach Post, August 16, 1999.
141.Jump up ^ Cox, Major W. (March 2, 1999). "Justice Still Absent in Bridge Death". Montgomery Advertiser.[dead link]
142.Jump up ^ Axtman, Kris (June 23, 2005). "Mississippi verdict greeted by a generation gap". The Christian Science Monitor.
143.Jump up ^ "Reputed Klansman, Ex-Cop, and Sheriff's Deputy Indicted For The 1964 Murders of Two Young African-American Men in Mississippi; U.S. v. James Ford Seale". January 24, 2007. Retrieved March 23, 2008.
144.Jump up ^ Nelson, Jack. (1993). Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 208-211. ISBN 0671692232.
145.Jump up ^ "Public Service". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
146.Jump up ^ Ingalls 1979; Graham, Nicholas (January 2005). "January 1958 – The Lumbees face the Klan". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
147.Jump up ^ Simon, Dennis M. "The Civil Rights Movement, 1964–1968". Southern Methodist University.
148.Jump up ^ "Remembering the 1979 Greensboro Massacre: 25 Years Later Survivors Form Country's First Truth and Reconciliation Commission". Democracy Now. November 18, 2004. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
149.Jump up ^ Mark Hand (November 18, 2004). "The Greensboro Massacre". Press Action.
150.Jump up ^ Thompson 1982.
151.Jump up ^ The White Separatist Movement in the United States: "White Power, White Pride!", by Betty A. Dobratz & Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile. November 2000. ISBN 978-0-8018-6537-4. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
152.Jump up ^ "Women's Appeal for Justice in Chattanooga – US Department of Justice" (PDF). Retrieved February 20, 2011.
153.Jump up ^ "The Victoria Advocate: Bonds for Klan Upheld". News.google.com. April 22, 1980. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
154.Jump up ^ UPI (February 28, 1982). "New York Times: History Around the Nation; Jury Award to 5 Blacks Hailed as Blow to Klan". Nytimes.com (Tennessee; Chattanooga (Tenn)). Retrieved February 20, 2011.
155.Jump up ^ "RedState, White Supremacy, and Responsibility", Daily Kos, December 5, 2005.
156.Jump up ^ Bill O'Reilly, "Circling the Wagons in Georgia", Fox News Channel, May 8, 2003.
157.Jump up ^ "WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center: Case No. DTV2001-0023", World Intellectual Property Organization, January 13, 2002.
158.Jump up ^ Captmike works undercover with the US Government to stop the invasion of the Island Nation of Dominica, manana.com.
159.Jump up ^ Operation Red Dog: Canadian neo-nazis were central to the planned invasion of Dominica in 1981,[dead link] canadiancontent.ca.
160.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. According to the report, the KKK's estimated size then was "No more than a few thousand, organized into slightly more than 100 units."
161.^ Jump up to: a b "Church of the American Knights of the KKK". Anti-Defamation League. October 22, 1999. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
162.Jump up ^ "Active U.S. Hate Groups". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center.
163.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
164.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan warns race war if Obama wins". Sify News. November 3, 2008. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
165.Jump up ^ Palmer, Brian (March 8, 2012). "Ku Klux Kontraction: How did the KKK lose nearly one-third of its chapters in one year?". Slate Magazine. Retrieved March 25, 2012.
166.Jump up ^ Knickerbocker, Brad (February 9, 2007). "Anti-Immigrant Sentiments Fuel Ku Klux Klan Resurgence". The Christian Science Monitor.
167.Jump up ^ Akins, J. Keith (January 2006). "The Ku Klux Klan: America's Forgotten Terrorists". Law Enforcement Executive Forum. p. 137.
168.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan – Affiliations – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
169.Jump up ^ See, e.g., "A.C.L.U. Lawsuit Backs Klan In Seeking Permit for Cross". The New York Times. December 16, 1993. (accessed August 2009); "ACLU Defends KKK, Wins". Channel3000. January 4, 1999. Retrieved July 28, 2010. The ACLU professes a mission to defend the constitutional rights of all groups, whether left, center, or right.
170.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America – Active Groups (by state)". adl.org. Anti-Defamation League. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
171.Jump up ^ "No. 2 Klan group on trial in Ky. teen's beating". Associated Press. November 11, 2008. Retrieved November 22, 2008.
172.Jump up ^ "White Camelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan – Home page". wckkkk.org. White Camelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
173.Jump up ^ "Arkansas Klan Group Loses Legal Battle with North Carolina Newspaper". Anti-Defamation League. July 9, 2009. Retrieved August 15, 2008.
174.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan sets up Australian branch". BBC News. June 2, 1999. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
175.Jump up ^ Ansley, Greg (June 5, 1999). "Dark mystique of the KKK". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
176.Jump up ^ Jensen, Erik (July 10, 2009). "We have infiltrated party: KKK". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
177.Jump up ^ Hosken, Andy (June 10, 1999). "KKK plans 'infiltration' of the UK". BBC News. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
178.Jump up ^ Parry, Ryan (October 19, 2011). "We expose vile racist biker as British leader of the Ku Klux Klan". Daily Mail. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
179.Jump up ^ Peter Barberis, John McHugh, Mike Tyldesley, Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations, 2002, p. 184
180.Jump up ^ German Police Kept Jobs Despite KKK Involvement, Der Spiegel
181.Jump up ^ Ku Klux Klan: German Police Officers Allowed to Stay on Job Despite Links with European Branch of White Supremacists, International Business Times
182.Jump up ^ 'KKK cops' scandal uncovered amid German neo-Nazi terror probe, Russia Today
183.Jump up ^ Kim Gravelle, Fiji's Times: A History of Fiji, Suva: The Fiji Times, 1988, pp. 120-124
184.Jump up ^ Jovem ligado à Ku Klux Klan é detido em São Paulo
185.Jump up ^ "A Visual Database of Extremist Symbols, Logos and Tattoos". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
186.Jump up ^ Axelrod 1997, p. 160.
187.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 142. "'It was rather difficult, sometimes, to make the two letters fit in,' he recalled later, 'but I did it somehow.'"
188.Jump up ^ Chester L. Quarles (1999). The Ku Klux Klan and related American racialist and antisemitic organizations. McFarland Publishing. ISBN 0-7864-0647-X. "Imperial Kludd: Is the Chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and shall perform such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard ..."
Further reading
Axelrod, Alan (1997). The International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies & Fraternal Orders. New York: Facts On File.
Baker, Kelly J. Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915-1930 (University Press of Kansas, 2011) ISBN 978-0700617920.
Barr, Andrew (1999). Drink: A Social History of America. New York: Carroll & Graf.
Chalmers, David M. (1987). Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan. Durahm, N.C.: Duke University Press. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-8223-0730-3.
Chalmers, David M. (2003). Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement. ISBN 0-7425-2310-1.
Cunningham, David. Klansville, USA: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-Era Ku Klux Klan (Oxford University Press, 2013). 360pp.
Dray, Philip (2002). At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America. New York: Random House.
Egerton, John (1994). Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South. Alfred and Knopf Inc.
Feldman, Glenn (1999). Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press.
Fleming, Walter J. Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment (1905)
Foner, Eric (1989). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. Perennial (HarperCollins).
Fox, Craig. Everyday Klansfolk: White Protestant Life and the KKK in 1920s Michigan (Michigan State University Press, 2011), 274 pp. ISBN 978-0-87013-995-6.
Franklin, John Hope (1992). Race and History: Selected Essays 1938–1988. Louisiana State University Press.
Fryer, Roland G., Jr; Levitt, Steven D. (September 2007), Hatred and Profits: Getting Under the Hood of the Ku Klux Klan, National Bureau of Economic Research, retrieved 22 January 2015
Horn, Stanley F. (1939). Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871. Montclair, New Jersey: Patterson Smith Publishing Corporation.
Ingalls, Robert P. (1979). Hoods: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Jackson, Kenneth T. (1967). The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (1992 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Kennedy, Stetson (1990). The Klan Unmasked. University Press of Florida.
McVeigh, Rory. The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (2009), on 1920s.
Lender, Mark E.; Martin, James K. (1982). Drinking in America. New York: Free Press.
Lewis, George. ""An Amorphous Code": The Ku Klux Klan and Un-Americanism, 1915–1965." Journal of American Studies (2013) 47#4 pp: 971-992.
McWhorter, Diane (2001). Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Moore, Leonard J. (1991). Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Newton, Michael; Newton, Judy Ann (1991). The Ku Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia. New York & London: Garland Publishing.
Parsons, Elaine Frantz (2005). "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". The Journal of American History 92 (3): 811–836. doi:10.2307/3659969.
Pegram, Thomas R. One hundred percent American: the rebirth and decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (Rowman & Littlefield, 2011)
Pitsula, James M. Keeping Canada British: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Saskatchewan (University of British Columbia Press, 2013)
Prendergast, Michael L. (1987). "A History of Alcohol Problem Prevention Efforts in the United States". In Holder, Harold D. Control Issues in Alcohol Abuse Prevention: Strategies for States and Communities. Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press.
Rhodes, James Ford (1920). History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896 7. Winner of the 1918 Pulitzer Prize for history.
Rogers, William; Ward, Robert; Atkins, Leah; Flynt, Wayne (1994). Alabama: The History of a Deep South State. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press.
Steinberg, Alfred (1962). The man from Missouri; the life and times of Harry S. Truman. New York: Putnam. OCLC 466366.
Taylor, Joe G. (1974). Louisiana Reconstructed, 1863–1877. Baton Rouge.
Thompson, Jerry (1982). My Life in the Klan. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-12695-3.
Trelease, Allen W. (1995). White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction. Louisiana State University Press.
Wade, Wyn Craig. The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (Oxford University Press, 1998)
Historiography
Eagles, Charles W. "Urban‐Rural Conflict in the 1920s: A Historiographical Assessment." Historian (1986) 49#1 pp: 26-48.
Horowitz, David A. "The Normality of Extremism: The Ku Klux Klan Revisited." Society (1998) 35#6 pp: 71-77.
Lay, Shawn, ed. "The invisible empire in the west: Toward a new historical appraisal of the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s" (University of Illinois Press, 2004)
Lewis, Michael, and Jacqueline Serbu. "Kommemorating the Ku Klux Klan." Sociological Quarterly (1999) 40#1: 139-158. Deals with the memory of the KKK in Pulaski, Tennessee. Online
Moore, Leonard J. "Historical Interpretations of the 1920's Klan: The Traditional View and the Populist Revision" Journal of Social History (1990) 24#2 pp 341–357.
Sneed, Edgar P. "A Historiography of Reconstruction in Texas: Some Myths and Problems." Southwestern Historical Quarterly (1969): 435-448. in JSTOR
Further reading
Blee, Kathleen M. (1992). Women of the Klan. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07876-4.
Brooks, Michael E. The Ku Klux Klan in Wood County, Ohio. Charleston: The History Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1626193345.
Cunningham, David. Klansville, USA: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-Era Ku Klux Klan. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
"White supremacist groups flourishing". Gainesville Press. Associated Press. February 6, 2007.
Nelson, Jack (1993). Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69223-2.
Chalmers, David M. (2003). Backfire: how the Ku Klux Klan helped the civil rights movement. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-2310-1.
External links
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ku Klux Klan.
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Portal:Ku Klux Klan

Prescript of the * * first edition of the Klans 1867 prescript
Revised and Amended Prescript of the Order of the * * * first edition of the Klans 1868 prescript
Civil Rights Greensboro
The Ku Klux Klan in Washington State, from the Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, examines the influence of the second KKK in the State during the 1920s.
"Ku Klux Klan", Southern Poverty Law Center
"KKK", Anti-Defamation League
"Inside Today's KKK", multimedia, Life magazine, April 13, 2009
Interview with Stanley F. Horn, author of Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871 (1939), Forest History Society, Inc., May 1978
Booknotes interview with Jack Nelson on Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews, February 7, 1993


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Christian Identity

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For the general identity of an individual with certain core essential religious doctrines, see Christianity.
Christian Identity (also known as Identity Christianity[1]) (CI) refers to a belief system, which holds that the ancient Israelites are the Anglo-Saxon, Germanic, Nordic and kindred peoples of the world and are the physical descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. It is not an organized religion but composed of individuals, churches and some prison gangs[2] with a white supremacist theology[3][4] that promotes a racial interpretation of Christianity. Christian Identity beliefs were primarily developed and promoted by two authors who borrowed racialist doctrines from Rabbinic Judaism and then reversed their application to Jews and Europeans, so the Europeans are considered the "chosen people" and the Jews are considered the cursed offspring of Cain. Many of these teachings were later adopted by white supremacist sects and gangs.
An early Christian Identity teacher, Wesley Swift, appropriated the Talmudic teaching on other races to formulate the doctrine that non-Caucasian peoples have no souls and therefore can never earn God's favor or be saved.[5][6] Other notable Christian Identity scholars/teachers include Bertrand Comparet (1933-1983), an attorney admitted to the California Supreme Court, the United States Supreme Court, was a Deputy District Attorney in San Diego County and Deputy City Attorney for the City of San Diego;[7] Lt. Col. Gordon "Jack" Mohr (1916-2003);[8] and Col. William Potter Gale (1916-1988), who served under General MacArthur in WWII and retired from Hughes Aircraft to become a Christian Identity minister in 1956.[9]
Some of Christian Identity's ideas have roots in British Israelism, which teaches that many white Europeans are the literal descendants of the Israelites through the ten tribes that were taken away into captivity by the armies of Assyria. British Israelism teaches that these white European Israelites are still God's chosen people and that Jesus was an Israelite of the tribe of Judah but differs from Christian Identity by teaching the contemporary Jews are descended from the Tribe of Judah. Christian Identity deviates from British Israelism by asserting that the Tribe of Judah was also carried away captive from their homeland and displaced by Caananites, Edomites, Hittites, etc., who occupied Judea after Judah was removed from the territory and were called Jews because they lived in the land of Judea, not because they were descendants of Judah. Thus, they teach the modern Jews are neither Israelites nor Hebrews but are instead descended from people with Turco-Mongolian blood, or Khazars,[10] or are descendants of the biblical Esau-Edom,[11][12][13] who traded his birthright for a bowl of red stew (Genesis 25:29–34) and mixed his seed line by taking a Canaanite (Genesis 36:2–6) and Hittite to wife (Genesis 26:34).
The Christian Identity movement first received widespread attention by mainstream media in 1984, when the white nationalist organization known as The Order embarked on a murderous crime spree before being taken down by the FBI. Tax resister and militia movement organizer Gordon Kahl, whose death in a 1983 shootout with authorities helped inspire The Order, also had connections to the Christian Identity movement.[14][15] The movement returned to public attention in 1992 and 1993, in the wake of the deadly Ruby Ridge confrontation, when newspapers discovered that former Green Beret and right-wing separatist Randy Weaver had at least a loose association with Christian Identity believers.[16]
No single document expresses the Christian Identity belief system and there is much disagreement in the doctrines being taught by those ascribing to CI beliefs since there is no central organization or headquarters for the CI church. Most CI adherents study the scriptures in-depth for themselves and arrive at their own system of beliefs and doctrines. They also draw upon arguments from linguistic, historical, archaeological and biblical sources to support their beliefs, such as The Behistun Rock [17] and the Assyrian Tablets.[18] Some CI groups teach a dual seedline doctrine [19] while other CI teachers reject the dual seedline teachings.[20] Some believe in a literal Satan while others do not. Id. But all CI adherents believe Adam and his offspring were exclusively White and that the other races are separate species, which cannot be equated with or derived from the Adamites.[21] In this respect, CI proponents do not believe in race mixing but abide by Yahweh's commandment to the Israelites not to mix their holy seed.[22] Ezr 9:2,12; Neh 13:27.
These groups are estimated to have 2,000 members in the United States,[23] and an unknown number in Canada and the rest of the British Commonwealth. Due to the promotion of Christian Identity doctrines through radio and later the Internet, an additional 50,000 unaffiliated individuals are thought to hold Christian Identity beliefs.[23] The primary spread of Christian Identity teachings is believed to be through white supremacist prison gangs.[24]
Christian Identity believers reject the doctrines of most contemporary Christian denominations[25] and believe the teaching—that God's promises to Israel (through Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) has been expanded to create a spiritual people of "Israel",i.e., the Christian Church—is heresy.[26] In turn, most modern Christian denominations and organizations denounce Christian Identity as heresy and condemn the use of the Christian Bible as a basis for promoting white supremacy and antisemitism.[citation needed]
Adherents of Christian Identity claim that Europeans are the true descendants of the biblical Jacob, based on the Bible's teachings that the Israelites migrated north through the Caucasus Mountains, settling throughout Europe and were thus called "Caucasians"[27] and are the true Israel, i.e., those that keep the Commandments and the testimony of Jesus Christ (Rev 12:17), which the contemporary Jews do not and thus could not be the Israelites. Hence, Christian Identity adherents claim it is those who are against the interests of European-descended Christians that are the true anti-Semites.


Contents  [hide]
1 Origins 1.1 Relation to British Israelism
1.2 Early years
1.3 Key developers
2 Ideology, tenets and beliefs 2.1 Two House Theology
2.2 Origin beliefs
2.3 Adamites and pre-Adamites
2.4 Creationism
2.5 Racialism
2.6 World's end and Armageddon
2.7 Anti-Jewish and anti-homosexual
2.8 Anti-banking system
3 Groups 3.1 Aryan Nations
4 See also
5 Footnotes
6 Bibliography
7 External links

Origins[edit]
Christian Identity as a movement emerged as an offshoot sect of British Israelism in the 1920s and 1930s.[28][29] However, the idea that "lower races" are mentioned in the Bible (in contrast to Aryans) was posited in the 1905 book "Theozoology; or The Science of the Sodomite Apelings and the Divine Electron" by Jorg Lanz von Liebenfels, a volkisch writer seen by many historians as a major influence on Nazism. Hitler, however, did not subscribe to the belief that the Israelites of the Bible were actually Aryans; in a speech he gave in Munich in 1922 titled "Why We Are Anti-Semites", he referred to and disparaged Abraham as racially Jewish.[30]
Relation to British Israelism[edit]
Paradoxically, while early British Israelites such as Edward Hine and John Wilson were philo-semites, Christian Identity emerged in sharp contrast to be strongly antisemitic.[31] The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) describes the emergence of Christian Identity from British Israelism as an 'ugly turn':

Once on American shores, British-Israelism began to evolve. Originally, believers viewed contemporary Jews as descendants of those ancient Israelites who had never been "lost." They might be seen critically but, given their significant role in the British-Israel genealogical scheme, not usually with animosity. By the 1930s, however, in the U.S., a strain of antisemitism started to permeate the movement (though some maintained traditional beliefs—and a small number of traditionalists still exist in the U.S.)[29]
Another source describes the emergence of Christian Identity from British Israelism as a "remarkable transition", also noting that traditional British Israelites were advocates of Philo-Semitism which paradoxically changed to antisemitism and racism under Christian Identity.[32] In fact, British Israelism itself had several Jewish members and it received support from rabbis throughout the 19th century and within British politics it supported Benjamin Disraeli who was descended from Sephardic Jews.[33][34] However, Christian Identity which emerged in the 1920s, began to be antisemitic teaching that the Jews are not descended from the tribe of Judah (as British Israelites maintain) but are instead descended from Satan or Edomite-Khazars.[35] The British Israel form of the belief held no anti-Semitism, its followers instead held the view that Jews made up a minority of the tribes of Israel (Judah and Benjamin), with the British and other related Northern European peoples making up the remainder.
Early years[edit]
Christian Identity (CI) can be traced as far back to 1886 with the publication of the book, Lost Israel Found in the Anglo-Saxon Race, by E.P. Ingerson[36] and in the 1920s to Howard Rand (1889–1991).[37][38]
Rand was a Massachusetts lawyer who obtained a law degree at the University of Maine. He was raised as a British Israelite, and his father introduced him to J. H. Allen's work Judah's Sceptre and Joseph's Birthright (1902)[39] at an early age.[40] While Rand's father was not an antisemite, nor was even Rand in his early British Israelite years, Rand first added an antisemitic element to British Israelism in the 1920s. He claimed as early as 1924 that the Jews were not really descended from the tribe of Judah, but were instead the descendants of Esau or Canaanites.[41] However, Rand never claimed that modern Jews were descendants of Satan, or that they were in any way inferior, he just claimed that they were not the true lineal descendants of Judah.[42] For this reason Rand is considered a 'transitional' figure between British Israelism and Christian Identity, but not its actual founder.[43] However Rand first coined the term 'Christian Identity'.[44] Rand had set up the Anglo-Saxon Federation of America in 1933 which promoted his view that Jews were not descended from Judah, which marked the first key transition from British Israelism to Christian Identity. Beginning in May 1937 there were key meetings between British Israelites in America who were attracted to Rand’s new theory that the Jews were not really descended from Judah. This provided the catalyst for the eventual emergence of Christian Identity, and by the late 1930s the Jews were considered to be the offspring of Satan and were heavily demonised, as were non-Caucasian races.[45][46] William Dudley Pelley, founder of the fascist Silver Shirts movement, also promoted an anti-semitic form of British Israelism in the early 1930s.[47] Links between Christian Identity and the Ku Klux Klan also emerged in the late 1930s.[48]
Key developers[edit]
Wesley Swift (1913–1970) is considered by the FBI to have been the most significant figure in the early years of the Christian Identity movement. Swift was born in New Jersey, and eventually moved to Los Angeles in order to attend Bible college. It is claimed that he may have been a "Ku Klux Klan organizer and a Klan rifle-team instructor."[49] In 1946, he founded his own church in Lancaster, California. In the 1950s, he was Gerald L. K. Smith's West Coast representative of the Christian Nationalist Crusade. In addition, he had a daily radio broadcast in California during the 1950s and 1960s, through which he was able to proclaim his ideology to a large audience. With Swift's efforts, the message of his church spread, leading to the creation of similar churches throughout the country. In 1957, the name of his church was changed to The Church of Jesus Christ Christian, which is used today by Aryan Nations (AN) churches. One of Swift's associates was retired Col. William Potter Gale (1917–1988). Gale had apparently been an aide to General Douglas MacArthur, and had coordinated guerrilla resistance in the Philippines during World War II. Gale became a leading figure in the anti-tax and paramilitary movements of the 1970s and 1980s, beginning with the California Rangers and the Posse Comitatus, and helping to found the militia movement. Numerous Christian Identity churches preach similar messages and some espouse more violent rhetoric than others, but all hold to the belief that Aryans are God's chosen race. Gale introduced future Aryan Nations founder Richard Girnt Butler to Swift. Until then, Butler had admired George Lincoln Rockwell and Senator Joseph McCarthy, and had been relatively secular. Swift quickly converted him to Christian Identity. When Swift died, Butler took over the Church, to the apparent dismay of both Gale and Swift's family. Neither Butler nor Gale were anything like the dynamic orator that Swift had been, and attendance dwindled under the new pastor. Butler eventually renamed the organisation "The Church of Jesus Christ Christian/Aryan Nations" and moved it to Hayden Lake, Idaho.
Lesser luminaries were also present as Christian Identity theology took shape in the 1940s and 1950s, such as Baptist minister and California Klansman San Jacinto Capt (who claimed that he had introduced Wesley Swift to Christian Identity), and one-time San Diego Deputy City Attorney (and lawyer for Gerald L. K. Smith) Bertrand Comparet (1901–1983). But for the most part, today's Christian Identity groups seem to have been spawned by Wesley Swift, through his lieutenants William Potter Gale and Richard Butler.
Ideology, tenets and beliefs[edit]
Christian Identity asserts that the white people of Europe or Caucasians in general are God's servant people according to the promises that were given to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It further asserts that the early European tribes were really the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel and therefore the rightful heirs to God's promises, and God's chosen people. Professor Colin Kidd wrote that in America Christian Identity exploited "the puzzle of the Ten Lost Tribes to justify an openly anti-Semitic and virulently racist agenda."[50]
Two House Theology[edit]
Like British Israelites, Christian Identity (CI) adherents believe in Two House Theology.[51] However the major difference between British Israelism and CI is that British Israelites have always maintained that Jews are descended from the tribe of Judah.[52] In contrast, while also maintaining a Two House distinction, Christian Identity proponents believe that the true lineal descendants of Judah are not contemporary Jews, but are instead White Europeans whose ancestors settled mainly in Scotland, Germany, and other European nations, alongside the House of Israel. They are Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, Germanic, Nordic, and kindred peoples.[51][53] Some CI scholars teach that many contemporary Jews are the descendants of Cain, citing Genesis 3:12, John 8:44 and 1 John 3:12 in support of their position and they also teach that Cain was the spawn of Satan.[54]
Origin beliefs[edit]
Identity teaches that "Israel" was the name given to Jacob after battling the angel at Peniel in Genesis 32:26-32. "Israel" then had twelve sons, which began the twelve tribes of Israel.[55]:101 In 975 B.C. the ten northern tribes revolted, seceded from the south, and became the Kingdom of Israel.[55]:101 After being subsequently conquered by Assyria, the ten tribes disappear from Biblical record, becoming the Lost Tribes of Israel.[55]:101
According to Identity doctrine, 2 Esdras 13:39–46 then records the history of the nation of Israel journeying over the Caucasus mountains, along the Black Sea, to the Ar Sereth tributory of the Danube in Romania ("But they formed this plan for themselves, that they would leave the multitude of the nations and go to a more distant region, where no human beings had ever lived. … Through that region there was a long way to go, a journey of a year and a half; and that country is called Arzareth").[55]:101 The tribes prospered, and eventually colonised other European countries. Israel's leading tribe, the Tribe of Dan, is attributed with settling and naming many areas which are today distinguished by place names derived from its name – written ancient Hebrew contains no vowels, and hence "Dan" would be written as DN, but would be pronounced with an intermediate vowel dependent on the local dialect, meaning that Dan, Den, Din, Don, and Dun all have the same meaning.[55]:101 Various modern place names are said to derive from the name of this tribe:[55]:101
Macedonia – Macedonia – derived from Moeshe-don-ia (Moeshe being "the land of Moses")
Danube – Dan-ube, Dneister – Dn-eister, Dneiper – Dn-eiper, Donetz – Don-etz, Danzig – Dan-zig, Don – Don
Some followers claim that the Identity genealogy of the Davidic line can be traced from its beginnings right down to the Royal rulers of Britain and Queen Elizabeth herself.[55]:102–105 Thus Anglo-Saxons are the true Israelites, God's chosen people who were given the divine right to rule the world until the Second Coming of Christ.[55]:101
Adamites and pre-Adamites[edit]
A major tenet of Christian Identity is Pre-Adamism. Christian Identity followers believe that Adam and Eve are ancestors of whites alone, and that Adam and Eve were preceded by lesser, non-Caucasian races often (though not always) identified as "beasts of the field" (Genesis 1:25); for example, the "beasts" which wore sackcloth and cried unto God (Jonah 3:8) are identified as the black races by Christian Identity adherents.[56] To support their theory on the racial identity of Adam, Christian Identity proponents point out that the Hebrew etymology of the word 'Adam' translates as 'be ruddy, red, to show blood (in the face)' often quoting from James Strong's Hebrew Dictionary #119 (1890) and from this conclude that only Caucasians or people with light white skin can blush or turn rosy in the face (because hemoglobin only appears under pale skin).[57] Proponents of Christian Identity believe that Adam was only created 6,000 years ago, while the other non-Caucasian races were created during far older epochs that occurred on the other continents.
"Dual Seedliner" Christian Identity proponents—those who believe that Eve bore children to Satan as well as Adam—believe that Eve was seduced by the Snake (Satan), shared her fallen state with Adam by lying with him, and gave birth to twins with different fathers: Satan's child Cain and Adam's son Abel. Cain then became the progenitor of the Jews in his subsequent matings with the non-Adamic races. This is referred to as the two-seedline doctrine. While this belief ascribing the ancestry of legendary monsters such as Grendel to Cain.,[53] was somewhat widespread in medieval times, the oldest example of it is in the Babylonian Talmud. Ironically, Christian Identity's dual seed line doctrine originated in Jewish rabbinical literature, but has been turned around to identify white people as the children of Adam, and Jews as children of the Serpent.
The Serpent Seed idea appears in a 9th-century book called Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer.[58] In his book Cain: Son of the Serpent, David Max Eichhorn, traces the idea back to early Jewish Midrashic texts and identifies many rabbis who taught that Cain was the son of the union between the serpent and Eve.[58] Some Kabbalist rabbis also believe that Cain and Abel were of a different genetic background than Seth. This is known among Kabbalists as "The Theory of Origins".[59] The theory teaches that God created two "Adams" (adam means "man" in Hebrew). To one he gave a soul and to the other he did not give a soul. The one without a soul is the creature known in Christianity as the serpent. The Kabbalists call the serpent Nahash (meaning serpent in Hebrew). This is recorded in the Zohar:

"Two beings [Adam and Nachash] had intercourse with Eve, and she conceived from both and bore two children. Each followed one of the male parents, and their spirits parted, one to this side and one to the other, and similarly their characters. On the side of Cain are all the haunts of the evil species; from the side of Abel comes a more merciful class, yet not wholly beneficial – good wine mixed with bad." (Zohar 136)
A seminal influence on the Christian Identity movement's views on pre-Adamism was a book published in 1900 by Charles Carroll entitled The Negro a Beast or In the Image of God?. Carroll concludes in the book that the White race was made in the image and likeness of God and that Adam gave birth to the White race only, while Negros are pre-Adamite beasts and could not possibly have been made in God's image and likeness because they are beast-like, immoral and ugly.[60] Carroll claimed that the pre-Adamite races such as blacks did not have souls. Carroll believed that race mixing was an insult to God and spoiled God's racial plan of creation. According to Carroll the mixing of races had also lead to the errors of atheism and evolutionism.[61]
Creationism[edit]
Christian Identity proponents are Old Earth Creationists, but they believe that Adam (who was the father of the white race or Caucasians) was only created around 6,000 years ago, while they also believe that both the universe and Earth are billions of years old and that non-Caucasian races were created hundreds of thousands or even millions of years ago.
Wesley Swift strongly criticised Young Earth Creationism and the traditional Judeo-Christian view that Noah's flood was global. He instead believed that the flood was only local and that the Earth was billions of years old.[53] Christian Identity adherents claim that the flood in Genesis only rose high enough to drown the region of the Tarim Basin below sea level (Gen. 7:20) and that therefore the Hebrew word "eretz" which appears in those verses should be rendered "the land" (as in a specific place) rather than "the earth."[citation needed]
Racialism[edit]
Racialism, or race-based philosophy, is the core tenet of Christian Identity, and most CI adherents are White Nationalists or support racial segregation. Some believe that Jews are genetically compelled by their Satanic or Edomite ancestry to carry on a conspiracy against the Adamic seedline and today have achieved almost complete control of the Earth through their illegitimate claim to the white race's status as God's chosen people.[62] As a general rule, Christian Identity followers adhere to the traditional orthodox Christian views on the role of women (See Biblical patriarchy), abortion (Exodus 21:22), and homosexuality (Leviticus 20:13), and they believe that racial miscegenation is a sin and a violation of God's law in Genesis 1:24–25 which commands that all creatures produce "kind after kind."
In addition to their strict fundamentalist racial views Christian Identity adherents distinguish themselves from mainstream Protestant Fundamentalism in various areas of theology. Some Christian Identity adherents follow the Mosaic law of the Old Testament (e.g., dietary restrictions, the seventh-day Sabbath, certain annual festivals such as Passover). It is also commonplace for adherents to follow the Sacred Name Movement and they insist on using the original Hebrew names when referring to God (Yahweh) and Jesus Christ (Yahshua). Some Christian Identity writers criticize modern Bible editions as well as the Jews for the removal of the original Hebrew name of God from the Bible. Although their adherence to Old Testament Mosaic law may make them appear "Jewish"; they claim that the Jewish interpretation of the law has been corrupted through the Jews' Talmud. Unlike many Protestant Fundamentalists, Christian Identity adherents reject the notion of a Rapture, believing it to be a Judaized doctrine which the Bible does not teach.[63]
World's end and Armageddon[edit]
Christian Identity supporters believe in the Second Coming and Armageddon. Predictions vary, including race war or a Jewish-backed United Nations takeover of the US, and they endorse physical struggle against what they see as the forces of evil.[64]
Anti-Jewish and anti-homosexual[edit]
While being anti-Jewish, Identity Christianity is a mirror image of rabbinical teachings on the separation theology of ancient Judaism and Jewish texts such as the Book of Enoch. Identity asserts that disease, addiction, cancer, and sexually transmitted diseases (herpes and AIDS) are spread by human "rodents" via contact with "unclean" persons, such as through "race-mixing".[55]:85 The first book of Enoch is used to justify these social theories; the fallen angels of Heaven sexually desired Earth maidens and took them as wives, resulting in the birth of abominations, which God ordered Michael the Archangel to destroy, thus beginning a cosmic war between Light and Darkness.[55]:85 The mixing of separate things (e.g., people of different races) is seen as defiling both, and is against God's will.[55]:86
Identity preachers proclaim that, according to the King James Bible, "the penaltys for race-mixing, homo-sexuality, and usury are death."[55]:86 The justification for killing homosexuals is provided by Leviticus 20:13 "If a man also lie with mankind, as he lieth with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination: they shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon them." Exodus 22:25, Leviticus 25:35–37 and Deuteronomy explicitly condemn usury.[55]:92 Ezekiel 18:13 states "He who hath given forth upon usury, and hath taken increase: shall he then live? he shall not live: he hath done all these abominations; he shall surely die; his blood shall be upon him" and is quoted as justification for killing Jews, since Jews have traditionally had a large presence in the usury business.
Identity followers reject the label of "anti-Semitic", stating that they can't be anti-Semitic, since in fact the true Semites "today are the great White Christian nations of the western world", with modern Jews in fact being descendants of the Canaanites.[55]
Anti-banking system[edit]
Identity doctrine asserts that the "root of all evil" is paper money (in particular Federal Reserve Notes), and that usury and banking systems are controlled by Jews.[55]:87 The creation of the Federal Reserve System in 1913 shifted control of money from Congress to private institutions and violated the Constitution. The money system encourages the Federal Reserve to take out loans, creating trillions of dollars of government debt and allowing international bankers to control America. Credit/debit cards and computerised bills are seen as the fulfillment of the Biblical scripture warning against "the beast" (i.e. banking) as quoted in Rev 13:15–18. Identity preacher Sheldon Emry claims "Most of the owners of the largest banks in America are of Eastern European (Jewish) ancestry and connected with the (Jewish) Rothschild European banks", thus, in Identity doctrine, the global banking conspiracy is led and controlled by Jewish interests.[55]:91
Groups[edit]
Christian Identity is a major unifying theology for a number of diverse groups of white nationalist Christians. It is a belief system that provides its members with a religious basis for racial separatism. Herbert W. Armstrong is inaccurately described by some of his critics, as well as by supporters of Christian Identity, as having supported Christian Identity, due to his belief in a modified form of British Israelism, and the fact that during his lifetime, he propounded observances favoured by many Christian Identity groups, such as seventh-day Sabbatarianism and biblical festivals. The Worldwide Church of God that Armstrong founded did not subscribe to the anti-Semitism commonly espoused by the Christian or Israel Identity groups but instead adhered to the traditional beliefs of British Israelism; i.e., the belief held that modern day Jews were descendants of the Tribe of Judah whereas the Anglo-Saxons, Celts, Danes, etc. were descendants of the remaining Ten Tribes of Israel formerly known as the Northern Kingdom.
Christian Identity groups include "The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord", the Phineas Priesthood, the Oklahoma Constitutional Militia, also known as The Universal Church of God. Christian Identity is also related to other groups such as Aryan Nations, the Aryan Republican Army (ARA) and the Patriots Council, Church of Jesus Christ Christian, Thomas Robb, Mission To Israel, Folk And Faith, Jubilee (newspaper), Yahweh's Truth (James Wickstrom), Church of Israel[24][65] and Kingdom Identity Ministries.
South African branches of Christian Identity have been accused of involvement in terrorist activity, including the 2002 Soweto bombings.[66]
Christian Identity groups include the Heritage Christian Church and Legion for Survival of Freedom.
Aryan Nations[edit]


 This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2008)
The Aryan Nations (AN) is a group that adheres to the Christian Identity belief system. The group espouses dislike towards Jews, blacks and other minorities, as well as the United States federal government. The original ultimate goal of the AN is to forcibly take five northwestern states – Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, Washington and Montana – from the United States government in order to establish an Aryan homeland. This particular ideology is known throughout the White power movement as the Northwest Territorial Imperative. The AN was headquartered at Hayden Lake, Idaho from the late 1970s until February 2001. Its annual World Congress attracted a number of different factions from the far-right. The World Congress was a sort of round table to discuss racialist issues. Since the main Aryan Nations property in Idaho was dismantled following a costly lawsuit against the group and the death of Richard Butler, there have been several struggles over control of the movement that are as yet unresolved.
See also[edit]
August Kreis III
Byron De La Beckwith
Chevie Kehoe
Christian Patriot movement
Dewey H "Buddy" Tucker
Elohim City, Oklahoma
Kinism
List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
Positive Christianity
Richard Girnt Butler
Samuel Bowers
Wesley Swift
Footnotes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ "Extremism in America - Christian Identity".
2.Jump up ^ "Bigotry Behind Bars: Racist Groups In U.S. Prisons".
3.Jump up ^ Eck, Diane (2001). A New Religious America: How a "Christian Country" has become the world’s most religiously diverse nation. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 347.
4.Jump up ^ Buck, Christopher (2009). Religious Myths and Visions of America: How Minority Faiths Redefined America's World Role. Praeger. pp. 107, 108, 213. ISBN 978-0313359590.
5.Jump up ^ Quarles, Chester L. (2004). Christian Identity: The Aryan American Bloodline Religion. McFarland & Company. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7864-1892-3.
6.Jump up ^ Mason, Carol (2002). Killing for Life: The Apocalyptic Narrative of Pro-Life Politics. Cornell University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0801488191.
7.Jump up ^ "Bertrand L. Comparet - Legion of Saints".
8.Jump up ^ "Col. Jack Mohr - Yahuwah and Christian Identity".
9.Jump up ^ "William Potter Gale - Aryan Nations".
10.Jump up ^ "Map of the Khazar Empire".
11.Jump up ^ "Edomites".
12.Jump up ^ "The Serpent Seedline".
13.Jump up ^ "Esau/Edom, and the Trail of the Serpent – XII".
14.Jump up ^ "Sovereign Citizen Movement - Extremism in America". Adl.org.
15.Jump up ^ King, Wayne (August 21, 1990). "Books of The Times; A Farmer's Fatal Obsession With Jews and Taxes". The New York Times.
16.Jump up ^ "Reason Magazine – Ambush at Ruby Ridge".
17.Jump up ^ "Behistun Rock".
18.Jump up ^ "Assyrian Tablets".
19.Jump up ^ "Anglo-Saxon Israel - Part 4: The Book of Genetics".
20.Jump up ^ "The Serpent of Genesis".
21.Jump up ^ "Anglo-Saxon Israel - Beast of the Field".
22.Jump up ^ "Some Scriptures showing Race Mixing as Evil".
23.^ Jump up to: a b Barkun, Michael (1996). "preface". Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement. University of North Carolina Press. pp. x. ISBN 0-8078-4638-4.
24.^ Jump up to: a b "Extremism in America: Dan Gayman". Anti-Defamation League. 2005.
25.Jump up ^ "What is Christian Identity?".
26.Jump up ^ "Could You Be An Israelite And Not Know It?".
27.Jump up ^ "Abrahamic Covenant".
28.Jump up ^ Religion and the racist right: the origins of the Christian Identity movement, Michael Barkun, 1997, Preface, xii, xiii.
29.^ Jump up to: a b "Christian Identity". Adl.org.
30.Jump up ^ ""Why We Are Antisemites" - Text of Adolf Hitler's 1920 speech at the Hofbräuhaus".
31.Jump up ^ Barkun 2003, p. xii.
32.Jump up ^ Christian Identity: The Aryan American Bloodline Religion by Chester L. Quarles, 2004, p. 13.
33.Jump up ^ Quarles, pp. 13–19
34.Jump up ^ Life From The Dead, 1875, Vol. III, p. 154.
35.Jump up ^ Barkun, pp. 62–97.
36.Jump up ^ "Lost Israel Found In the Anglo-Saxon Race".
37.Jump up ^ Barkun, p. 27.
38.Jump up ^ Race Over Grace: The Racialist Religion of the Christian Identity Movement, Charles H. Roberts, 2003, pp. 9-10.
39.Jump up ^ "Judah's Sceptre and Joseph's Birthright".
40.Jump up ^ Race Over Grace: The Racialist Religion of the Christian Identity Movement, Charles H. Roberts, p. 9
41.Jump up ^ Barkun, pp. 45-54.
42.Jump up ^ Barkun, pp. 45-60.
43.Jump up ^ Charles H. Roberts, p. 9
44.Jump up ^ The Phinehas Priesthood: Violent Vanguard of the Christian Identity Movement, Danny W. Davis, 2010, p. 18
45.Jump up ^ Barkun, p. 140.
46.Jump up ^ Charles H. Roberts, pp. 11-15.
47.Jump up ^ Lobb, David. 'Fascist Apocalypse: William Pelley and Millennial Extremism', Paper presented at the 4th Annual Conference of the Center for Millennial Studies, November 1999
48.Jump up ^ Barkun, pp. 60-85.
49.Jump up ^ "Christian Defense League by D. Boylan 2004 Revision".
50.Jump up ^ Colin Kidd, The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world, 1600–2000, 2006, p. 44
51.^ Jump up to: a b Charles H. Roberts, pp.40-60
52.Jump up ^ Bosworth, F. E, The Bible Distinction Between the House of Israel and the House of Judah, Radio Address, 1920
53.^ Jump up to: a b c "Basic Christian Identity : Dr. Wesley A. Swift : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive". Archive.org. 2001-03-10.
54.Jump up ^ "Jewish Rabbis recognize Serpent Seedline as well as Sumerians, Targums and Biblical Accounts".
55.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p James Alfred Aho (1995). The Politics of Righteousness: Idaho Christian Patriotism. University of Washington Press. p. 86. ISBN 029597494X.
56.Jump up ^ Charles H. Roberts, pp.23-60
57.Jump up ^ "Basics for Understanding Yahweh's Kingdom". Anglo-Saxon Israel. 2009-06-04.
58.^ Jump up to: a b Cain: Son of the Serpent. Rossel Books. 1985. ISBN 0-940646-19-6.
59.Jump up ^ Rabbi Donmeh West. "Kabbalistic Genetics".
60.Jump up ^ Charles Carroll The Negro a beast"; or, "In the image of God"; the reasoner of the age, the revelator of the century! The Bible as it is! The Negro and his relation to the human family! The Negro not the son of Ham, 1900
61.Jump up ^ Colin Kidd, The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world, 1600–2000, 2006, p. 150
62.Jump up ^ "Who are the Jews? By: Bertrand Comparet".
63.Jump up ^ "I Come as a Thief.".
64.Jump up ^ Kaplan, Jeffrey (2002). Millennial violence: past, present, and future. Routledge. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-7146-5294-8.
65.Jump up ^ Max McCoy (28 January 2001). "Separatist by faith: Church of Israel's patriarch rebuts claims of racism" (PDF). Joplin Globe.
66.Jump up ^ Martin Schönteich and Henri Boshoff (2003). 'Volk' Faith and Fatherland: The Security Threat Posed by the White Right. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. ISBN 1-919913-30-0.
Bibliography[edit]
Barkun, M. (1994). Religion and the racist right: the origins of the Christian Identity movement. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Hill, David. The Gospel of Matthew. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981.
Ingram, W.L., (1995). God and Race: British-Israelism and Christian Identity, p. 119–126 in T. Miller, Ed., America's Alternative Religions, SUNY Press, Albany NY.
Kaplan, Jeffrey, (1997). Radical Religion in America, Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press. pp. 47–48.
Lakeland, P. (1997). Postmodernity: Christian identity in a fragmented age. Guides to theological inquiry. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.
Quarles, C. L. (2004). Christian Identity: the Aryan American bloodline religion. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.
Roberts, Charles H. (2003). Race over Grace: The Racialist Religion of the Christian Identity Movement, Omaha, Nebraska: iUniverse Press. ISBN 0-595-28197-4.
External links[edit]
FBI backgrounder on Christian Identity
  


Categories: Apocalypticism
Christian Identity
Christian fundamentalism
Late modern Christian antisemitism
Far-right politics in the United States
Politics and race in the United States
Racism in the United States
Religiously motivated violence in the United States
Terrorism in the United States
White separatism
White supremacy in the United States








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Christian Identity

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For the general identity of an individual with certain core essential religious doctrines, see Christianity.
Christian Identity (also known as Identity Christianity[1]) (CI) refers to a belief system, which holds that the ancient Israelites are the Anglo-Saxon, Germanic, Nordic and kindred peoples of the world and are the physical descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. It is not an organized religion but composed of individuals, churches and some prison gangs[2] with a white supremacist theology[3][4] that promotes a racial interpretation of Christianity. Christian Identity beliefs were primarily developed and promoted by two authors who borrowed racialist doctrines from Rabbinic Judaism and then reversed their application to Jews and Europeans, so the Europeans are considered the "chosen people" and the Jews are considered the cursed offspring of Cain. Many of these teachings were later adopted by white supremacist sects and gangs.
An early Christian Identity teacher, Wesley Swift, appropriated the Talmudic teaching on other races to formulate the doctrine that non-Caucasian peoples have no souls and therefore can never earn God's favor or be saved.[5][6] Other notable Christian Identity scholars/teachers include Bertrand Comparet (1933-1983), an attorney admitted to the California Supreme Court, the United States Supreme Court, was a Deputy District Attorney in San Diego County and Deputy City Attorney for the City of San Diego;[7] Lt. Col. Gordon "Jack" Mohr (1916-2003);[8] and Col. William Potter Gale (1916-1988), who served under General MacArthur in WWII and retired from Hughes Aircraft to become a Christian Identity minister in 1956.[9]
Some of Christian Identity's ideas have roots in British Israelism, which teaches that many white Europeans are the literal descendants of the Israelites through the ten tribes that were taken away into captivity by the armies of Assyria. British Israelism teaches that these white European Israelites are still God's chosen people and that Jesus was an Israelite of the tribe of Judah but differs from Christian Identity by teaching the contemporary Jews are descended from the Tribe of Judah. Christian Identity deviates from British Israelism by asserting that the Tribe of Judah was also carried away captive from their homeland and displaced by Caananites, Edomites, Hittites, etc., who occupied Judea after Judah was removed from the territory and were called Jews because they lived in the land of Judea, not because they were descendants of Judah. Thus, they teach the modern Jews are neither Israelites nor Hebrews but are instead descended from people with Turco-Mongolian blood, or Khazars,[10] or are descendants of the biblical Esau-Edom,[11][12][13] who traded his birthright for a bowl of red stew (Genesis 25:29–34) and mixed his seed line by taking a Canaanite (Genesis 36:2–6) and Hittite to wife (Genesis 26:34).
The Christian Identity movement first received widespread attention by mainstream media in 1984, when the white nationalist organization known as The Order embarked on a murderous crime spree before being taken down by the FBI. Tax resister and militia movement organizer Gordon Kahl, whose death in a 1983 shootout with authorities helped inspire The Order, also had connections to the Christian Identity movement.[14][15] The movement returned to public attention in 1992 and 1993, in the wake of the deadly Ruby Ridge confrontation, when newspapers discovered that former Green Beret and right-wing separatist Randy Weaver had at least a loose association with Christian Identity believers.[16]
No single document expresses the Christian Identity belief system and there is much disagreement in the doctrines being taught by those ascribing to CI beliefs since there is no central organization or headquarters for the CI church. Most CI adherents study the scriptures in-depth for themselves and arrive at their own system of beliefs and doctrines. They also draw upon arguments from linguistic, historical, archaeological and biblical sources to support their beliefs, such as The Behistun Rock [17] and the Assyrian Tablets.[18] Some CI groups teach a dual seedline doctrine [19] while other CI teachers reject the dual seedline teachings.[20] Some believe in a literal Satan while others do not. Id. But all CI adherents believe Adam and his offspring were exclusively White and that the other races are separate species, which cannot be equated with or derived from the Adamites.[21] In this respect, CI proponents do not believe in race mixing but abide by Yahweh's commandment to the Israelites not to mix their holy seed.[22] Ezr 9:2,12; Neh 13:27.
These groups are estimated to have 2,000 members in the United States,[23] and an unknown number in Canada and the rest of the British Commonwealth. Due to the promotion of Christian Identity doctrines through radio and later the Internet, an additional 50,000 unaffiliated individuals are thought to hold Christian Identity beliefs.[23] The primary spread of Christian Identity teachings is believed to be through white supremacist prison gangs.[24]
Christian Identity believers reject the doctrines of most contemporary Christian denominations[25] and believe the teaching—that God's promises to Israel (through Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) has been expanded to create a spiritual people of "Israel",i.e., the Christian Church—is heresy.[26] In turn, most modern Christian denominations and organizations denounce Christian Identity as heresy and condemn the use of the Christian Bible as a basis for promoting white supremacy and antisemitism.[citation needed]
Adherents of Christian Identity claim that Europeans are the true descendants of the biblical Jacob, based on the Bible's teachings that the Israelites migrated north through the Caucasus Mountains, settling throughout Europe and were thus called "Caucasians"[27] and are the true Israel, i.e., those that keep the Commandments and the testimony of Jesus Christ (Rev 12:17), which the contemporary Jews do not and thus could not be the Israelites. Hence, Christian Identity adherents claim it is those who are against the interests of European-descended Christians that are the true anti-Semites.


Contents  [hide]
1 Origins 1.1 Relation to British Israelism
1.2 Early years
1.3 Key developers
2 Ideology, tenets and beliefs 2.1 Two House Theology
2.2 Origin beliefs
2.3 Adamites and pre-Adamites
2.4 Creationism
2.5 Racialism
2.6 World's end and Armageddon
2.7 Anti-Jewish and anti-homosexual
2.8 Anti-banking system
3 Groups 3.1 Aryan Nations
4 See also
5 Footnotes
6 Bibliography
7 External links

Origins[edit]
Christian Identity as a movement emerged as an offshoot sect of British Israelism in the 1920s and 1930s.[28][29] However, the idea that "lower races" are mentioned in the Bible (in contrast to Aryans) was posited in the 1905 book "Theozoology; or The Science of the Sodomite Apelings and the Divine Electron" by Jorg Lanz von Liebenfels, a volkisch writer seen by many historians as a major influence on Nazism. Hitler, however, did not subscribe to the belief that the Israelites of the Bible were actually Aryans; in a speech he gave in Munich in 1922 titled "Why We Are Anti-Semites", he referred to and disparaged Abraham as racially Jewish.[30]
Relation to British Israelism[edit]
Paradoxically, while early British Israelites such as Edward Hine and John Wilson were philo-semites, Christian Identity emerged in sharp contrast to be strongly antisemitic.[31] The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) describes the emergence of Christian Identity from British Israelism as an 'ugly turn':

Once on American shores, British-Israelism began to evolve. Originally, believers viewed contemporary Jews as descendants of those ancient Israelites who had never been "lost." They might be seen critically but, given their significant role in the British-Israel genealogical scheme, not usually with animosity. By the 1930s, however, in the U.S., a strain of antisemitism started to permeate the movement (though some maintained traditional beliefs—and a small number of traditionalists still exist in the U.S.)[29]
Another source describes the emergence of Christian Identity from British Israelism as a "remarkable transition", also noting that traditional British Israelites were advocates of Philo-Semitism which paradoxically changed to antisemitism and racism under Christian Identity.[32] In fact, British Israelism itself had several Jewish members and it received support from rabbis throughout the 19th century and within British politics it supported Benjamin Disraeli who was descended from Sephardic Jews.[33][34] However, Christian Identity which emerged in the 1920s, began to be antisemitic teaching that the Jews are not descended from the tribe of Judah (as British Israelites maintain) but are instead descended from Satan or Edomite-Khazars.[35] The British Israel form of the belief held no anti-Semitism, its followers instead held the view that Jews made up a minority of the tribes of Israel (Judah and Benjamin), with the British and other related Northern European peoples making up the remainder.
Early years[edit]
Christian Identity (CI) can be traced as far back to 1886 with the publication of the book, Lost Israel Found in the Anglo-Saxon Race, by E.P. Ingerson[36] and in the 1920s to Howard Rand (1889–1991).[37][38]
Rand was a Massachusetts lawyer who obtained a law degree at the University of Maine. He was raised as a British Israelite, and his father introduced him to J. H. Allen's work Judah's Sceptre and Joseph's Birthright (1902)[39] at an early age.[40] While Rand's father was not an antisemite, nor was even Rand in his early British Israelite years, Rand first added an antisemitic element to British Israelism in the 1920s. He claimed as early as 1924 that the Jews were not really descended from the tribe of Judah, but were instead the descendants of Esau or Canaanites.[41] However, Rand never claimed that modern Jews were descendants of Satan, or that they were in any way inferior, he just claimed that they were not the true lineal descendants of Judah.[42] For this reason Rand is considered a 'transitional' figure between British Israelism and Christian Identity, but not its actual founder.[43] However Rand first coined the term 'Christian Identity'.[44] Rand had set up the Anglo-Saxon Federation of America in 1933 which promoted his view that Jews were not descended from Judah, which marked the first key transition from British Israelism to Christian Identity. Beginning in May 1937 there were key meetings between British Israelites in America who were attracted to Rand’s new theory that the Jews were not really descended from Judah. This provided the catalyst for the eventual emergence of Christian Identity, and by the late 1930s the Jews were considered to be the offspring of Satan and were heavily demonised, as were non-Caucasian races.[45][46] William Dudley Pelley, founder of the fascist Silver Shirts movement, also promoted an anti-semitic form of British Israelism in the early 1930s.[47] Links between Christian Identity and the Ku Klux Klan also emerged in the late 1930s.[48]
Key developers[edit]
Wesley Swift (1913–1970) is considered by the FBI to have been the most significant figure in the early years of the Christian Identity movement. Swift was born in New Jersey, and eventually moved to Los Angeles in order to attend Bible college. It is claimed that he may have been a "Ku Klux Klan organizer and a Klan rifle-team instructor."[49] In 1946, he founded his own church in Lancaster, California. In the 1950s, he was Gerald L. K. Smith's West Coast representative of the Christian Nationalist Crusade. In addition, he had a daily radio broadcast in California during the 1950s and 1960s, through which he was able to proclaim his ideology to a large audience. With Swift's efforts, the message of his church spread, leading to the creation of similar churches throughout the country. In 1957, the name of his church was changed to The Church of Jesus Christ Christian, which is used today by Aryan Nations (AN) churches. One of Swift's associates was retired Col. William Potter Gale (1917–1988). Gale had apparently been an aide to General Douglas MacArthur, and had coordinated guerrilla resistance in the Philippines during World War II. Gale became a leading figure in the anti-tax and paramilitary movements of the 1970s and 1980s, beginning with the California Rangers and the Posse Comitatus, and helping to found the militia movement. Numerous Christian Identity churches preach similar messages and some espouse more violent rhetoric than others, but all hold to the belief that Aryans are God's chosen race. Gale introduced future Aryan Nations founder Richard Girnt Butler to Swift. Until then, Butler had admired George Lincoln Rockwell and Senator Joseph McCarthy, and had been relatively secular. Swift quickly converted him to Christian Identity. When Swift died, Butler took over the Church, to the apparent dismay of both Gale and Swift's family. Neither Butler nor Gale were anything like the dynamic orator that Swift had been, and attendance dwindled under the new pastor. Butler eventually renamed the organisation "The Church of Jesus Christ Christian/Aryan Nations" and moved it to Hayden Lake, Idaho.
Lesser luminaries were also present as Christian Identity theology took shape in the 1940s and 1950s, such as Baptist minister and California Klansman San Jacinto Capt (who claimed that he had introduced Wesley Swift to Christian Identity), and one-time San Diego Deputy City Attorney (and lawyer for Gerald L. K. Smith) Bertrand Comparet (1901–1983). But for the most part, today's Christian Identity groups seem to have been spawned by Wesley Swift, through his lieutenants William Potter Gale and Richard Butler.
Ideology, tenets and beliefs[edit]
Christian Identity asserts that the white people of Europe or Caucasians in general are God's servant people according to the promises that were given to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It further asserts that the early European tribes were really the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel and therefore the rightful heirs to God's promises, and God's chosen people. Professor Colin Kidd wrote that in America Christian Identity exploited "the puzzle of the Ten Lost Tribes to justify an openly anti-Semitic and virulently racist agenda."[50]
Two House Theology[edit]
Like British Israelites, Christian Identity (CI) adherents believe in Two House Theology.[51] However the major difference between British Israelism and CI is that British Israelites have always maintained that Jews are descended from the tribe of Judah.[52] In contrast, while also maintaining a Two House distinction, Christian Identity proponents believe that the true lineal descendants of Judah are not contemporary Jews, but are instead White Europeans whose ancestors settled mainly in Scotland, Germany, and other European nations, alongside the House of Israel. They are Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, Germanic, Nordic, and kindred peoples.[51][53] Some CI scholars teach that many contemporary Jews are the descendants of Cain, citing Genesis 3:12, John 8:44 and 1 John 3:12 in support of their position and they also teach that Cain was the spawn of Satan.[54]
Origin beliefs[edit]
Identity teaches that "Israel" was the name given to Jacob after battling the angel at Peniel in Genesis 32:26-32. "Israel" then had twelve sons, which began the twelve tribes of Israel.[55]:101 In 975 B.C. the ten northern tribes revolted, seceded from the south, and became the Kingdom of Israel.[55]:101 After being subsequently conquered by Assyria, the ten tribes disappear from Biblical record, becoming the Lost Tribes of Israel.[55]:101
According to Identity doctrine, 2 Esdras 13:39–46 then records the history of the nation of Israel journeying over the Caucasus mountains, along the Black Sea, to the Ar Sereth tributory of the Danube in Romania ("But they formed this plan for themselves, that they would leave the multitude of the nations and go to a more distant region, where no human beings had ever lived. … Through that region there was a long way to go, a journey of a year and a half; and that country is called Arzareth").[55]:101 The tribes prospered, and eventually colonised other European countries. Israel's leading tribe, the Tribe of Dan, is attributed with settling and naming many areas which are today distinguished by place names derived from its name – written ancient Hebrew contains no vowels, and hence "Dan" would be written as DN, but would be pronounced with an intermediate vowel dependent on the local dialect, meaning that Dan, Den, Din, Don, and Dun all have the same meaning.[55]:101 Various modern place names are said to derive from the name of this tribe:[55]:101
Macedonia – Macedonia – derived from Moeshe-don-ia (Moeshe being "the land of Moses")
Danube – Dan-ube, Dneister – Dn-eister, Dneiper – Dn-eiper, Donetz – Don-etz, Danzig – Dan-zig, Don – Don
Some followers claim that the Identity genealogy of the Davidic line can be traced from its beginnings right down to the Royal rulers of Britain and Queen Elizabeth herself.[55]:102–105 Thus Anglo-Saxons are the true Israelites, God's chosen people who were given the divine right to rule the world until the Second Coming of Christ.[55]:101
Adamites and pre-Adamites[edit]
A major tenet of Christian Identity is Pre-Adamism. Christian Identity followers believe that Adam and Eve are ancestors of whites alone, and that Adam and Eve were preceded by lesser, non-Caucasian races often (though not always) identified as "beasts of the field" (Genesis 1:25); for example, the "beasts" which wore sackcloth and cried unto God (Jonah 3:8) are identified as the black races by Christian Identity adherents.[56] To support their theory on the racial identity of Adam, Christian Identity proponents point out that the Hebrew etymology of the word 'Adam' translates as 'be ruddy, red, to show blood (in the face)' often quoting from James Strong's Hebrew Dictionary #119 (1890) and from this conclude that only Caucasians or people with light white skin can blush or turn rosy in the face (because hemoglobin only appears under pale skin).[57] Proponents of Christian Identity believe that Adam was only created 6,000 years ago, while the other non-Caucasian races were created during far older epochs that occurred on the other continents.
"Dual Seedliner" Christian Identity proponents—those who believe that Eve bore children to Satan as well as Adam—believe that Eve was seduced by the Snake (Satan), shared her fallen state with Adam by lying with him, and gave birth to twins with different fathers: Satan's child Cain and Adam's son Abel. Cain then became the progenitor of the Jews in his subsequent matings with the non-Adamic races. This is referred to as the two-seedline doctrine. While this belief ascribing the ancestry of legendary monsters such as Grendel to Cain.,[53] was somewhat widespread in medieval times, the oldest example of it is in the Babylonian Talmud. Ironically, Christian Identity's dual seed line doctrine originated in Jewish rabbinical literature, but has been turned around to identify white people as the children of Adam, and Jews as children of the Serpent.
The Serpent Seed idea appears in a 9th-century book called Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer.[58] In his book Cain: Son of the Serpent, David Max Eichhorn, traces the idea back to early Jewish Midrashic texts and identifies many rabbis who taught that Cain was the son of the union between the serpent and Eve.[58] Some Kabbalist rabbis also believe that Cain and Abel were of a different genetic background than Seth. This is known among Kabbalists as "The Theory of Origins".[59] The theory teaches that God created two "Adams" (adam means "man" in Hebrew). To one he gave a soul and to the other he did not give a soul. The one without a soul is the creature known in Christianity as the serpent. The Kabbalists call the serpent Nahash (meaning serpent in Hebrew). This is recorded in the Zohar:

"Two beings [Adam and Nachash] had intercourse with Eve, and she conceived from both and bore two children. Each followed one of the male parents, and their spirits parted, one to this side and one to the other, and similarly their characters. On the side of Cain are all the haunts of the evil species; from the side of Abel comes a more merciful class, yet not wholly beneficial – good wine mixed with bad." (Zohar 136)
A seminal influence on the Christian Identity movement's views on pre-Adamism was a book published in 1900 by Charles Carroll entitled The Negro a Beast or In the Image of God?. Carroll concludes in the book that the White race was made in the image and likeness of God and that Adam gave birth to the White race only, while Negros are pre-Adamite beasts and could not possibly have been made in God's image and likeness because they are beast-like, immoral and ugly.[60] Carroll claimed that the pre-Adamite races such as blacks did not have souls. Carroll believed that race mixing was an insult to God and spoiled God's racial plan of creation. According to Carroll the mixing of races had also lead to the errors of atheism and evolutionism.[61]
Creationism[edit]
Christian Identity proponents are Old Earth Creationists, but they believe that Adam (who was the father of the white race or Caucasians) was only created around 6,000 years ago, while they also believe that both the universe and Earth are billions of years old and that non-Caucasian races were created hundreds of thousands or even millions of years ago.
Wesley Swift strongly criticised Young Earth Creationism and the traditional Judeo-Christian view that Noah's flood was global. He instead believed that the flood was only local and that the Earth was billions of years old.[53] Christian Identity adherents claim that the flood in Genesis only rose high enough to drown the region of the Tarim Basin below sea level (Gen. 7:20) and that therefore the Hebrew word "eretz" which appears in those verses should be rendered "the land" (as in a specific place) rather than "the earth."[citation needed]
Racialism[edit]
Racialism, or race-based philosophy, is the core tenet of Christian Identity, and most CI adherents are White Nationalists or support racial segregation. Some believe that Jews are genetically compelled by their Satanic or Edomite ancestry to carry on a conspiracy against the Adamic seedline and today have achieved almost complete control of the Earth through their illegitimate claim to the white race's status as God's chosen people.[62] As a general rule, Christian Identity followers adhere to the traditional orthodox Christian views on the role of women (See Biblical patriarchy), abortion (Exodus 21:22), and homosexuality (Leviticus 20:13), and they believe that racial miscegenation is a sin and a violation of God's law in Genesis 1:24–25 which commands that all creatures produce "kind after kind."
In addition to their strict fundamentalist racial views Christian Identity adherents distinguish themselves from mainstream Protestant Fundamentalism in various areas of theology. Some Christian Identity adherents follow the Mosaic law of the Old Testament (e.g., dietary restrictions, the seventh-day Sabbath, certain annual festivals such as Passover). It is also commonplace for adherents to follow the Sacred Name Movement and they insist on using the original Hebrew names when referring to God (Yahweh) and Jesus Christ (Yahshua). Some Christian Identity writers criticize modern Bible editions as well as the Jews for the removal of the original Hebrew name of God from the Bible. Although their adherence to Old Testament Mosaic law may make them appear "Jewish"; they claim that the Jewish interpretation of the law has been corrupted through the Jews' Talmud. Unlike many Protestant Fundamentalists, Christian Identity adherents reject the notion of a Rapture, believing it to be a Judaized doctrine which the Bible does not teach.[63]
World's end and Armageddon[edit]
Christian Identity supporters believe in the Second Coming and Armageddon. Predictions vary, including race war or a Jewish-backed United Nations takeover of the US, and they endorse physical struggle against what they see as the forces of evil.[64]
Anti-Jewish and anti-homosexual[edit]
While being anti-Jewish, Identity Christianity is a mirror image of rabbinical teachings on the separation theology of ancient Judaism and Jewish texts such as the Book of Enoch. Identity asserts that disease, addiction, cancer, and sexually transmitted diseases (herpes and AIDS) are spread by human "rodents" via contact with "unclean" persons, such as through "race-mixing".[55]:85 The first book of Enoch is used to justify these social theories; the fallen angels of Heaven sexually desired Earth maidens and took them as wives, resulting in the birth of abominations, which God ordered Michael the Archangel to destroy, thus beginning a cosmic war between Light and Darkness.[55]:85 The mixing of separate things (e.g., people of different races) is seen as defiling both, and is against God's will.[55]:86
Identity preachers proclaim that, according to the King James Bible, "the penaltys for race-mixing, homo-sexuality, and usury are death."[55]:86 The justification for killing homosexuals is provided by Leviticus 20:13 "If a man also lie with mankind, as he lieth with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination: they shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon them." Exodus 22:25, Leviticus 25:35–37 and Deuteronomy explicitly condemn usury.[55]:92 Ezekiel 18:13 states "He who hath given forth upon usury, and hath taken increase: shall he then live? he shall not live: he hath done all these abominations; he shall surely die; his blood shall be upon him" and is quoted as justification for killing Jews, since Jews have traditionally had a large presence in the usury business.
Identity followers reject the label of "anti-Semitic", stating that they can't be anti-Semitic, since in fact the true Semites "today are the great White Christian nations of the western world", with modern Jews in fact being descendants of the Canaanites.[55]
Anti-banking system[edit]
Identity doctrine asserts that the "root of all evil" is paper money (in particular Federal Reserve Notes), and that usury and banking systems are controlled by Jews.[55]:87 The creation of the Federal Reserve System in 1913 shifted control of money from Congress to private institutions and violated the Constitution. The money system encourages the Federal Reserve to take out loans, creating trillions of dollars of government debt and allowing international bankers to control America. Credit/debit cards and computerised bills are seen as the fulfillment of the Biblical scripture warning against "the beast" (i.e. banking) as quoted in Rev 13:15–18. Identity preacher Sheldon Emry claims "Most of the owners of the largest banks in America are of Eastern European (Jewish) ancestry and connected with the (Jewish) Rothschild European banks", thus, in Identity doctrine, the global banking conspiracy is led and controlled by Jewish interests.[55]:91
Groups[edit]
Christian Identity is a major unifying theology for a number of diverse groups of white nationalist Christians. It is a belief system that provides its members with a religious basis for racial separatism. Herbert W. Armstrong is inaccurately described by some of his critics, as well as by supporters of Christian Identity, as having supported Christian Identity, due to his belief in a modified form of British Israelism, and the fact that during his lifetime, he propounded observances favoured by many Christian Identity groups, such as seventh-day Sabbatarianism and biblical festivals. The Worldwide Church of God that Armstrong founded did not subscribe to the anti-Semitism commonly espoused by the Christian or Israel Identity groups but instead adhered to the traditional beliefs of British Israelism; i.e., the belief held that modern day Jews were descendants of the Tribe of Judah whereas the Anglo-Saxons, Celts, Danes, etc. were descendants of the remaining Ten Tribes of Israel formerly known as the Northern Kingdom.
Christian Identity groups include "The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord", the Phineas Priesthood, the Oklahoma Constitutional Militia, also known as The Universal Church of God. Christian Identity is also related to other groups such as Aryan Nations, the Aryan Republican Army (ARA) and the Patriots Council, Church of Jesus Christ Christian, Thomas Robb, Mission To Israel, Folk And Faith, Jubilee (newspaper), Yahweh's Truth (James Wickstrom), Church of Israel[24][65] and Kingdom Identity Ministries.
South African branches of Christian Identity have been accused of involvement in terrorist activity, including the 2002 Soweto bombings.[66]
Christian Identity groups include the Heritage Christian Church and Legion for Survival of Freedom.
Aryan Nations[edit]


 This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2008)
The Aryan Nations (AN) is a group that adheres to the Christian Identity belief system. The group espouses dislike towards Jews, blacks and other minorities, as well as the United States federal government. The original ultimate goal of the AN is to forcibly take five northwestern states – Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, Washington and Montana – from the United States government in order to establish an Aryan homeland. This particular ideology is known throughout the White power movement as the Northwest Territorial Imperative. The AN was headquartered at Hayden Lake, Idaho from the late 1970s until February 2001. Its annual World Congress attracted a number of different factions from the far-right. The World Congress was a sort of round table to discuss racialist issues. Since the main Aryan Nations property in Idaho was dismantled following a costly lawsuit against the group and the death of Richard Butler, there have been several struggles over control of the movement that are as yet unresolved.
See also[edit]
August Kreis III
Byron De La Beckwith
Chevie Kehoe
Christian Patriot movement
Dewey H "Buddy" Tucker
Elohim City, Oklahoma
Kinism
List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
Positive Christianity
Richard Girnt Butler
Samuel Bowers
Wesley Swift
Footnotes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ "Extremism in America - Christian Identity".
2.Jump up ^ "Bigotry Behind Bars: Racist Groups In U.S. Prisons".
3.Jump up ^ Eck, Diane (2001). A New Religious America: How a "Christian Country" has become the world’s most religiously diverse nation. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 347.
4.Jump up ^ Buck, Christopher (2009). Religious Myths and Visions of America: How Minority Faiths Redefined America's World Role. Praeger. pp. 107, 108, 213. ISBN 978-0313359590.
5.Jump up ^ Quarles, Chester L. (2004). Christian Identity: The Aryan American Bloodline Religion. McFarland & Company. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7864-1892-3.
6.Jump up ^ Mason, Carol (2002). Killing for Life: The Apocalyptic Narrative of Pro-Life Politics. Cornell University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0801488191.
7.Jump up ^ "Bertrand L. Comparet - Legion of Saints".
8.Jump up ^ "Col. Jack Mohr - Yahuwah and Christian Identity".
9.Jump up ^ "William Potter Gale - Aryan Nations".
10.Jump up ^ "Map of the Khazar Empire".
11.Jump up ^ "Edomites".
12.Jump up ^ "The Serpent Seedline".
13.Jump up ^ "Esau/Edom, and the Trail of the Serpent – XII".
14.Jump up ^ "Sovereign Citizen Movement - Extremism in America". Adl.org.
15.Jump up ^ King, Wayne (August 21, 1990). "Books of The Times; A Farmer's Fatal Obsession With Jews and Taxes". The New York Times.
16.Jump up ^ "Reason Magazine – Ambush at Ruby Ridge".
17.Jump up ^ "Behistun Rock".
18.Jump up ^ "Assyrian Tablets".
19.Jump up ^ "Anglo-Saxon Israel - Part 4: The Book of Genetics".
20.Jump up ^ "The Serpent of Genesis".
21.Jump up ^ "Anglo-Saxon Israel - Beast of the Field".
22.Jump up ^ "Some Scriptures showing Race Mixing as Evil".
23.^ Jump up to: a b Barkun, Michael (1996). "preface". Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement. University of North Carolina Press. pp. x. ISBN 0-8078-4638-4.
24.^ Jump up to: a b "Extremism in America: Dan Gayman". Anti-Defamation League. 2005.
25.Jump up ^ "What is Christian Identity?".
26.Jump up ^ "Could You Be An Israelite And Not Know It?".
27.Jump up ^ "Abrahamic Covenant".
28.Jump up ^ Religion and the racist right: the origins of the Christian Identity movement, Michael Barkun, 1997, Preface, xii, xiii.
29.^ Jump up to: a b "Christian Identity". Adl.org.
30.Jump up ^ ""Why We Are Antisemites" - Text of Adolf Hitler's 1920 speech at the Hofbräuhaus".
31.Jump up ^ Barkun 2003, p. xii.
32.Jump up ^ Christian Identity: The Aryan American Bloodline Religion by Chester L. Quarles, 2004, p. 13.
33.Jump up ^ Quarles, pp. 13–19
34.Jump up ^ Life From The Dead, 1875, Vol. III, p. 154.
35.Jump up ^ Barkun, pp. 62–97.
36.Jump up ^ "Lost Israel Found In the Anglo-Saxon Race".
37.Jump up ^ Barkun, p. 27.
38.Jump up ^ Race Over Grace: The Racialist Religion of the Christian Identity Movement, Charles H. Roberts, 2003, pp. 9-10.
39.Jump up ^ "Judah's Sceptre and Joseph's Birthright".
40.Jump up ^ Race Over Grace: The Racialist Religion of the Christian Identity Movement, Charles H. Roberts, p. 9
41.Jump up ^ Barkun, pp. 45-54.
42.Jump up ^ Barkun, pp. 45-60.
43.Jump up ^ Charles H. Roberts, p. 9
44.Jump up ^ The Phinehas Priesthood: Violent Vanguard of the Christian Identity Movement, Danny W. Davis, 2010, p. 18
45.Jump up ^ Barkun, p. 140.
46.Jump up ^ Charles H. Roberts, pp. 11-15.
47.Jump up ^ Lobb, David. 'Fascist Apocalypse: William Pelley and Millennial Extremism', Paper presented at the 4th Annual Conference of the Center for Millennial Studies, November 1999
48.Jump up ^ Barkun, pp. 60-85.
49.Jump up ^ "Christian Defense League by D. Boylan 2004 Revision".
50.Jump up ^ Colin Kidd, The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world, 1600–2000, 2006, p. 44
51.^ Jump up to: a b Charles H. Roberts, pp.40-60
52.Jump up ^ Bosworth, F. E, The Bible Distinction Between the House of Israel and the House of Judah, Radio Address, 1920
53.^ Jump up to: a b c "Basic Christian Identity : Dr. Wesley A. Swift : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive". Archive.org. 2001-03-10.
54.Jump up ^ "Jewish Rabbis recognize Serpent Seedline as well as Sumerians, Targums and Biblical Accounts".
55.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p James Alfred Aho (1995). The Politics of Righteousness: Idaho Christian Patriotism. University of Washington Press. p. 86. ISBN 029597494X.
56.Jump up ^ Charles H. Roberts, pp.23-60
57.Jump up ^ "Basics for Understanding Yahweh's Kingdom". Anglo-Saxon Israel. 2009-06-04.
58.^ Jump up to: a b Cain: Son of the Serpent. Rossel Books. 1985. ISBN 0-940646-19-6.
59.Jump up ^ Rabbi Donmeh West. "Kabbalistic Genetics".
60.Jump up ^ Charles Carroll The Negro a beast"; or, "In the image of God"; the reasoner of the age, the revelator of the century! The Bible as it is! The Negro and his relation to the human family! The Negro not the son of Ham, 1900
61.Jump up ^ Colin Kidd, The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world, 1600–2000, 2006, p. 150
62.Jump up ^ "Who are the Jews? By: Bertrand Comparet".
63.Jump up ^ "I Come as a Thief.".
64.Jump up ^ Kaplan, Jeffrey (2002). Millennial violence: past, present, and future. Routledge. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-7146-5294-8.
65.Jump up ^ Max McCoy (28 January 2001). "Separatist by faith: Church of Israel's patriarch rebuts claims of racism" (PDF). Joplin Globe.
66.Jump up ^ Martin Schönteich and Henri Boshoff (2003). 'Volk' Faith and Fatherland: The Security Threat Posed by the White Right. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. ISBN 1-919913-30-0.
Bibliography[edit]
Barkun, M. (1994). Religion and the racist right: the origins of the Christian Identity movement. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Hill, David. The Gospel of Matthew. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981.
Ingram, W.L., (1995). God and Race: British-Israelism and Christian Identity, p. 119–126 in T. Miller, Ed., America's Alternative Religions, SUNY Press, Albany NY.
Kaplan, Jeffrey, (1997). Radical Religion in America, Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press. pp. 47–48.
Lakeland, P. (1997). Postmodernity: Christian identity in a fragmented age. Guides to theological inquiry. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.
Quarles, C. L. (2004). Christian Identity: the Aryan American bloodline religion. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.
Roberts, Charles H. (2003). Race over Grace: The Racialist Religion of the Christian Identity Movement, Omaha, Nebraska: iUniverse Press. ISBN 0-595-28197-4.
External links[edit]
FBI backgrounder on Christian Identity
  


Categories: Apocalypticism
Christian Identity
Christian fundamentalism
Late modern Christian antisemitism
Far-right politics in the United States
Politics and race in the United States
Racism in the United States
Religiously motivated violence in the United States
Terrorism in the United States
White separatism
White supremacy in the United States








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