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Ku Klux Klan

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Ku Klux Klan
KKK.svg
Ku Klux Klan's emblem

In existence

1st Klan
1865–1870s
2nd Klan
1915–1944
3rd Klan
1946–present
Members

1st Klan
unknown
2nd Klan
3,000,000–6,000,000[1] (peaked in 1920–25)
3rd Klan
5,000-8,000[2]
Properties

Origin
United States of America
Political position
Far-right racism
Religion
Protestantism

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK), or simply "the Klan", is the name of three distinct movements in the United States. The first began violence against African Americans in the South during the Reconstruction Era of the 1860s, and was disbanded by 1869.[3] The second was a very large, controversial, nationwide organization in the 1920s. The current manifestation consists of numerous small unconnected groups that use the KKK name. They have all emphasized racism, secrecy and distinctive costumes. All have called for purification of American society, and all are considered part of right-wing extremism.[4][5]
The current manifestation is classified as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center.[6] It is estimated to have between 5,000 and 8,000 members as of 2012.[2]
The first Ku Klux Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes: robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be outlandish and terrifying, and to hide their identities.[7][8] The second KKK flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, and adopted a standard white costume (sales of which together with initiation fees financed the movement) and code words as the first Klan, while adding cross burnings and mass parades.[9] The third KKK emerged after 1950 and was associated with opposing the Civil Rights Movement and progress among minorities. The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent reference to the America's "Anglo-Saxon" blood, harking back to 19th-century nativism.[10] Though most members of the KKK saw themselves as holding to American values and Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination officially denounced the Ku Klux Klan.[11]


Contents  [hide]
1 Overview: Three Klans 1.1 First KKK
1.2 Second KKK
1.3 Third KKK
2 First Klan: 1865–1871 2.1 Creation and naming
2.2 Activities
2.3 Resistance
2.4 End of first Klan
3 Second Klan: 1915–1944 3.1 Refounding in 1915 3.1.1 The Birth of a Nation
3.2 Social factors
3.3 Activities 3.3.1 Prohibition
3.4 Urbanization
3.5 The burning cross
3.6 Education
3.7 Women
3.8 Political role
3.9 Resistance and decline 3.9.1 Labor and anti-unionism
3.10 Historiography of the second Klan 3.10.1 Elitist interpretations
3.10.2 New social history interpretations
3.10.3 Indiana and Alabama

4 Later Klans: 1950–1960s 4.1 Resistance
5 Contemporary Klan: 1970s–present 5.1 Altercation with Communist Workers Party
5.2 Jerry Thompson infiltration
5.3 Tennessee shooting
5.4 Michael Donald lynching
5.5 Neo-Nazi alliances and Stormfront
5.6 Current developments
5.7 Current Klan organizations
5.8 Other countries
6 Titles and vocabulary
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading 9.1 Historiography
10 Further reading
11 External links

Overview: Three Klans
First KKK
The first Klan was founded in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee, by six veterans of the Confederate Army.[12] The name is probably derived from the Greek word kuklos (κύκλος) which means circle.[13]
Although there was little organizational structure above the local level, similar groups rose across the South and adopted the same name and methods.[14] Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement during the Reconstruction era in the United States. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies; it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the federal government passed the Force Acts, which were used to prosecute Klan crimes.[15] Prosecution of Klan crimes and enforcement of the Force Acts suppressed Klan activity.
The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives. It seriously weakened the black political establishment through its use of assassinations and threats of violence; it drove some carpetbaggers out of politics. On the other hand, it caused a sharp backlash and unleashed new federal laws that Foner says were a success in terms of "restoring order, reinvigorating the morale of Southern Republicans, and enabling blacks to exercise their rights as citizens."[16] historian George C. Rable argues that the Klan was a political failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic leaders of the South. He says:
the Klan declined in strength in part because of internal weaknesses; its lack of central organization and the failure of its leaders to control criminal elements and sadists. More fundamentally, it declined because it failed to achieve its central objective – the overthrow of Republican state governments in the South.[17]
Second KKK
See also: Ku Klux Klan in Canada
In 1915, the second Klan was founded in Atlanta, Georgia. Starting in 1921, it adopted a modern business system of recruiting (which paid most of the initiation fee and costume charges as commissions to the organizers) and grew rapidly nationwide at a time of prosperity. Reflecting the social tensions of urban industrialization and vastly increased immigration, its membership grew most rapidly in cities, and spread out of the South to the Midwest and West. The second KKK preached "One Hundred Percent Americanism" and demanded the purification of politics, calling for strict morality and better enforcement of prohibition. Its official rhetoric focused on the threat of the Catholic Church, using anti-Catholicism and nativism.[18] Its appeal was directed exclusively at white Protestants.[19] Some local groups took part in attacks on private houses and carried out other violent activities. The violent episodes were generally in the South.[20]
The second Klan was a formal fraternal organization, with a national and state structure. At its peak in the mid-1920s, the organization claimed to include about 15% of the nation's eligible population, approximately 4–5 million men. Internal divisions, criminal behavior by leaders, and external opposition brought about a collapse in membership, which had dropped to about 30,000 by 1930. It finally faded away in the 1940s.[21] Klan organizers also operated in Canada, especially in Saskatchewan in 1926-28, where members of the Klan attacked immigrants from Eastern Europe.[22][23]
Third KKK
The "Ku Klux Klan" name was used by a numerous independent local groups opposing the Civil Rights Movement and desegregation, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. During this period, they often forged alliances with Southern police departments, as in Birmingham, Alabama; or with governor's offices, as with George Wallace of Alabama.[24] Several members of KKK groups were convicted of murder in the deaths of civil rights workers and children in the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham. Today, researchers estimate that there may be 150 Klan chapters with upwards of 5,000 members nationwide.[25]
Today, many sources classify the Klan as a "subversive or terrorist organization".[26][27][28][29] In April 1997, FBI agents arrested four members of the True Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in Dallas for conspiracy to commit robbery and to blow up a natural gas processing plant.[30] In 1999, the city council of Charleston, South Carolina passed a resolution declaring the Klan to be a terrorist organization.[31] In 2004, a professor at the University of Louisville began a campaign to have the Klan declared a terrorist organization in order to ban it from campus.[32]
First Klan: 1865–1871
Creation and naming



 A cartoon threatening that the KKK would lynch carpetbaggers. From the Independent Monitor, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1868.
Six well-educated Confederate veterans from Pulaski, Tennessee created the original Ku Klux Klan on December 24, 1865, during the Reconstruction of the South after the Civil War.[33][34] The name was formed by combining the Greek kyklos (κύκλος, circle) with clan.[35] The group was known for a short time as the "Kuklux Clan". The Ku Klux Klan was one of a number of secret, oath-bound organizations using violence, which included the Southern Cross in New Orleans (1865) and the Knights of the White Camelia (1867) in Louisiana.[36]
Historians generally see the KKK as part of the post Civil War insurgent violence related not only to the high number of veterans in the population, but also to their effort to control the dramatically changed social situation by using extrajudicial means to restore white supremacy. In 1866, Mississippi Governor William L. Sharkey reported that disorder, lack of control and lawlessness were widespread; in some states armed bands of Confederate soldiers roamed at will. The Klan used public violence against blacks as intimidation. They burned houses, and attacked and killed blacks, leaving their bodies on the roads.[37]



 A political cartoon depicting the KKK and the Democratic Party as continuations of the Confederacy
At an 1867 meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, Klan members gathered to try to create a hierarchical organization with local chapters eventually reporting up to a national headquarters. Since most of the Klan's members were veterans, they were used to the hierarchical structure of the organization, but the Klan never operated under this centralized structure. Local chapters and bands were highly independent.



Nathan Bedford Forrest
Former Confederate Brigadier General George Gordon developed the Prescript, or Klan dogma. The Prescript suggested elements of white supremacist belief. For instance, an applicant should be asked if he was in favor of "a white man's government", "the reenfranchisement and emancipation of the white men of the South, and the restitution of the Southern people to all their rights."[38] The latter is a reference to the Ironclad Oath, which stripped the vote from white persons who refused to swear that they had not borne arms against the Union. Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest became Grand Wizard, claiming to be the Klan's national leader.[12][39]
In an 1868 newspaper interview, Forrest stated that the Klan's primary opposition was to the Loyal Leagues, Republican state governments, people like Tennessee governor Brownlow and other ″carpetbaggers″ and ″scalawags″.[40] He argued that many southerners believed that blacks were voting for the Republican Party because they were being hoodwinked by the Loyal Leagues.[41] One Alabama newspaper editor declared "The League is nothing more than a nigger Ku Klux Klan."[42]
Despite Gordon’s and Forrest’s work, local Klan units never accepted the Prescript and continued to operate autonomously. There were never hierarchical levels or state headquarters. Klan members used violence to settle old feuds and local grudges, as they worked to restore white dominance in the disrupted postwar society. The historian Elaine Frantz Parsons describes the membership:
Lifting the Klan mask revealed a chaotic multitude of antiblack vigilante groups, disgruntled poor white farmers, wartime guerrilla bands, displaced Democratic politicians, illegal whiskey distillers, coercive moral reformers, sadists, rapists, white workmen fearful of black competition, employers trying to enforce labor discipline, common thieves, neighbors with decades-old grudges, and even a few freedmen and white Republicans who allied with Democratic whites or had criminal agendas of their own. Indeed, all they had in common, besides being overwhelmingly white, southern, and Democratic, was that they called themselves, or were called, Klansmen.[43]
Historian Eric Foner observed:
In effect, the Klan was a military force serving the interests of the Democratic party, the planter class, and all those who desired restoration of white supremacy. Its purposes were political, but political in the broadest sense, for it sought to affect power relations, both public and private, throughout Southern society. It aimed to reverse the interlocking changes sweeping over the South during Reconstruction: to destroy the Republican party’s infrastructure, undermine the Reconstruction state, reestablish control of the black labor force, and restore racial subordination in every aspect of Southern life.[44]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Interview with Nathan Bedford Forrest

To that end they worked to curb the education, economic advancement, voting rights, and right to keep and bear arms of blacks.[44] The Klan soon spread into nearly every southern state, launching a "reign of terror against Republican leaders both black and white. Those political leaders assassinated during the campaign included Arkansas Congressman James M. Hinds, three members of the South Carolina legislature, and several men who served in constitutional conventions."[45]
Activities



 Three Ku Klux Klan members arrested in Tishomingo County, Mississippi, September 1871, for the attempted murder of an entire family [46]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Why the Ku Klux

Klan members adopted masks and robes that hid their identities and added to the drama of their night rides, their chosen time for attacks. Many of them operated in small towns and rural areas where people otherwise knew each other's faces, and sometimes still recognized the attackers. "The kind of thing that men are afraid or ashamed to do openly, and by day, they accomplish secretly, masked, and at night."[47] The Ku Klux Klan night riders "sometimes claimed to be ghosts of Confederate soldiers so, as they claimed, to frighten superstitious blacks. Few freedmen took such nonsense seriously."[48]
The Klan attacked black members of the Loyal Leagues and intimidated southern Republicans and Freedmen's Bureau workers. When they killed black political leaders, they also took heads of families, along with the leaders of churches and community groups, because these people had many roles in society. Agents of the Freedmen's Bureau reported weekly assaults and murders of blacks. "Armed guerrilla warfare killed thousands of Negroes; political riots were staged; their causes or occasions were always obscure, their results always certain: ten to one hundred times as many Negroes were killed as whites." Masked men shot into houses and burned them, sometimes with the occupants still inside. They drove successful black farmers off their land. "Generally, it can be reported that in North and South Carolina, in 18 months ending in June 1867, there were 197 murders and 548 cases of aggravated assault."[49]



George W. Ashburn was assassinated for his pro-black sentiments.
Klan violence worked to suppress black voting. More than 2,000 persons were killed, wounded and otherwise injured in Louisiana within a few weeks prior to the Presidential election of November 1868. Although St. Landry Parish had a registered Republican majority of 1,071, after the murders, no Republicans voted in the fall elections. White Democrats cast the full vote of the parish for Grant's opponent. The KKK killed and wounded more than 200 black Republicans, hunting and chasing them through the woods. Thirteen captives were taken from jail and shot; a half-buried pile of 25 bodies was found in the woods. The KKK made people vote Democratic and gave them certificates of the fact.[50]
In the April 1868 Georgia gubernatorial election, Columbia County cast 1,222 votes for Republican Rufus Bullock. By the November presidential election, Klan intimidation led to suppression of the Republican vote and only one person voted for Ulysses S. Grant.[51]
Klansmen killed more than 150 African Americans in a county in Florida, and hundreds more in other counties. Freedmen's Bureau records provided a detailed recounting of Klansmen's beatings and murders of freedmen and their white allies.[52]
Milder encounters also occurred. In Mississippi, according to the Congressional inquiry:[53]

One of these teachers (Miss Allen of Illinois), whose school was at Cotton Gin Port in Monroe County, was visited ... between one and two o'clock in the morning on March 1871, by about fifty men mounted and disguised. Each man wore a long white robe and his face was covered by a loose mask with scarlet stripes. She was ordered to get up and dress which she did at once and then admitted to her room the captain and lieutenant who in addition to the usual disguise had long horns on their heads and a sort of device in front. The lieutenant had a pistol in his hand and he and the captain sat down while eight or ten men stood inside the door and the porch was full. They treated her "gentlemanly and quietly" but complained of the heavy school-tax, said she must stop teaching and go away and warned her that they never gave a second notice. She heeded the warning and left the county.
By 1868, two years after the Klan's creation, its activity was beginning to decrease.[54] Members were hiding behind Klan masks and robes as a way to avoid prosecution for freelance violence. Many influential southern Democrats feared that Klan lawlessness provided an excuse for the federal government to retain its power over the South, and they began to turn against it.[55] There were outlandish claims made, such as Georgian B. H. Hill stating "that some of these outrages were actually perpetrated by the political friends of the parties slain."[54]
Resistance
Union Army veterans in mountainous Blount County, Alabama, organized "the anti-Ku Klux". They put an end to violence by threatening Klansmen with reprisals unless they stopped whipping Unionists and burning black churches and schools. Armed blacks formed their own defense in Bennettsville, South Carolina and patrolled the streets to protect their homes.[56]
National sentiment gathered to crack down on the Klan, even though some Democrats at the national level questioned whether the Klan really existed or believed that it was just a creation of nervous Southern Republican governors.[57] Many southern states began to pass anti-Klan legislation.[58]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871

In January 1871, Pennsylvania Republican Senator John Scott convened a Congressional committee which took testimony from 52 witnesses about Klan atrocities. They accumulated 12 volumes of horrifying testimony. In February, former Union General and Congressman Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts introduced the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Ku Klux Klan Act). This added to the enmity that southern white Democrats bore toward him.[59] While the bill was being considered, further violence in the South swung support for its passage. The Governor of South Carolina appealed for federal troops to assist his efforts in keeping control of the state. A riot and massacre in a Meridian, Mississippi, courthouse were reported, from which a black state representative escaped only by taking to the woods.[60] The 1871 Civil Rights Act allowed President Ulysses S. Grant to suspend Habeas Corpus.[61]



 Benjamin Franklin Butler wrote the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Klan Act)
In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant signed Butler's legislation. The Ku Klux Klan Act was used by the Federal government together with the 1870 Force Act, to enforce the civil rights provisions for individuals under the constitution. Under the 1871 Klan Act, after the Klan refused to voluntarily dissolve, Grant issued a suspension of Habeas Corpus, and stationed Federal troops in 9 South Carolina counties. The Klansmen were apprehended and prosecuted in court. Judges Hugh Lennox Bond and George S. Bryan presided over the trial of Ku Klux Klan members in Columbia, South Carolina during December 1871.[62] The defendants were sentenced to five years to three months incarceration with fines.[63] More African Americans served on juries in Federal court than were selected for local or state juries, so they had a chance to participate in the process.[61][64] In the crackdown, hundreds of Klan members were fined or imprisoned.
End of first Klan
Although Forrest boasted that the Klan was a nationwide organization of 550,000 men and that he could muster 40,000 Klansmen within five days' notice, as a secret or "invisible" group, it had no membership rosters, no chapters, and no local officers. It was difficult for observers to judge its actual membership.[65] It had created a sensation by the dramatic nature of its masked forays and because of its many murders.
In 1870 a federal grand jury determined that the Klan was a "terrorist organization".[66] It issued hundreds of indictments for crimes of violence and terrorism. Klan members were prosecuted, and many fled from areas that were under federal government jurisdiction, particularly in South Carolina.[67] Many people not formally inducted into the Klan had used the Klan's costume for anonymity, to hide their identities when carrying out acts of violence. Forrest called for the Klan to disband in 1869, arguing that the Klan was "being perverted from its original honorable and patriotic purposes, becoming injurious instead of subservient to the public peace".[68] Historian Stanley Horn argues that "generally speaking, the Klan's end was more in the form of spotty, slow, and gradual disintegration than a formal and decisive disbandment".[69] Moreover, a Georgia-based reporter wrote in 1870 that, "A true statement of the case is not that the Ku Klux are an organized band of licensed criminals, but that men who commit crimes call themselves Ku Klux".[70]



 Gov. William Holden of North Carolina.
Others may have agreed with lynching as a way of keeping dominance over black men. In many states, officials were reluctant to use black militia against the Klan out of fear that racial tensions would be raised.[64] When Republican Governor of North Carolina William Woods Holden called out the militia against the Klan in 1870, it added to his unpopularity. Combined with violence and fraud at the polls, the Republicans lost their majority in the state legislature. Disaffection with Holden's actions led to white Democratic legislators' impeaching Holden and removing him from office, but their reasons were numerous.[71]
Klan operations ended in South Carolina [72] and gradually withered away throughout the rest of the South where it had gradually been faltering in prominence. Attorney General Amos Tappan Ackerman led the prosecutions.[73]
Foner argues that:
By 1872, the federal government's evident willingness to bring its legal and coercive authority to bear had broken the Klan's back and produced a dramatic decline in violence throughout the South. So ended the Reconstruction career of the Ku Klux Klan."[74]
However, in some areas, non-KKK local paramilitary organizations such as the White League, Red Shirts, saber clubs, and rifle clubs continued to intimidate and murder black political leaders.[75]
In 1882, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Harris that the Klan Act was partially unconstitutional. It ruled that Congress's power under the Fourteenth Amendment did not extend to the right to regulate against private conspiracies.[76]
Klan costumes, also called "regalia", disappeared from use by the early 1870s>[77] The fact that the Klan did not exist for decades was shown when Simmons's 1915 recreation of the Klan attracted only two aging "former Reconstruction Klansmen." All other members were new.[78] By 1872, the Klan was broken as an organization.[79]
Second Klan: 1915–1944
Refounding in 1915
In 1915 the film The Birth of a Nation was released, mythologising and glorifying the first Klan and its endeavors. The second Ku Klux Klan was founded in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons at Stone Mountain, outside Atlanta, with fifteen "charter members".[80] Its growth was based on a new anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, prohibitionist and antisemitic agenda, which developed in response to contemporary social tensions. The new organization and chapters adopted regalia featured in The Birth of a Nation.
The Birth of a Nation



 Movie poster for The Birth of a Nation. It has been widely noted for reviving the Ku Klux Klan.
Director D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation glorified the original Klan. His film was based on the book and play The Clansman and the book The Leopard's Spots, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr.
Much of the modern Klan's iconography, including the standardized white costume and the lighted cross, are derived from the film. Its imagery was based on Dixon's romanticized concept of old England and Scotland, as portrayed in the novels and poetry of Sir Walter Scott. The film's influence was enhanced by a purported endorsement by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, a Southerner. A Hollywood press agent claimed that after seeing the film Wilson said, "It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true." Historians doubt he said it.[81] Wilson's remarks generated controversy, and he tried to remain aloof. On April 30, his staff issued a denial. Wilson's aide, Joseph Tumulty, said, "the President was entirely unaware of the nature of the play before it was presented and at no time has expressed his approbation of it."[82]
The new Klan was inaugurated in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons on top of Stone Mountain. It was a small local organization until 1921. Simmons said he had been inspired by the original Klan's Prescripts, written in 1867 by Confederate veteran George Gordon, but they were never adopted by the first Klan.[83]
Social factors



 Three Ku Klux Klan members standing at a 1922 parade.


 In this 1926 cartoon the Ku Klux Klan chases the Roman Catholic Church, personified by St. Patrick, from the shores of America. Among the "snakes" are various supposed negative attributes of the Church, including superstition, union of church and state, control of public schools, and intolerance
The Second Klan saw threats from every direction. A religious tone was present in its activities; "two-thirds of the national Klan lecturers were Protestant ministers," says historian Brian R. Farmer.[84] Much of the Klan's energy went into guarding "the home;" the historian Kathleen Blee said its members wanted to protect "the interests of white womanhood."[85] The pamphlet ABC of the Invisible Empire, published in Atlanta by Simmons in 1917, identified the Klan's goals as "to shield the sanctity of the home and the chastity of womanhood; to maintain white supremacy; to teach and faithfully inculcate a high spiritual philosophy through an exalted ritualism; and by a practical devotedness to conserve, protect and maintain the distinctive institutions, rights, privileges, principles and ideals of a pure Americanism."[86]
The second Klan emerged during the nadir of American race relations, but much of its growth was in response to new issues such as urbanization, immigration and industrialization. The massive immigration of Catholics and Jews from eastern and southern Europe led to fears among Protestants about the new peoples, and especially about job and social competition. The Great Migration of African Americans to the North stoked job and housing competition and racism by whites in Midwestern and Western industrial cities. The second Klan achieved its greatest political power in Indiana; it was active throughout the South, Midwest, especially Michigan; and in the West, in Colorado and Oregon. The migration of both African Americans and whites from rural areas to Southern and Midwestern cities increased social tensions.
The Klan became most prominent in urbanizing cities with high growth rates between 1910 and 1930, such as Detroit, Memphis, and Dayton in the Upper South and Midwest; and Atlanta, Dallas, and Houston in the South. In Michigan, close to 50% of the Klan members lived in Detroit, where they numbered 40,000; they were concerned about with finite housing possibilities, rapid social change, and competition for jobs with European immigrants and Southerners both black and white.[87]
The founder of the new Klan, William J. Simmons, joined twelve different fraternal organizations. He recruited for the Klan with his chest covered with fraternal badges, and consciously modeled the Klan after fraternal organizations.[88]
Klan organizers, called "Kleagles", signed up hundreds of new members, who paid initiation fees and received KKK costumes in return. The organizer kept half the money and sent the rest to state or national officials. When the organizer was done with an area, he organized a huge rally, often with burning crosses, and perhaps presented a Bible to a local Protestant preacher. He left town with the money collected. The local units operated like many fraternal organizations and occasionally brought in speakers.
The Klan's growth was also affected by the mobilization for World War I and postwar tensions, especially in the cities, where strangers came up against each other more often and competed for housing and jobs. Southern whites resented the arming of black soldiers. Black veterans did not want to return to second-class status in the South. Some black veterans in the South were lynched while still in uniform, after returning from overseas service.[89]
Activities
Simmons initially met with little success in either recruiting members or in raising money, and the Klan remained a small operation in the Atlanta area until 1920, when he handed its day-to-day activities over to two professional publicists, Elizabeth Tyler and Edward Young Clarke.[90] The revived Klan appealed to new members based on current social tensions, and stressed responses to fears raised by immigration and mass migrations within industrializing cities: it became anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant and later anti-Communist. It presented itself as a fraternal, nativist and strenuously patriotic organization; and its leaders emphasized support for vigorous enforcement of prohibition laws. It expanded membership dramatically; by the 1920s, most of its members lived in the Midwest and West. It had a national base by 1925.
Religion was a major selling point. Baker argues that Klansmen seriously embraced Protestantism as an essential component of their white supremacist, anti-Catholic, and paternalistic formulation of American democracy and national culture. Their cross was a religious symbol, and their ritual honored Bibles and local ministers. No nationally prominent religious leader said he was a Klan member.[91]
Prohibition
Historians agree that the Klan's resurgence in the 1920s was aided by the national debate over prohibition.[92] The historian Prendergast says that the KKK's "support for Prohibition represented the single most important bond between Klansmen throughout the nation".[93] The Klan opposed bootleggers, sometimes with violence. In 1922, two hundred Klan members set fire to saloons in Union County, Arkansas. The national Klan office was established in Dallas, Texas, but Little Rock, Arkansas was the home of the Women of the Ku Klux Klan. The first head of this auxiliary was a former president of the Arkansas WCTU.[94][verification needed] Membership in the Klan and in other prohibition groups overlapped, and they often coordinated activities.[95]
Urbanization



 "The End" Referring to the end of Catholic influence in the US. Klansmen: Guardians of Liberty 1926
A significant characteristic of the second Klan was that it was an organization based in urban areas, reflecting the major shifts of population to cities in both the North and the South. In Michigan, for instance, 40,000 members lived in Detroit, where they made up more than half of the state's membership. Most Klansmen were lower- to middle-class whites who were trying to protect their jobs and housing from the waves of newcomers to the industrial cities: immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, who tended to be Catholic and Jewish in numbers higher than earlier groups of immigrants; and black and white migrants from the South. As new populations poured into cities, rapidly changing neighborhoods created social tensions. Because of the rapid pace of population growth in industrializing cities such as Detroit and Chicago, the Klan grew rapidly in the U.S. Midwest. The Klan also grew in booming Southern cities such as Dallas and Houston.[96]
In the medium-size industrial city of Worcester, Massachusetts in the 1920s, the Klan ascended to power quickly but declined as a result of opposition from the Catholic Church. There was no violence and the local newspaper ridiculed Klansmen as "night-shirt knights". Half of the members were Swedish American, including some first-generation immigrants. The ethnic and religious conflicts among more recent immigrants contributed to the rise of the Klan in the city. Swedish Protestants were struggling against Irish Catholics, who had been entrenched longer, for political and ideological control of the city.[97]
For some states, historians have obtained membership rosters of some local units and matched the names against city directory and local records to create statistical profiles of the membership. Big city newspapers were often hostile and ridiculed Klansmen as ignorant farmers. Detailed analysis from Indiana showed the rural stereotype was false for that state:

Indiana's Klansmen represented a wide cross section of society: they were not disproportionately urban or rural, nor were they significantly more or less likely than other members of society to be from the working class, middle class, or professional ranks. Klansmen were Protestants, of course, but they cannot be described exclusively or even predominantly as fundamentalists. In reality, their religious affiliations mirrored the whole of white Protestant society, including those who did not belong to any church.[98]
The Klan attracted people but most of them did not remain in the organization for long. Membership in the Klan turned over rapidly as people found out that it was not the group they wanted. Millions joined, and at its peak in the 1920s, the organization included about 15% of the nation's eligible population. The lessening of social tensions contributed to the Klan's decline.
The burning cross



Cross burning was introduced by William J. Simmons, the founder of the second Klan in 1915.
The second Klan embraced a burning Latin cross primarily as a symbol of intimidation.[99] No crosses had been used as a symbol by the first Klan. Additionally, the cross was henceforth a representation of the Klan's Christian message. Thus, its lighting during meetings was often accompanied by prayer, the singing of hymns, and other overtly religious symbolism.[100]
The practice of cross burning had been loosely based on ancient Scottish clans' burning a St. Andrew's cross (an X-shaped cross) as a beacon to muster forces for war. In The Clansman (see above), Dixon had falsely claimed that the first Klan had used fiery crosses when rallying to fight against Reconstruction. Griffith brought this image to the screen in The Birth of a Nation; he portrayed the burning cross as an upright Latin cross rather than the St. Andrew's cross. Simmons adopted the symbol wholesale from the movie, prominently displaying it at the 1915 Stone Mountain meeting. The symbol has been associated with the Klan ever since.[101]
Education
In 1921, in an attempt to gain a foothold in education, the Klan bought Lanier University, a struggling Baptist university in Atlanta. Nathan Bedford Forrest, grandson of the Confederate general by the same name, was appointed its business manager. The school was to teach "pure, 100 percent Americanism". Enrollment was dismal, and the school closed after the first year of Klan ownership.[102]
Women
By the 1920s, the KKK developed a women's auxiliary, with chapters in many areas. Its activities included participation in parades, cross lighting, lectures, rallies, and boycotts of local businesses owned by Catholics and Jews. The Women's Klan was active in promoting prohibition, stressing liquor's negative impact on wives and children. Its efforts in public schools included distributing Bibles and petitioning for the dismissal of Roman Catholic teachers. As a result of the Women's Klan's efforts, Texas would not hire Catholic teachers to work in its public schools. As scandals rocked the Klan leadership late in the 1920s, the organization's popularity among both men and women dropped off sharply.[103]
Political role



 Sheet music to "We Are All Loyal Klansmen", 1923
The members of the first Klan in the South were exclusively Democrats. The second Klan expanded with new chapters in the Midwest and West, where for a time, its members were courted by both Republicans and Democrats. The KKK state organizations endorsed candidates from either party that supported its goals; Prohibition in particular helped the Klan and some Republicans to make common cause in the Midwest.
The Klan had numerous members in every part of the United States, but was particularly strong in the South and Midwest. At its peak, claimed Klan membership exceeded four million and comprised 20% of the adult white male population in many broad geographic regions, and 40% in some areas.[104] The Klan also moved north into Canada, especially Saskatchewan, where it opposed Catholics.[105]
With expanded membership came election of Klan members to political office. In Indiana, members were chiefly American-born, white Protestants of many income and social levels. In the 1920s, Indiana had the most powerful Ku Klux Klan in the nation. It had a high number of members statewide (over 30% of its white male citizens[106]), and in 1924 elected the Klan member Edward Jackson as governor.[107]
Given success in state and local elections, the Klan issue contributed to the bitterly divisive 1924 Democratic National Convention in New York City. The leading candidates were William Gibbs McAdoo, a Protestant with a base in areas where the Klan was strong, and New York Governor Al Smith, a Catholic with a base in the large cities. After weeks of stalemate, both candidates withdrew in favor of a compromise. Anti-Klan delegates proposed a resolution indirectly attacking the Klan; it was narrowly defeated.[108][109]



 Two children wearing Ku Klux Klan robes and hoods stand on either side of Dr. Samuel Green, a Ku Klux Klan Grand Dragon, at Stone Mountain, Georgia on July 24, 1948.
In some states, such as Alabama and California, KKK chapters had worked for political reform. In 1924, Klan members were elected to the city council in Anaheim, California. The city had been controlled by an entrenched commercial-civic elite that was mostly German American. Given their tradition of moderate social drinking, the German Americans did not strongly support prohibition laws—the mayor had been a saloon keeper. Led by the minister of the First Christian Church, the Klan represented a rising group of politically oriented non-ethnic Germans who denounced the elite as corrupt, undemocratic and self-serving. The historian Christopher Cocoltchos says the Klansmen tried to create a model, orderly community. The Klan had about 1200 members in Orange County, California. The economic and occupational profile of the pro and anti-Klan groups shows the two were similar and about equally prosperous. Klan members were Protestants, as were most of their opponents, but the latter also included many Catholic Germans. Individuals who joined the Klan had earlier demonstrated a much higher rate of voting and civic activism than did their opponents. Cocoltchos suggests that many of the individuals in Orange County joined the Klan out of that sense of civic activism. The Klan representatives easily won the local election in Anaheim in April 1924. They fired known city employees who were Catholic and replaced them with Klan appointees. The new city council tried to enforce prohibition. After its victory, the Klan chapter held large rallies and initiation ceremonies over the summer.[110]
The opposition organized, bribed a Klansman for the secret membership list, and exposed the Klansmen running in the state primaries; they defeated most of the candidates. Klan opponents in 1925 took back local government, and succeeded in a special election in recalling the Klansmen who had been elected in April 1924. The Klan in Anaheim quickly collapsed, its newspaper closed after losing a libel suit, and the minister who led the local Klavern moved to Kansas.[110]
In the South, Klan members were still Democratic, as it was a one-party region for whites. Klan chapters were closely allied with Democratic police, sheriffs, and other functionaries of local government. Since disfranchisement of most African Americans and many poor whites around the start of the 20th century, the only political activity for whites took place within the Democratic Party.
In Alabama, Klan members advocated better public schools, effective prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other political measures to benefit lower-class white people. By 1925, the Klan was a political force in the state, as leaders such as J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black tried to build political power against the Black Belt planters, who had long dominated the state.[111] In 1926, with Klan support, Bibb Graves won the Alabama governor's office. He was a former Klan chapter head. He pushed for increased education funding, better public health, new highway construction, and pro-labor legislation. Because the Alabama state legislature refused to redistrict until 1972, and then under court order, the Klan was unable to break the planters' and rural areas' hold on legislative power. Scholars and biographers have recently examined Hugo Black's Klan role. Ball finds regarding the KKK that Black "sympathized with the group's economic, nativist, and anti-Catholic beliefs."[112] Newman says Black "disliked the Catholic Church as an institution" and gave over 100 anti-Catholic speeches in his 1926 election campaign to KKK meetings across Alabama.[113] Black was elected US senator in 1926 as a Democrat. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937 appointed Black to the Supreme Court without knowing how active in the Klan he had been in the 1920s. He was confirmed by his fellow Senators before the full KKK connection was known; Justice Black said he left the Klan when he became a senator.[114]
Resistance and decline



D. C. Stephenson, Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan. His conviction in 1925 for the murder of Madge Oberholtzer, a white schoolteacher, led to the decline of the Indiana Klan.
Many groups and leaders, including prominent Protestant ministers such as Reinhold Niebuhr in Detroit, spoke out against the Klan, gaining national attention. The Jewish Anti-Defamation League was formed in the early 20th century in response to attacks against Jewish Americans and the Klan's campaign to outlaw private schools. Opposing groups worked to penetrate the Klan's secrecy. After one civic group began to publish Klan membership lists, there was a rapid decline in members. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People created public education campaigns in order to inform people about Klan activities and lobbied in Congress against Klan abuses. After its peak in 1925, Klan membership in most areas began to decline rapidly.[96]
Specific events contributed to the decline as well. In Indiana, the scandal surrounding the 1925 murder trial of Grand Dragon D.C. Stephenson destroyed the image of the KKK as upholders of law and order. By 1926 the Klan was "crippled and discredited."[107] D. C. Stephenson was the Grand Dragon of Indiana and 22 northern states. In 1923 he had led the states under his control to separate from the national KKK organization. In his 1925 trial, he was convicted for second degree murder for his part in the rape, and subsequent death of Madge Oberholtzer.[115] After Stephenson's conviction, the Klan declined dramatically in Indiana. The historian Leonard Moore says that a failure in leadership caused the Klan's collapse:

Stephenson and the other salesmen and office seekers who maneuvered for control of Indiana's Invisible Empire lacked both the ability and the desire to use the political system to carry out the Klan's stated goals. They were uninterested in, or perhaps even unaware of, grass roots concerns within the movement. For them, the Klan had been nothing more than a means for gaining wealth and power. These marginal men had risen to the top of the hooded order because, until it became a political force, the Klan had never required strong, dedicated leadership. More established and experienced politicians who endorsed the Klan, or who pursued some of the interests of their Klan constituents, also accomplished little. Factionalism created one barrier, but many politicians had supported the Klan simply out of expedience. When charges of crime and corruption began to taint the movement, those concerned about their political futures had even less reason to work on the Klan's behalf.[116]
By 1920 Klan membership in Alabama dropped to less than 6,000. Small independent units continued to be active in the industrial city of Birmingham. In the late 1940s and 1950s, members launched a reign of terror by bombing the homes of upwardly mobile African Americans. Activism by such independent KKK groups increased as a reaction against the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.



 Ku Klux Klan members march down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. in 1928
In Alabama, KKK vigilantes launched a wave of physical terror in 1927. They targeted both blacks and whites for violation of racial norms and for perceived moral lapses.[117] This led to a strong backlash, beginning in the media. Grover C. Hall, Sr., editor of the Montgomery Advertiser from 1926, wrote a series of editorials and articles that attacked the Klan. (Today the paper says it "waged war on the resurgent [KKK]".)[118] Hall won a Pulitzer Prize for the crusade, the 1928 Editorial Writing Pulitzer, citing "his editorials against gangsterism, floggings and racial and religious intolerance."[119][120] Other newspapers kept up a steady, loud attack on the Klan, referring to the organization as violent and "un-American". Sheriffs cracked down on activities. In the 1928 presidential election, the state voters overcame initial opposition to the Catholic candidate Al Smith, and voted the Democratic Party line as usual.
Although in decline, a measure of the Klan's influence was its march along Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC in 1928.
Labor and anti-unionism
In southern cities such as Birmingham, Alabama, Klan members kept control of access to the better-paying industrial jobs and opposed unions. During the 1930s and 1940s, Klan leaders urged members to disrupt the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which advocated industrial unions and accepted African-American members, unlike earlier unions. With access to dynamite and using the skills from their jobs in mining and steel, in the late 1940s some Klan members in Birmingham used bombings in order to intimidate upwardly mobile blacks who moved into middle-class neighborhoods. "By mid-1949, there were so many charred house carcasses that the area [College Hills] was informally named Dynamite Hill."[121] Independent Klan groups remained active in Birmingham and violently opposed the Civil Rights Movement.[121]
In 1939, after years of the Great Depression, the Imperial Wizard Hiram Wesley Evans sold the national organization to James Colescott, an Indiana veterinarian, and Samuel Green, an Atlanta obstetrician. They could not revive the declining membership. In 1944, the IRS filed a lien for $685,000 in back taxes against the Klan, and Colescott dissolved the organization that year. Local Klan groups closed over the following years.[122]
After World War II, the folklorist and author Stetson Kennedy infiltrated the Klan; he provided internal data to media and law enforcement agencies. He also provided secret code words to the writers of the Superman radio program, resulting in episodes in which Superman took on the KKK. Kennedy stripped away the Klan's mystique and trivialized its rituals and code words, which may have contributed to the decline in Klan recruiting and membership.[123] In the 1950s, Kennedy wrote a bestselling book about his experiences, which further damaged the Klan.[124]
The following table shows the change in the Klan's estimated membership over time.[125] (The years given in the table represent approximate time periods.)


Year
Membership

1920
4,000,000 [126]
1924
6,000,000 
1930
30,000 
Historiography of the second Klan
The historiography of the second Klan of the 1920s can be sharply divided into two opposing interpretations, one based on elite sources and the other based on the new social history.[127][128] [129]
Elitist interpretations
The KKK was a secret organization; apart from a few top leaders the members never revealed their membership and wore masks in public. Investigators in the 1920s used KKK publicity, court cases, exposés by disgruntled Klansman, newspaper reports, and speculation to write stories about what the Klan was doing. Almost all the major newspapers and magazines were hostile. Published accounts exaggerated the official viewpoint of the Klan leadership, and repeated the interpretations of hostile newspapers and the Klan's enemies. There was almost no evidence regarding the actual behavior or beliefs of individual Klansmen. The resulting popular and scholarly interpretation of the Klan from the 1920s into recent decades, based on those sources, says Pegram, emphasized the Southern roots, and violent vigilante-style actions of the Klan in its efforts to turn back the clock of modernity. Scholars compared it to fascism, which in the 1920s took over Italy.[130] Pegram says this original interpretation:
Depicted the Klan movement as an irrational rebuke of modernity by undereducated, economically marginal bigots, religious zealots, and dupes willing to be manipulated by the Klan's cynical, mendacious leaders. It was, in this view, a movement of country parsons and small-town malcontents who were out of step with the dynamism of twentieth-century urban America."[131]
New social history interpretations
The "social history" revolution in historiography after the 1960s called for history from the bottom up, that would focus on the characteristics, beliefs, and behavior of the typical membership, and downplay claims from elite sources.[132][133] This approach was made possible by the discovery of membership lists and the minutes of local meetings from chapters scattered around the country. Historians apply the newest techniques of methodology to test the original interpretation. They discovered that the original interpretation was very largely mistaken about the membership and activities of the Klan. The membership was not anti-modern rural or rustic. It comprised fairly well educated middle-class joiners and community activists. Half the members lived in the fast-growing cities; Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia, Denver, and Portland, Oregon, were the Klan strongholds rather than the sleepy rural areas.[134]
Studies using the new social history find that in general, the membership was from the stable, successful middle classes, with few members drawn from the elite or the working classes. Pegram, reviewing the studies, concludes, "the popular Klan of the 19205, while diverse, was more of a civic exponent of white Protestant social values than a repressive hate group."[135]
Indiana and Alabama
In Indiana, traditional political historians focused on notorious leaders, especially D. C. Stephenson, the Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan, whose conviction for murder in 1925 helped destroy the movement nationwide. By contrast new social historian Leonard Moore titled his monograph Citizen Klansmen, and contrasted the sordid and intolerant rhetoric of the group's leaders with that of its much better behaved membership. The Klan was indeed white Protestant, and was highly suspicious of Catholics, Jews and blacks who were accused of subverting the ideal Protestant moral standards. Violence was quite uncommon in the chapters. Threats and vocational actions were directed primarily against fellow white Protestants for transgressions of community moral standards, such as adultery, wife-beating, gambling and heavy drinking. Up to one third of Indiana's Protestant men joined the order making it, Moore argued, "a kind of interest group for average white Protestants who believed that their values should be dominant in their community and state.[136]
Moore goes on to say that they joined:
because it stood for the most organized means of resisting the social and economic forces that had transformed community life, undermined traditional values, and made average citizens feel more isolated from one another and more powerless in their relationships with the major institutions that governed their lives.[137]
In Alabama, the young urban activists, such as Hugo Black, were reformers fighting against the old guard in state politics. The Klan in rural Alabama also had much more recourse to violence.[138]
Later Klans: 1950–1960s
The name "Ku Klux Klan" began to be used by several independent groups. Beginning in the 1950s, for instance, individual Klan groups in Birmingham, Alabama, began to resist social change and blacks' efforts to improve their lives by bombing houses in transitional neighborhoods. There were so many bombings in Birmingham of blacks' homes by Klan groups in the 1950s that the city's nickname was "Bombingham".[24]
During the tenure of Bull Connor as police commissioner in the city, Klan groups were closely allied with the police and operated with impunity. When the Freedom Riders arrived in Birmingham, Connor gave Klan members fifteen minutes to attack the riders before sending in the police to quell the attack.[24] When local and state authorities failed to protect the Freedom Riders and activists, the federal government established effective intervention.
In states such as Alabama and Mississippi, Klan members forged alliances with governors' administrations.[24] In Birmingham and elsewhere, the KKK groups bombed the houses of civil rights activists. In some cases they used physical violence, intimidation and assassination directly against individuals. Continuing disfranchisement of blacks across the South meant that most could not serve on juries, which were all white.



 Goodman, Chaney, and Schwerner were three civil rights workers abducted and murdered by members of the Ku Klux Klan.
According to a report from the Southern Regional Council in Atlanta, the homes of 40 black Southern families were bombed during 1951 and 1952. Some of the bombing victims were social activists whose work exposed them to danger, but most were either people who refused to bow to racist convention or were innocent bystanders, unsuspecting victims of random violence.[139] Among the more notorious murders by Klan members:
The 1951 Christmas Eve bombing of the home of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) activists Harry and Harriette Moore in Mims, Florida, resulting in their deaths.[140]
The 1957 murder of Willie Edwards, Jr. Klansmen forced Edwards to jump to his death from a bridge into the Alabama River.[141]
The 1963 assassination of NAACP organizer Medgar Evers in Mississippi. In 1994, former Ku Klux Klansman Byron De La Beckwith was convicted.
The 1963 bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, which killed four African-American girls. The perpetrators were Klan members Robert Chambliss, convicted in 1977, Thomas Edwin Blanton, Jr. and Bobby Frank Cherry, convicted in 2001 and 2002. The fourth suspect, Herman Cash, died before he was indicted.
The 1964 murders of three civil rights workers, Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner, in Mississippi. In June 2005, Klan member Edgar Ray Killen was convicted of manslaughter.[142]
The 1964 murder of two black teenagers, Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore in Mississippi. In August 2007, based on the confession of Klansman Charles Marcus Edwards, James Ford Seale, a reputed Ku Klux Klansman, was convicted. Seale was sentenced to serve three life sentences. Seale was a former Mississippi policeman and sheriff's deputy.[143]
The 1965 Alabama murder of Viola Liuzzo. She was a Southern-raised Detroit mother of five who was visiting the state in order to attend a civil rights march. At the time of her murder Liuzzo was transporting Civil Rights Marchers.
The 1966 firebombing death of NAACP leader Vernon Dahmer Sr., 58, in Mississippi. In 1998 former Ku Klux Klan wizard Sam Bowers was convicted of his murder and sentenced to life. Two other Klan members were indicted with Bowers, but one died before trial, and the other's indictment was dismissed.
The 1967 multiple bombings in Jackson, Mississippi of the residence of a Methodist activist, Robert Kochtitzky, and those at the synagogue and at the residence of Rabbi Perry Nussbaum on Old Canton Road were executed by a Klan member named Thomas Albert Tarrants III who was convicted in 1968. Another Klan bombing was averted in Meridian the same year.[144]
Resistance
There was also resistance to the Klan. In 1953, newspaper publishers W. Horace Carter (Tabor City, NC), who had campaigned for three years, and Willard Cole (Whiteville, NC) shared the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service citing "their successful campaign against the Ku Klux Klan, waged on their own doorstep at the risk of economic loss and personal danger, culminating in the conviction of over one hundred Klansmen and an end to terrorism in their communities."[145] In a 1958 incident in North Carolina, the Klan burned crosses at the homes of two Lumbee Native Americans who had associated with white people, and they threatened to return with more men. When the KKK held a nighttime rally nearby, they were quickly surrounded by hundreds of armed Lumbees. Gunfire was exchanged, and the Klan was routed at what became known as the Battle of Hayes Pond.[146]
While the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had paid informants in the Klan, for instance in Birmingham in the early 1960s, its relations with local law enforcement agencies and the Klan were often ambiguous. The head of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, appeared more concerned about Communist links to civil rights activists than about controlling Klan excesses against citizens. In 1964, the FBI's COINTELPRO program began attempts to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights groups.[24]
As 20th-century Supreme Court rulings extended federal enforcement of citizens' civil rights, the government revived the Force Acts and the Klan Act from Reconstruction days. Federal prosecutors used these laws as the basis for investigations and indictments in the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner;[147] and the 1965 murder of Viola Liuzzo. They were also the basis for prosecution in 1991 in Bray v. Alexandria Women's Health Clinic.
Contemporary Klan: 1970s–present



 Violence at a Klan march in Mobile, Alabama, 1977
Once African Americans secured federal legislation to protect civil and voting rights, the KKK shifted its focus to opposing court-ordered busing to desegregate schools, affirmative action and more open immigration. In 1971, KKK members used bombs to destroy 10 school buses in Pontiac, Michigan.
Altercation with Communist Workers Party
Main article: Greensboro massacre
On November 3, 1979, five communist protesters were killed by KKK and American Nazi Party members in the Greensboro massacre in Greensboro, North Carolina.[148] This incident took place during the Death to the Klan rally sponsored by the Communist Workers Party, in their efforts to organize predominantly black industrial workers in the area.[149]
Jerry Thompson infiltration
Jerry Thompson, a newspaper reporter who infiltrated the KKK in 1979, reported that the FBI's COINTELPRO efforts were highly successful. Rival KKK factions accused each other's leaders of being FBI informants. Bill Wilkinson of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was revealed to have been working for the FBI.[150]
Thompson also related that KKK leaders who appeared indifferent to the threat of arrest showed great concern about a series of civil lawsuits filed by the Southern Poverty Law Center for damages amounting to millions of dollars. These were filed after KKK members shot into a group of African Americans. Klansmen curtailed activities to conserve money for defense against the lawsuits. The KKK also used lawsuits as tools; they filed a libel suit to prevent publication of a paperback edition of Thompson's book.
Tennessee shooting
In 1980, three KKK members shot four elderly black women (Viola Ellison, Lela Evans, Opal Jackson and Katherine Johnson) in Chattanooga, Tennessee, following a KKK initiation rally. A fifth woman, Fannie Crumsey, was injured by flying glass in the incident. Attempted murder charges were filed against the three KKK members, two of whom—Bill Church and Larry Payne—were acquitted by an all-white jury, and the other of whom—Marshall Thrash—was sentenced by the same jury to nine months on lesser charges. He was released after three months.[151][152][153] In 1982, a jury awarded the five women $535,000 in a civil rights trial.[154]
Michael Donald lynching
After Michael Donald was lynched in 1981 in Alabama, the FBI investigated his death and two local KKK members were convicted of having a role, including Henry Francis Hays, who was sentenced to death. With the support of attorneys Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), Donald's mother, Beulah Mae Donald, sued the KKK in civil court in Alabama. Her lawsuit against the United Klans of America was tried in February 1987. The all-white jury found the Klan responsible for the lynching of Donald and ordered the Klan to pay US$7 million. To pay the judgment, the KKK turned over all of its assets, including its national headquarters building in Tuscaloosa. After exhausting the appeals process, Hays was executed for Donald's death in Alabama on June 6, 1997. It was the first time since 1913 that a white man had been executed in Alabama for a crime against an African American.
Neo-Nazi alliances and Stormfront
Main article: Stormfront (website)
In 1995, Don Black and Chloê Hardin, former KKK Grand Wizard David Duke's ex-wife, began a small bulletin board system (BBS) called Stormfront. Today, Stormfront has become a prominent online forum for white nationalism, Neo-Nazism, hate speech, racism, and antisemitism.[155][156][157] Duke has an account on Stormfront which he uses to post articles from his own website, as well as polling forum members for opinions and questions, in particular during his internet broadcasts. Duke has worked with Don Black on numerous projects including Operation Red Dog in 1980.[158][159]
Current developments
The modern KKK is not one organization; rather it is composed of small independent chapters across the U.S.[160] The formation of independent chapters has made KKK groups more difficult to infiltrate, and researchers find it hard to estimate their numbers. Estimates are that about two-thirds of KKK members are concentrated in the Southern United States, with another third situated primarily in the lower Midwest.[161][162][163]



Daryl Davis, a black musician, is credited with dismantling the entire KKK network in Maryland.
The Klan has expanded its recruitment efforts to white supremacists at the international level.[164] For some time the Klan's numbers are steadily dropping. This decline has been attributed to the Klan's lack of competence in the use of the Internet, their history of violence, a proliferation of competing hate groups, and a decline in the number of young racist activists who are willing to join groups at all.[165]
Recent membership campaigns have been based on issues such as people's anxieties about illegal immigration, urban crime, civil unions and same-sex marriage.[166] Akins argues that, "Klan literature and propaganda is rabidly homophobic and encourages violence against gays and lesbians....Since the late 1970s, the Klan has increasingly focused its ire on this previously ignored population.[167] Many KKK groups have formed strong alliances with other white supremacist groups, such as neo-Nazis. Some KKK groups have become increasingly "nazified", adopting the look and emblems of white power skinheads.[168]
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has provided legal support to various factions of the KKK in defense of their First Amendment rights to hold public rallies, parades, and marches, as well as their right to field political candidates.[169]
Current Klan organizations



 The flag of the Knights Party, the political branch of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.
A list is maintained by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL):[170]
Bayou Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, prevalent in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana and other areas of the Southern U.S.
Church of the American Knights of the Ku Klux Klan[161]
Imperial Klans of America[171]
Knights of the White Camelia[172]
Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, headed by national director and self-claimed pastor Thom Robb, and based in Zinc, Arkansas.[173] It claims to be the biggest Klan organization in America today.
Other countries
Aside from Canada, there have been various attempts to organise KKK chapters outside the United States. In Australia in the late 1990s, former One Nation founding member Peter Coleman established branches throughout the country,[174][175] and in recent years the KKK has attempted to infiltrate other political parties such as Australia First.[176] Recruitment activity has also been reported in the United Kingdom,[177][178] dating back to the 1960s when Robert Relf was involved in establishing a British KKK.[179]
In Germany a KKK-related group, the European White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, has organised and it gained notoriety in 2012 when it was widely reported in the German media that two police officers who held membership in the organisation would be allowed to keep their jobs.[180][181][182] A group was even established in Fiji in the early 1870s by white settlers, although it was put down by the British who, although not officially established as Fiji's colonial rulers, had played a leading role in establishing a new constitutional monarchy that was being threatened by the Fijian Klan.[183] In São Paulo, Brazil, the website of a group called Imperial Klans of Brazil was shut down in 2003, and the group's leader was arrested.[184]
Titles and vocabulary
Main article: Ku Klux Klan titles and vocabulary
Membership in the Klan is secret. Like many fraternal organizations, the Klan has signs which members can use to recognize one another. A member may use the acronym AYAK (Are you a Klansman?) in conversation to surreptitiously identify himself to another potential member. The response AKIA (A Klansman I am) completes the greeting.[185]
Throughout its varied history, the Klan has coined many words[186] beginning with "Kl" including:
Klabee - treasurers
Klavern - local organization
Imperial Kleagle - recruiter
Klecktoken - initiation fee
Kligrapp - secretary
Klonvocation - gathering
Kloran - ritual book
Kloreroe - delegate
Imperial Kludd - chaplain
All of the above terminology was created by William Joseph Simmons, as part of his 1915 revival of the Klan.[187] The Reconstruction-era Klan used different titles; the only titles to carry over were "Wizard" for the overall leader of the Klan and "Night Hawk" for the official in charge of security.
The Imperial Kludd was the chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and he performed "such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard."
The Imperial Kaliff was the second highest position after the Imperial Wizard.[188]
See also

Portal icon Discrimination portal
Anti-mask laws
Black Legion (political movement)
History of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey
Ku Klux Klan in Canada
Ku Klux Klan in Inglewood, California
Ku Klux Klan in Maine
Ku Klux Klan members in United States politics
Ku Klux Klan recruitment
Ku Klux Klan regalia and insignia
Leaders of the Ku Klux Klan
List of Ku Klux Klan organizations
List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
List of white nationalist organizations
Neo-Confederate
Rosewood massacre
Tulsa race riot
White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan
References
1.Jump up ^ McVeigh, Rory. "Structural Incentives for Conservative Mobilization: Power Devaluation and the Rise of the Ku Klux Klan, 1915–1925". Social Forces, Vol. 77, No. 4 (June 1999), p. 1463.
2.^ Jump up to: a b "Ku Klux Klan". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
3.Jump up ^ Klanwatch Project (2011). Ku Klux Klan: a History of Racism and Violence (PAMPHLET) (Sixth ed.). Montgomery, Alabama: Southern Poverty Law Center. p. 15. Retrieved 16 December 2014. "Whatever the actual date, it is clear that as an organized, cohesive body across the South, the Ku Klux Klan had ceased to exist by the end of 1869."
4.Jump up ^ Rory McVeigh, The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (2009)
5.Jump up ^ Matthew N. Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America (2000) ch 3, 5, 13
6.Jump up ^ Both the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center include it in their lists of hate groups. See also Brian Levin, "Cyberhate: A Legal and Historical Analysis of Extremists' Use of Computer Networks in America" in Perry, Barbara, editor. Hate and Bias Crime: A Reader. p. 112 p. Google Books.
7.Jump up ^ See, e.g., Klanwatch Project (2011), illustrations, pp. 9-10
8.Jump up ^ Elaine Frantz Parsons, "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". Journal of American History 92.3 (2005): 811–36, in History Cooperative.
9.Jump up ^ Wyn Craig Wade, The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (Oxford University Press, 1998)
10.Jump up ^ Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida.
11.Jump up ^ Perlmutter, Philip (1 January 1999). Legacy of Hate: A Short History of Ethnic, Religious, and Racial Prejudice in America. M.E. Sharpe. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-7656-0406-4. "Kenneth T. Jackson, in his The Ku Klux Klan in the City 1915-1930, reminds us that "virtually every" Protestant denomination denounced the KKK, but that most KKK members were not "innately depraved or anxious to subvert American institutions," but rather saw their membership in keeping with "one-hundred percent Americanism" and Christianity morality."
12.^ Jump up to: a b "Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Adl.org. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
13.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era". New Georgia Encyclopedia. October 3, 2002. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
14.Jump up ^ Trelease, White Terror (1971), p. 18.
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16.Jump up ^ Foner, Reconstruction (1988 ) p 458
17.Jump up ^ George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction (2007) pp 101, 110-11
18.Jump up ^ Thomas R. Pegram, One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (2011), pp. 47-88.
19.Jump up ^ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915-1930 (2011), p. 248.
20.Jump up ^ Jackson 1992 ed., pp. 241–242.
21.Jump up ^ Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College.
22.Jump up ^ Julian Sher, White Hoods: Canada's Ku Klux Klan (1983), pp. 52-53.
23.Jump up ^ James M. Pitsula, Keeping Canada British: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Saskatchewan (2013)
24.^ Jump up to: a b c d e McWhorter 2001.
25.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved February 19, 2010.
26.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
27.Jump up ^ "Inquiry Begun on Klan Ties Of 2 Icons at Virginia Tech". NY Times. November 16, 1997. p. 138. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
28.Jump up ^ Lee, Jennifer (November 6, 2006). "Samuel Bowers, 82, Klan Leader Convicted in Fatal Bombing, Dies". NY Times. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
29.Jump up ^ Brush, Pete (May 28, 2002). "Court Will Review Cross Burning Ban". CBS News. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
30.Jump up ^ Dallas.FBI.gov "Domestic terrorism by the Klan remained a key concern", FBI, Dallas office
31.Jump up ^ "Klan named terrorist organization in Charleston". Reuters. October 14, 1999. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
32.Jump up ^ "Ban the Klan? Professor has court strategy". Associated Press. May 21, 2004. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
33.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 9. The founders were John C. Lester, John B. Kennedy, James R. Crowe, Frank O. McCord, Richard R. Reed, and J. Calvin Jones.
34.Jump up ^ Fleming, Walter J., Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment, p. 27, 1905, Neale Publishing.
35.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 11, states that Reed proposed κύκλος (kyklos) and Kennedy added clan. Wade 1987, p. 33 says that Kennedy came up with both words, but Crowe suggested transforming κύκλος into kuklux.
36.Jump up ^ W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 679–680.
37.Jump up ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, p. 671–675.
38.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan, Organization and Principles, 1868". State University of New York at Albany.
39.Jump up ^ Wills, Brian Steel (1992). A Battle from the Start: The Life of Nathan Bedford Forrest. New York, New York: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 336. ISBN 0-06-092445-4.
40.Jump up ^ The Sun. "Civil War Threatened in Tennessee." September 3, 1868: 2; The Charleston Daily News. "A Talk with General Forrest." September 8, 1868: 1.
41.Jump up ^ Cincinnati Commercial, August 28, 1868, quoted in Wade, 1987.
42.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 27.
43.Jump up ^ Parsons 2005, p. 816.
44.^ Jump up to: a b Foner 1988, p. 425–426.
45.Jump up ^ Foner 1988, p. 342.
46.Jump up ^ "History of the Ku Klux Klan - Preach the Cross". preachthecross.net. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
47.Jump up ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 677–678.
48.Jump up ^ Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988) p. 432.
49.Jump up ^ Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880 pp. 674–675.
50.Jump up ^ Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, pp.680–681.
51.Jump up ^ Bryant, Jonathan M. "Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Georgia Southern University.
52.Jump up ^ Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida, pp. 1–30. Newton quotes from the Testimony Taken by the Joint Select Committee to Enquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States, Vol. 13. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1872. Among historians of the Klan, this volume is also known as The KKK testimony.
53.Jump up ^ Rhodes 1920, pp. 157–158.
54.^ Jump up to: a b Horn 1939, p. 375.
55.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 102.
56.Jump up ^ Foner 1988, p. 435.
57.Jump up ^ Wade 1987.
58.Jump up ^ Ranney, Joseph A (Jan 1, 2006). In the Wake of Slavery: Civil War, Civil Rights, and the Reconstruction of Southern Law. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 57–58. ISBN 0275989720.
59.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 373.
60.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 88.
61.^ Jump up to: a b Scaturro, Frank (October 26, 2006). "The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, 1869–1877". The College of St. Scholastica. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
62.Jump up ^ p. 5, United States Circuit Court (4th Circuit). Proceedings in the Ku Klux Trials at Columbia, S.C. in the United States Circuit Court. Edited by Benn Pitman and Louis Freeland Post. Columbia, SC: Republican Printing Company, 1872.
63.Jump up ^ The New York Times. "Kuklux Trials — Sentence of the Prisoners." December 29, 1871.
64.^ Jump up to: a b Wormser, Richard. "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow—The Enforcement Acts (1870–1871)". Public Broadcasting Service.
65.Jump up ^ The New York Times. "N. B. Forrest." September 3, 1868.
66.Jump up ^ "White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction by Allen W. Trelease (Louisiana State University Press: 1995)".
67.Jump up ^ Trelease 1995.
68.Jump up ^ Quotes from Wade 1987.
69.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 360.
70.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 362.
71.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 85.
72.Jump up ^ Wade, p. 102.
73.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 109, writes that by ca. 1871–1874, "For many, the lapse of the enforcement acts was justified since their reason for being—the Ku-Klux Klan—had been effectively smashed as a result of the dramatic showdown in South Carolina".
74.Jump up ^ Foner, Reconstruction (1988) pp 458-459
75.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 109–110.
76.Jump up ^ Balkin, Jack M. (2002). "History Lesson" (PDF). Yale University.
77.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 109
78.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 144.
79.Jump up ^ "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow: The Enforcement Acts, 1870–1871", Public Broadcast Service. Retrieved April 5, 2008.
80.Jump up ^ "The Various Shady Lives of the Ku Klux Klan". Time magazine. April 9, 1965. "An itinerant Methodist preacher named William Joseph Simmons started up the Klan again in Atlanta in 1915. Simmons, an ascetic-looking man, was a fetishist on fraternal organizations. He was already a "colonel" in the Woodmen of the World, but he decided to build an organization all his own. He was an effective speaker, with an affinity for alliteration; he had preached on "Women, Weddings and Wives," "Red Heads, Dead Heads and No Heads," and the "Kinship of Kourtship and Kissing." On Thanksgiving Eve 1915, Simmons took 15 friends to the top of Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, built an altar on which he placed an American flag, a Bible and an unsheathed sword, set fire to a crude wooden cross, muttered a few incantations about a "practical fraternity among men," and declared himself Imperial Wizard of the Invisible Empire of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan."
81.Jump up ^ Dray 2002, p. 198. Griffith quickly relayed the comment to the press, where it was widely reported.
82.Jump up ^ Letter from J. M. Tumulty, secretary to President Wilson, to the Boston branch of the NAACP, quoted in John Milton Cooper, Jr. (2011). Woodrow Wilson: A Biography. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 273.
83.Jump up ^ Chester L. Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan and Related American Racialist and Antisemitic Organizations: A History and Analysis, p. 219. The second Klan's constitution and preamble attributed debt to the original Klan's Prescripts.
84.Jump up ^ Brian R. Farmer, American Conservatism: History, Theory and Practice (2005), p. 208.
85.Jump up ^ Kathleen M. Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (2008), p. 47.
86.Jump up ^ McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-8050-8906-6.
87.Jump up ^ Jackson 1967, p. 241.
88.Jump up ^ "Nation: The Various Shady Lives of The Ku Klux Klan". TIME. April 9, 1965. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
89.Jump up ^ Maxine D. Rogers et al., Documented History of Rosewood, Florida in January 1923, pp. 4–6, accessed March 28, 2008; Clarence Lusane (2003), Hitler's Black Victims, p. 89.
90.Jump up ^ Michael Newton, The Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi: a history, p. 70.
91.Jump up ^ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915–1930 (University Press of Kansas, 2011)
92.Jump up ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American, pp. 119-56.
93.Jump up ^ Prendergast 1987, pp. 25–52, 27.
94.Jump up ^ Lender et al. 1982, p. 33.
95.Jump up ^ Barr 1999, p. 370.
96.^ Jump up to: a b Jackson 1992.
97.Jump up ^ Emily Parker, "'Night-Shirt Knights' in the City: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Worcester, Massachusetts", New England Journal of History, Fall 2009, Vol. 66 Issue 1, pp. 62–78.
98.Jump up ^ Moore 1991.
99.Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (May 29, 2002). "Supreme Court Roundup; Free Speech or Hate Speech? Court Weighs Cross Burning". New York Times. Retrieved February 20, 2010.
100.Jump up ^ Wade, Wyn Craig (1998). The fiery cross: the Ku Klux Klan in America. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-19-512357-9. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
101.Jump up ^ Cecil Adams (June 18, 1993). "Why does the Ku Klux Klan burn crosses?". The Straight Dope. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
102.Jump up ^ "Forrest tells aims of Ku Klux College". New York Times. September 12, 1921. Retrieved August 6, 2011.
103.Jump up ^ Kathleen M. Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (University of California Press, 2008).
104.Jump up ^ Marty Gitlin, The Ku Klux Klan: A Guide to an American Subculture (2009) p. 20.
105.Jump up ^ Julian Sher, White Hoods: Canada's Ku Klux Klan (1983)
106.Jump up ^ "Indiana History Chapter Seven". Northern Indiana Center for History. Archived from the original on April 11, 2008. Retrieved October 7, 2008.
107.^ Jump up to: a b "Ku Klux Klan in Indiana". Indiana State Library. November 2000. Retrieved September 27, 2009.
108.Jump up ^ Allen, Lee N. (1963). "The McAdoo Campaign for the Presidential Nomination in 1924". Journal of Southern History 29 (2): 211–228. JSTOR 2205041.
109.Jump up ^ Craig, Douglas B. (1992). After Wilson: The Struggle for the Democratic Party, 1920–1934. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ch. 2–3. ISBN 0-8078-2058-X.
110.^ Jump up to: a b Christopher N. Cocoltchos, "The Invisible Empire and the Search for the Orderly Community: The Ku Klux Klan in Anaheim, California", in Shawn Lay, ed. The invisible empire in the West (2004), pp. 97-120.
111.Jump up ^ Feldman 1999.
112.Jump up ^ Howard Ball, Hugo L. Black: cold steel warrior (1996) p. 16
113.Jump up ^ Roger K. Newman, Hugo Black: a biography (1997) pp 87, 104
114.Jump up ^ Ball, Hugo L. Black: cold steel warrior (1996) p. 96
115.Jump up ^ "D. C. Stephenson manuscript collection". Indiana Historical Society. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
116.Jump up ^ Moore 1991, p. 186
117.Jump up ^ Rogers et al., pp. 432–433.
118.Jump up ^ "History of the Montgomery Advertiser". Montgomery Advertiser: a Gannett Company. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
119.Jump up ^ Rogers et al., p. 433.
120.Jump up ^ "Editorial Writing". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
121.^ Jump up to: a b Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution, New York: Touchstone Book, 2002, p. 75.
122.Jump up ^ "Georgia Orders Action to Revoke Charter of Klan. Federal Lien Also Put on File to Collect Income Taxes Dating Back to 1921. Governor Warns of a Special Session if Needed to Enact 'De-Hooding' Measures Tells of Phone Threats Georgia Acts to Crush the Klan. Federal Tax Lien Also Is Filed". New York Times. May 31, 1946. Retrieved January 12, 2010. "Governor Ellis Arnall today ordered the State's legal department to bring action to revoke the Georgia charter of the Ku Klux Klan. ... 'It is my further information that on June 4, 1944, the Ku Klux Klan ..."
123.Jump up ^ von Busack, Richard. "Superman Versus the KKK". MetroActive.
124.Jump up ^ Kennedy 1990.
125.Jump up ^ "The Ku Klux Klan, a brief biography". The African American Registry. Retrieved July 19, 2012. and Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College.
126.Jump up ^ "The Various Shady Lives of The Ku Klux Klan". TIME. April 9, 1965. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
127.Jump up ^ Craig Fox, "Changing interpretations of the 1920s Klan: A selected historiography" in Fox, Everyday Klansfolk: White Protestant Life and the KKK in 1920s Michigan (2012), Introduction online
128.Jump up ^ Thomas R. Pegram (2011). One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. Ivan R. Dee. pp. 221–28.
129.Jump up ^ Jesse Walker, "Hooded Progressivism: The secret reformist history of the Ku Klux Klan," Reason.com December 2, 2005 online
130.Jump up ^ The best scholarly study in this approach is David M. Chalmers, Hooded Americanism: The First Century of the Ku Klux Klan, 1865-1965 (1965), with excellent national and state coverage.
131.Jump up ^ Pegram. One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. p. 222.
132.Jump up ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American p 225
133.Jump up ^ Leonard J. Moore, "Good Old-Fashioned New Social History and the Twentieth-Century American Right." Reviews in American History (1996) 24#4 pp: 555-573 online.
134.Jump up ^ Kenneth T. Jackson, The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915-1930 (1967)
135.Jump up ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American p.225
136.Jump up ^ Leonard J. Moore (1997). Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921-1928. U. North Carolina Press. p. 188.
137.Jump up ^ Moore, Citizen Klansmen p 188
138.Jump up ^ Glenn Feldman, Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915-1949 (1999)
139.Jump up ^ Egerton 1994, p. 562–563.
140.Jump up ^ "Who Was Harry T. Moore?" — The Palm Beach Post, August 16, 1999.
141.Jump up ^ Cox, Major W. (March 2, 1999). "Justice Still Absent in Bridge Death". Montgomery Advertiser.[dead link]
142.Jump up ^ Axtman, Kris (June 23, 2005). "Mississippi verdict greeted by a generation gap". The Christian Science Monitor.
143.Jump up ^ "Reputed Klansman, Ex-Cop, and Sheriff's Deputy Indicted For The 1964 Murders of Two Young African-American Men in Mississippi; U.S. v. James Ford Seale". January 24, 2007. Retrieved March 23, 2008.
144.Jump up ^ Nelson, Jack. (1993). Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 208-211. ISBN 0671692232.
145.Jump up ^ "Public Service". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
146.Jump up ^ Ingalls 1979; Graham, Nicholas (January 2005). "January 1958 – The Lumbees face the Klan". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
147.Jump up ^ Simon, Dennis M. "The Civil Rights Movement, 1964–1968". Southern Methodist University.
148.Jump up ^ "Remembering the 1979 Greensboro Massacre: 25 Years Later Survivors Form Country's First Truth and Reconciliation Commission". Democracy Now. November 18, 2004. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
149.Jump up ^ Mark Hand (November 18, 2004). "The Greensboro Massacre". Press Action.
150.Jump up ^ Thompson 1982.
151.Jump up ^ The White Separatist Movement in the United States: "White Power, White Pride!", by Betty A. Dobratz & Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile. November 2000. ISBN 978-0-8018-6537-4. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
152.Jump up ^ "Women's Appeal for Justice in Chattanooga – US Department of Justice" (PDF). Retrieved February 20, 2011.
153.Jump up ^ "The Victoria Advocate: Bonds for Klan Upheld". News.google.com. April 22, 1980. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
154.Jump up ^ UPI (February 28, 1982). "New York Times: History Around the Nation; Jury Award to 5 Blacks Hailed as Blow to Klan". Nytimes.com (Tennessee; Chattanooga (Tenn)). Retrieved February 20, 2011.
155.Jump up ^ "RedState, White Supremacy, and Responsibility", Daily Kos, December 5, 2005.
156.Jump up ^ Bill O'Reilly, "Circling the Wagons in Georgia", Fox News Channel, May 8, 2003.
157.Jump up ^ "WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center: Case No. DTV2001-0023", World Intellectual Property Organization, January 13, 2002.
158.Jump up ^ Captmike works undercover with the US Government to stop the invasion of the Island Nation of Dominica, manana.com.
159.Jump up ^ Operation Red Dog: Canadian neo-nazis were central to the planned invasion of Dominica in 1981,[dead link] canadiancontent.ca.
160.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. According to the report, the KKK's estimated size then was "No more than a few thousand, organized into slightly more than 100 units."
161.^ Jump up to: a b "Church of the American Knights of the KKK". Anti-Defamation League. October 22, 1999. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
162.Jump up ^ "Active U.S. Hate Groups". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center.
163.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
164.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan warns race war if Obama wins". Sify News. November 3, 2008. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
165.Jump up ^ Palmer, Brian (March 8, 2012). "Ku Klux Kontraction: How did the KKK lose nearly one-third of its chapters in one year?". Slate Magazine. Retrieved March 25, 2012.
166.Jump up ^ Knickerbocker, Brad (February 9, 2007). "Anti-Immigrant Sentiments Fuel Ku Klux Klan Resurgence". The Christian Science Monitor.
167.Jump up ^ Akins, J. Keith (January 2006). "The Ku Klux Klan: America's Forgotten Terrorists". Law Enforcement Executive Forum. p. 137.
168.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan – Affiliations – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
169.Jump up ^ See, e.g., "A.C.L.U. Lawsuit Backs Klan In Seeking Permit for Cross". The New York Times. December 16, 1993. (accessed August 2009); "ACLU Defends KKK, Wins". Channel3000. January 4, 1999. Retrieved July 28, 2010. The ACLU professes a mission to defend the constitutional rights of all groups, whether left, center, or right.
170.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America – Active Groups (by state)". adl.org. Anti-Defamation League. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
171.Jump up ^ "No. 2 Klan group on trial in Ky. teen's beating". Associated Press. November 11, 2008. Retrieved November 22, 2008.
172.Jump up ^ "White Camelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan – Home page". wckkkk.org. White Camelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
173.Jump up ^ "Arkansas Klan Group Loses Legal Battle with North Carolina Newspaper". Anti-Defamation League. July 9, 2009. Retrieved August 15, 2008.
174.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan sets up Australian branch". BBC News. June 2, 1999. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
175.Jump up ^ Ansley, Greg (June 5, 1999). "Dark mystique of the KKK". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
176.Jump up ^ Jensen, Erik (July 10, 2009). "We have infiltrated party: KKK". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
177.Jump up ^ Hosken, Andy (June 10, 1999). "KKK plans 'infiltration' of the UK". BBC News. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
178.Jump up ^ Parry, Ryan (October 19, 2011). "We expose vile racist biker as British leader of the Ku Klux Klan". Daily Mail. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
179.Jump up ^ Peter Barberis, John McHugh, Mike Tyldesley, Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations, 2002, p. 184
180.Jump up ^ German Police Kept Jobs Despite KKK Involvement, Der Spiegel
181.Jump up ^ Ku Klux Klan: German Police Officers Allowed to Stay on Job Despite Links with European Branch of White Supremacists, International Business Times
182.Jump up ^ 'KKK cops' scandal uncovered amid German neo-Nazi terror probe, Russia Today
183.Jump up ^ Kim Gravelle, Fiji's Times: A History of Fiji, Suva: The Fiji Times, 1988, pp. 120-124
184.Jump up ^ Jovem ligado à Ku Klux Klan é detido em São Paulo
185.Jump up ^ "A Visual Database of Extremist Symbols, Logos and Tattoos". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
186.Jump up ^ Axelrod 1997, p. 160.
187.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 142. "'It was rather difficult, sometimes, to make the two letters fit in,' he recalled later, 'but I did it somehow.'"
188.Jump up ^ Chester L. Quarles (1999). The Ku Klux Klan and related American racialist and antisemitic organizations. McFarland Publishing. ISBN 0-7864-0647-X. "Imperial Kludd: Is the Chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and shall perform such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard ..."
Further reading
Axelrod, Alan (1997). The International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies & Fraternal Orders. New York: Facts On File.
Baker, Kelly J. Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915-1930 (University Press of Kansas, 2011) ISBN 978-0700617920.
Barr, Andrew (1999). Drink: A Social History of America. New York: Carroll & Graf.
Chalmers, David M. (1987). Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan. Durahm, N.C.: Duke University Press. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-8223-0730-3.
Chalmers, David M. (2003). Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement. ISBN 0-7425-2310-1.
Cunningham, David. Klansville, USA: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-Era Ku Klux Klan (Oxford University Press, 2013). 360pp.
Dray, Philip (2002). At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America. New York: Random House.
Egerton, John (1994). Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South. Alfred and Knopf Inc.
Feldman, Glenn (1999). Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press.
Fleming, Walter J. Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment (1905)
Foner, Eric (1989). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. Perennial (HarperCollins).
Fox, Craig. Everyday Klansfolk: White Protestant Life and the KKK in 1920s Michigan (Michigan State University Press, 2011), 274 pp. ISBN 978-0-87013-995-6.
Franklin, John Hope (1992). Race and History: Selected Essays 1938–1988. Louisiana State University Press.
Fryer, Roland G., Jr; Levitt, Steven D. (September 2007), Hatred and Profits: Getting Under the Hood of the Ku Klux Klan, National Bureau of Economic Research, retrieved 22 January 2015
Horn, Stanley F. (1939). Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871. Montclair, New Jersey: Patterson Smith Publishing Corporation.
Ingalls, Robert P. (1979). Hoods: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Jackson, Kenneth T. (1967). The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (1992 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Kennedy, Stetson (1990). The Klan Unmasked. University Press of Florida.
McVeigh, Rory. The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (2009), on 1920s.
Lender, Mark E.; Martin, James K. (1982). Drinking in America. New York: Free Press.
Lewis, George. ""An Amorphous Code": The Ku Klux Klan and Un-Americanism, 1915–1965." Journal of American Studies (2013) 47#4 pp: 971-992.
McWhorter, Diane (2001). Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Moore, Leonard J. (1991). Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Newton, Michael; Newton, Judy Ann (1991). The Ku Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia. New York & London: Garland Publishing.
Parsons, Elaine Frantz (2005). "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". The Journal of American History 92 (3): 811–836. doi:10.2307/3659969.
Pegram, Thomas R. One hundred percent American: the rebirth and decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (Rowman & Littlefield, 2011)
Pitsula, James M. Keeping Canada British: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Saskatchewan (University of British Columbia Press, 2013)
Prendergast, Michael L. (1987). "A History of Alcohol Problem Prevention Efforts in the United States". In Holder, Harold D. Control Issues in Alcohol Abuse Prevention: Strategies for States and Communities. Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press.
Rhodes, James Ford (1920). History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896 7. Winner of the 1918 Pulitzer Prize for history.
Rogers, William; Ward, Robert; Atkins, Leah; Flynt, Wayne (1994). Alabama: The History of a Deep South State. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press.
Steinberg, Alfred (1962). The man from Missouri; the life and times of Harry S. Truman. New York: Putnam. OCLC 466366.
Taylor, Joe G. (1974). Louisiana Reconstructed, 1863–1877. Baton Rouge.
Thompson, Jerry (1982). My Life in the Klan. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-12695-3.
Trelease, Allen W. (1995). White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction. Louisiana State University Press.
Wade, Wyn Craig. The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (Oxford University Press, 1998)
Historiography
Eagles, Charles W. "Urban‐Rural Conflict in the 1920s: A Historiographical Assessment." Historian (1986) 49#1 pp: 26-48.
Horowitz, David A. "The Normality of Extremism: The Ku Klux Klan Revisited." Society (1998) 35#6 pp: 71-77.
Lay, Shawn, ed. "The invisible empire in the west: Toward a new historical appraisal of the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s" (University of Illinois Press, 2004)
Lewis, Michael, and Jacqueline Serbu. "Kommemorating the Ku Klux Klan." Sociological Quarterly (1999) 40#1: 139-158. Deals with the memory of the KKK in Pulaski, Tennessee. Online
Moore, Leonard J. "Historical Interpretations of the 1920's Klan: The Traditional View and the Populist Revision" Journal of Social History (1990) 24#2 pp 341–357.
Sneed, Edgar P. "A Historiography of Reconstruction in Texas: Some Myths and Problems." Southwestern Historical Quarterly (1969): 435-448. in JSTOR
Further reading
Blee, Kathleen M. (1992). Women of the Klan. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07876-4.
Brooks, Michael E. The Ku Klux Klan in Wood County, Ohio. Charleston: The History Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1626193345.
Cunningham, David. Klansville, USA: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-Era Ku Klux Klan. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
"White supremacist groups flourishing". Gainesville Press. Associated Press. February 6, 2007.
Nelson, Jack (1993). Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69223-2.
Chalmers, David M. (2003). Backfire: how the Ku Klux Klan helped the civil rights movement. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-2310-1.
External links
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ku Klux Klan.
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Portal:Ku Klux Klan

Prescript of the * * first edition of the Klans 1867 prescript
Revised and Amended Prescript of the Order of the * * * first edition of the Klans 1868 prescript
Civil Rights Greensboro
The Ku Klux Klan in Washington State, from the Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, examines the influence of the second KKK in the State during the 1920s.
"Ku Klux Klan", Southern Poverty Law Center
"KKK", Anti-Defamation League
"Inside Today's KKK", multimedia, Life magazine, April 13, 2009
Interview with Stanley F. Horn, author of Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871 (1939), Forest History Society, Inc., May 1978
Booknotes interview with Jack Nelson on Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews, February 7, 1993


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Ku Klux Klan

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"KKK" redirects here. For other uses, see KKK (disambiguation).
Ku Klux Klan
KKK.svg
Ku Klux Klan's emblem

In existence

1st Klan
1865–1870s
2nd Klan
1915–1944
3rd Klan
1946–present
Members

1st Klan
unknown
2nd Klan
3,000,000–6,000,000[1] (peaked in 1920–25)
3rd Klan
5,000-8,000[2]
Properties

Origin
United States of America
Political position
Far-right racism
Religion
Protestantism

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK), or simply "the Klan", is the name of three distinct movements in the United States. The first began violence against African Americans in the South during the Reconstruction Era of the 1860s, and was disbanded by 1869.[3] The second was a very large, controversial, nationwide organization in the 1920s. The current manifestation consists of numerous small unconnected groups that use the KKK name. They have all emphasized racism, secrecy and distinctive costumes. All have called for purification of American society, and all are considered part of right-wing extremism.[4][5]
The current manifestation is classified as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center.[6] It is estimated to have between 5,000 and 8,000 members as of 2012.[2]
The first Ku Klux Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes: robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be outlandish and terrifying, and to hide their identities.[7][8] The second KKK flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, and adopted a standard white costume (sales of which together with initiation fees financed the movement) and code words as the first Klan, while adding cross burnings and mass parades.[9] The third KKK emerged after 1950 and was associated with opposing the Civil Rights Movement and progress among minorities. The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent reference to the America's "Anglo-Saxon" blood, harking back to 19th-century nativism.[10] Though most members of the KKK saw themselves as holding to American values and Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination officially denounced the Ku Klux Klan.[11]


Contents  [hide]
1 Overview: Three Klans 1.1 First KKK
1.2 Second KKK
1.3 Third KKK
2 First Klan: 1865–1871 2.1 Creation and naming
2.2 Activities
2.3 Resistance
2.4 End of first Klan
3 Second Klan: 1915–1944 3.1 Refounding in 1915 3.1.1 The Birth of a Nation
3.2 Social factors
3.3 Activities 3.3.1 Prohibition
3.4 Urbanization
3.5 The burning cross
3.6 Education
3.7 Women
3.8 Political role
3.9 Resistance and decline 3.9.1 Labor and anti-unionism
3.10 Historiography of the second Klan 3.10.1 Elitist interpretations
3.10.2 New social history interpretations
3.10.3 Indiana and Alabama

4 Later Klans: 1950–1960s 4.1 Resistance
5 Contemporary Klan: 1970s–present 5.1 Altercation with Communist Workers Party
5.2 Jerry Thompson infiltration
5.3 Tennessee shooting
5.4 Michael Donald lynching
5.5 Neo-Nazi alliances and Stormfront
5.6 Current developments
5.7 Current Klan organizations
5.8 Other countries
6 Titles and vocabulary
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading 9.1 Historiography
10 Further reading
11 External links

Overview: Three Klans
First KKK
The first Klan was founded in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee, by six veterans of the Confederate Army.[12] The name is probably derived from the Greek word kuklos (κύκλος) which means circle.[13]
Although there was little organizational structure above the local level, similar groups rose across the South and adopted the same name and methods.[14] Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement during the Reconstruction era in the United States. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies; it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the federal government passed the Force Acts, which were used to prosecute Klan crimes.[15] Prosecution of Klan crimes and enforcement of the Force Acts suppressed Klan activity.
The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives. It seriously weakened the black political establishment through its use of assassinations and threats of violence; it drove some carpetbaggers out of politics. On the other hand, it caused a sharp backlash and unleashed new federal laws that Foner says were a success in terms of "restoring order, reinvigorating the morale of Southern Republicans, and enabling blacks to exercise their rights as citizens."[16] historian George C. Rable argues that the Klan was a political failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic leaders of the South. He says:
the Klan declined in strength in part because of internal weaknesses; its lack of central organization and the failure of its leaders to control criminal elements and sadists. More fundamentally, it declined because it failed to achieve its central objective – the overthrow of Republican state governments in the South.[17]
Second KKK
See also: Ku Klux Klan in Canada
In 1915, the second Klan was founded in Atlanta, Georgia. Starting in 1921, it adopted a modern business system of recruiting (which paid most of the initiation fee and costume charges as commissions to the organizers) and grew rapidly nationwide at a time of prosperity. Reflecting the social tensions of urban industrialization and vastly increased immigration, its membership grew most rapidly in cities, and spread out of the South to the Midwest and West. The second KKK preached "One Hundred Percent Americanism" and demanded the purification of politics, calling for strict morality and better enforcement of prohibition. Its official rhetoric focused on the threat of the Catholic Church, using anti-Catholicism and nativism.[18] Its appeal was directed exclusively at white Protestants.[19] Some local groups took part in attacks on private houses and carried out other violent activities. The violent episodes were generally in the South.[20]
The second Klan was a formal fraternal organization, with a national and state structure. At its peak in the mid-1920s, the organization claimed to include about 15% of the nation's eligible population, approximately 4–5 million men. Internal divisions, criminal behavior by leaders, and external opposition brought about a collapse in membership, which had dropped to about 30,000 by 1930. It finally faded away in the 1940s.[21] Klan organizers also operated in Canada, especially in Saskatchewan in 1926-28, where members of the Klan attacked immigrants from Eastern Europe.[22][23]
Third KKK
The "Ku Klux Klan" name was used by a numerous independent local groups opposing the Civil Rights Movement and desegregation, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. During this period, they often forged alliances with Southern police departments, as in Birmingham, Alabama; or with governor's offices, as with George Wallace of Alabama.[24] Several members of KKK groups were convicted of murder in the deaths of civil rights workers and children in the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham. Today, researchers estimate that there may be 150 Klan chapters with upwards of 5,000 members nationwide.[25]
Today, many sources classify the Klan as a "subversive or terrorist organization".[26][27][28][29] In April 1997, FBI agents arrested four members of the True Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in Dallas for conspiracy to commit robbery and to blow up a natural gas processing plant.[30] In 1999, the city council of Charleston, South Carolina passed a resolution declaring the Klan to be a terrorist organization.[31] In 2004, a professor at the University of Louisville began a campaign to have the Klan declared a terrorist organization in order to ban it from campus.[32]
First Klan: 1865–1871
Creation and naming



 A cartoon threatening that the KKK would lynch carpetbaggers. From the Independent Monitor, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1868.
Six well-educated Confederate veterans from Pulaski, Tennessee created the original Ku Klux Klan on December 24, 1865, during the Reconstruction of the South after the Civil War.[33][34] The name was formed by combining the Greek kyklos (κύκλος, circle) with clan.[35] The group was known for a short time as the "Kuklux Clan". The Ku Klux Klan was one of a number of secret, oath-bound organizations using violence, which included the Southern Cross in New Orleans (1865) and the Knights of the White Camelia (1867) in Louisiana.[36]
Historians generally see the KKK as part of the post Civil War insurgent violence related not only to the high number of veterans in the population, but also to their effort to control the dramatically changed social situation by using extrajudicial means to restore white supremacy. In 1866, Mississippi Governor William L. Sharkey reported that disorder, lack of control and lawlessness were widespread; in some states armed bands of Confederate soldiers roamed at will. The Klan used public violence against blacks as intimidation. They burned houses, and attacked and killed blacks, leaving their bodies on the roads.[37]



 A political cartoon depicting the KKK and the Democratic Party as continuations of the Confederacy
At an 1867 meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, Klan members gathered to try to create a hierarchical organization with local chapters eventually reporting up to a national headquarters. Since most of the Klan's members were veterans, they were used to the hierarchical structure of the organization, but the Klan never operated under this centralized structure. Local chapters and bands were highly independent.



Nathan Bedford Forrest
Former Confederate Brigadier General George Gordon developed the Prescript, or Klan dogma. The Prescript suggested elements of white supremacist belief. For instance, an applicant should be asked if he was in favor of "a white man's government", "the reenfranchisement and emancipation of the white men of the South, and the restitution of the Southern people to all their rights."[38] The latter is a reference to the Ironclad Oath, which stripped the vote from white persons who refused to swear that they had not borne arms against the Union. Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest became Grand Wizard, claiming to be the Klan's national leader.[12][39]
In an 1868 newspaper interview, Forrest stated that the Klan's primary opposition was to the Loyal Leagues, Republican state governments, people like Tennessee governor Brownlow and other ″carpetbaggers″ and ″scalawags″.[40] He argued that many southerners believed that blacks were voting for the Republican Party because they were being hoodwinked by the Loyal Leagues.[41] One Alabama newspaper editor declared "The League is nothing more than a nigger Ku Klux Klan."[42]
Despite Gordon’s and Forrest’s work, local Klan units never accepted the Prescript and continued to operate autonomously. There were never hierarchical levels or state headquarters. Klan members used violence to settle old feuds and local grudges, as they worked to restore white dominance in the disrupted postwar society. The historian Elaine Frantz Parsons describes the membership:
Lifting the Klan mask revealed a chaotic multitude of antiblack vigilante groups, disgruntled poor white farmers, wartime guerrilla bands, displaced Democratic politicians, illegal whiskey distillers, coercive moral reformers, sadists, rapists, white workmen fearful of black competition, employers trying to enforce labor discipline, common thieves, neighbors with decades-old grudges, and even a few freedmen and white Republicans who allied with Democratic whites or had criminal agendas of their own. Indeed, all they had in common, besides being overwhelmingly white, southern, and Democratic, was that they called themselves, or were called, Klansmen.[43]
Historian Eric Foner observed:
In effect, the Klan was a military force serving the interests of the Democratic party, the planter class, and all those who desired restoration of white supremacy. Its purposes were political, but political in the broadest sense, for it sought to affect power relations, both public and private, throughout Southern society. It aimed to reverse the interlocking changes sweeping over the South during Reconstruction: to destroy the Republican party’s infrastructure, undermine the Reconstruction state, reestablish control of the black labor force, and restore racial subordination in every aspect of Southern life.[44]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Interview with Nathan Bedford Forrest

To that end they worked to curb the education, economic advancement, voting rights, and right to keep and bear arms of blacks.[44] The Klan soon spread into nearly every southern state, launching a "reign of terror against Republican leaders both black and white. Those political leaders assassinated during the campaign included Arkansas Congressman James M. Hinds, three members of the South Carolina legislature, and several men who served in constitutional conventions."[45]
Activities



 Three Ku Klux Klan members arrested in Tishomingo County, Mississippi, September 1871, for the attempted murder of an entire family [46]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Why the Ku Klux

Klan members adopted masks and robes that hid their identities and added to the drama of their night rides, their chosen time for attacks. Many of them operated in small towns and rural areas where people otherwise knew each other's faces, and sometimes still recognized the attackers. "The kind of thing that men are afraid or ashamed to do openly, and by day, they accomplish secretly, masked, and at night."[47] The Ku Klux Klan night riders "sometimes claimed to be ghosts of Confederate soldiers so, as they claimed, to frighten superstitious blacks. Few freedmen took such nonsense seriously."[48]
The Klan attacked black members of the Loyal Leagues and intimidated southern Republicans and Freedmen's Bureau workers. When they killed black political leaders, they also took heads of families, along with the leaders of churches and community groups, because these people had many roles in society. Agents of the Freedmen's Bureau reported weekly assaults and murders of blacks. "Armed guerrilla warfare killed thousands of Negroes; political riots were staged; their causes or occasions were always obscure, their results always certain: ten to one hundred times as many Negroes were killed as whites." Masked men shot into houses and burned them, sometimes with the occupants still inside. They drove successful black farmers off their land. "Generally, it can be reported that in North and South Carolina, in 18 months ending in June 1867, there were 197 murders and 548 cases of aggravated assault."[49]



George W. Ashburn was assassinated for his pro-black sentiments.
Klan violence worked to suppress black voting. More than 2,000 persons were killed, wounded and otherwise injured in Louisiana within a few weeks prior to the Presidential election of November 1868. Although St. Landry Parish had a registered Republican majority of 1,071, after the murders, no Republicans voted in the fall elections. White Democrats cast the full vote of the parish for Grant's opponent. The KKK killed and wounded more than 200 black Republicans, hunting and chasing them through the woods. Thirteen captives were taken from jail and shot; a half-buried pile of 25 bodies was found in the woods. The KKK made people vote Democratic and gave them certificates of the fact.[50]
In the April 1868 Georgia gubernatorial election, Columbia County cast 1,222 votes for Republican Rufus Bullock. By the November presidential election, Klan intimidation led to suppression of the Republican vote and only one person voted for Ulysses S. Grant.[51]
Klansmen killed more than 150 African Americans in a county in Florida, and hundreds more in other counties. Freedmen's Bureau records provided a detailed recounting of Klansmen's beatings and murders of freedmen and their white allies.[52]
Milder encounters also occurred. In Mississippi, according to the Congressional inquiry:[53]

One of these teachers (Miss Allen of Illinois), whose school was at Cotton Gin Port in Monroe County, was visited ... between one and two o'clock in the morning on March 1871, by about fifty men mounted and disguised. Each man wore a long white robe and his face was covered by a loose mask with scarlet stripes. She was ordered to get up and dress which she did at once and then admitted to her room the captain and lieutenant who in addition to the usual disguise had long horns on their heads and a sort of device in front. The lieutenant had a pistol in his hand and he and the captain sat down while eight or ten men stood inside the door and the porch was full. They treated her "gentlemanly and quietly" but complained of the heavy school-tax, said she must stop teaching and go away and warned her that they never gave a second notice. She heeded the warning and left the county.
By 1868, two years after the Klan's creation, its activity was beginning to decrease.[54] Members were hiding behind Klan masks and robes as a way to avoid prosecution for freelance violence. Many influential southern Democrats feared that Klan lawlessness provided an excuse for the federal government to retain its power over the South, and they began to turn against it.[55] There were outlandish claims made, such as Georgian B. H. Hill stating "that some of these outrages were actually perpetrated by the political friends of the parties slain."[54]
Resistance
Union Army veterans in mountainous Blount County, Alabama, organized "the anti-Ku Klux". They put an end to violence by threatening Klansmen with reprisals unless they stopped whipping Unionists and burning black churches and schools. Armed blacks formed their own defense in Bennettsville, South Carolina and patrolled the streets to protect their homes.[56]
National sentiment gathered to crack down on the Klan, even though some Democrats at the national level questioned whether the Klan really existed or believed that it was just a creation of nervous Southern Republican governors.[57] Many southern states began to pass anti-Klan legislation.[58]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871

In January 1871, Pennsylvania Republican Senator John Scott convened a Congressional committee which took testimony from 52 witnesses about Klan atrocities. They accumulated 12 volumes of horrifying testimony. In February, former Union General and Congressman Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts introduced the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Ku Klux Klan Act). This added to the enmity that southern white Democrats bore toward him.[59] While the bill was being considered, further violence in the South swung support for its passage. The Governor of South Carolina appealed for federal troops to assist his efforts in keeping control of the state. A riot and massacre in a Meridian, Mississippi, courthouse were reported, from which a black state representative escaped only by taking to the woods.[60] The 1871 Civil Rights Act allowed President Ulysses S. Grant to suspend Habeas Corpus.[61]



 Benjamin Franklin Butler wrote the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Klan Act)
In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant signed Butler's legislation. The Ku Klux Klan Act was used by the Federal government together with the 1870 Force Act, to enforce the civil rights provisions for individuals under the constitution. Under the 1871 Klan Act, after the Klan refused to voluntarily dissolve, Grant issued a suspension of Habeas Corpus, and stationed Federal troops in 9 South Carolina counties. The Klansmen were apprehended and prosecuted in court. Judges Hugh Lennox Bond and George S. Bryan presided over the trial of Ku Klux Klan members in Columbia, South Carolina during December 1871.[62] The defendants were sentenced to five years to three months incarceration with fines.[63] More African Americans served on juries in Federal court than were selected for local or state juries, so they had a chance to participate in the process.[61][64] In the crackdown, hundreds of Klan members were fined or imprisoned.
End of first Klan
Although Forrest boasted that the Klan was a nationwide organization of 550,000 men and that he could muster 40,000 Klansmen within five days' notice, as a secret or "invisible" group, it had no membership rosters, no chapters, and no local officers. It was difficult for observers to judge its actual membership.[65] It had created a sensation by the dramatic nature of its masked forays and because of its many murders.
In 1870 a federal grand jury determined that the Klan was a "terrorist organization".[66] It issued hundreds of indictments for crimes of violence and terrorism. Klan members were prosecuted, and many fled from areas that were under federal government jurisdiction, particularly in South Carolina.[67] Many people not formally inducted into the Klan had used the Klan's costume for anonymity, to hide their identities when carrying out acts of violence. Forrest called for the Klan to disband in 1869, arguing that the Klan was "being perverted from its original honorable and patriotic purposes, becoming injurious instead of subservient to the public peace".[68] Historian Stanley Horn argues that "generally speaking, the Klan's end was more in the form of spotty, slow, and gradual disintegration than a formal and decisive disbandment".[69] Moreover, a Georgia-based reporter wrote in 1870 that, "A true statement of the case is not that the Ku Klux are an organized band of licensed criminals, but that men who commit crimes call themselves Ku Klux".[70]



 Gov. William Holden of North Carolina.
Others may have agreed with lynching as a way of keeping dominance over black men. In many states, officials were reluctant to use black militia against the Klan out of fear that racial tensions would be raised.[64] When Republican Governor of North Carolina William Woods Holden called out the militia against the Klan in 1870, it added to his unpopularity. Combined with violence and fraud at the polls, the Republicans lost their majority in the state legislature. Disaffection with Holden's actions led to white Democratic legislators' impeaching Holden and removing him from office, but their reasons were numerous.[71]
Klan operations ended in South Carolina [72] and gradually withered away throughout the rest of the South where it had gradually been faltering in prominence. Attorney General Amos Tappan Ackerman led the prosecutions.[73]
Foner argues that:
By 1872, the federal government's evident willingness to bring its legal and coercive authority to bear had broken the Klan's back and produced a dramatic decline in violence throughout the South. So ended the Reconstruction career of the Ku Klux Klan."[74]
However, in some areas, non-KKK local paramilitary organizations such as the White League, Red Shirts, saber clubs, and rifle clubs continued to intimidate and murder black political leaders.[75]
In 1882, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Harris that the Klan Act was partially unconstitutional. It ruled that Congress's power under the Fourteenth Amendment did not extend to the right to regulate against private conspiracies.[76]
Klan costumes, also called "regalia", disappeared from use by the early 1870s>[77] The fact that the Klan did not exist for decades was shown when Simmons's 1915 recreation of the Klan attracted only two aging "former Reconstruction Klansmen." All other members were new.[78] By 1872, the Klan was broken as an organization.[79]
Second Klan: 1915–1944
Refounding in 1915
In 1915 the film The Birth of a Nation was released, mythologising and glorifying the first Klan and its endeavors. The second Ku Klux Klan was founded in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons at Stone Mountain, outside Atlanta, with fifteen "charter members".[80] Its growth was based on a new anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, prohibitionist and antisemitic agenda, which developed in response to contemporary social tensions. The new organization and chapters adopted regalia featured in The Birth of a Nation.
The Birth of a Nation



 Movie poster for The Birth of a Nation. It has been widely noted for reviving the Ku Klux Klan.
Director D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation glorified the original Klan. His film was based on the book and play The Clansman and the book The Leopard's Spots, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr.
Much of the modern Klan's iconography, including the standardized white costume and the lighted cross, are derived from the film. Its imagery was based on Dixon's romanticized concept of old England and Scotland, as portrayed in the novels and poetry of Sir Walter Scott. The film's influence was enhanced by a purported endorsement by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, a Southerner. A Hollywood press agent claimed that after seeing the film Wilson said, "It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true." Historians doubt he said it.[81] Wilson's remarks generated controversy, and he tried to remain aloof. On April 30, his staff issued a denial. Wilson's aide, Joseph Tumulty, said, "the President was entirely unaware of the nature of the play before it was presented and at no time has expressed his approbation of it."[82]
The new Klan was inaugurated in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons on top of Stone Mountain. It was a small local organization until 1921. Simmons said he had been inspired by the original Klan's Prescripts, written in 1867 by Confederate veteran George Gordon, but they were never adopted by the first Klan.[83]
Social factors



 Three Ku Klux Klan members standing at a 1922 parade.


 In this 1926 cartoon the Ku Klux Klan chases the Roman Catholic Church, personified by St. Patrick, from the shores of America. Among the "snakes" are various supposed negative attributes of the Church, including superstition, union of church and state, control of public schools, and intolerance
The Second Klan saw threats from every direction. A religious tone was present in its activities; "two-thirds of the national Klan lecturers were Protestant ministers," says historian Brian R. Farmer.[84] Much of the Klan's energy went into guarding "the home;" the historian Kathleen Blee said its members wanted to protect "the interests of white womanhood."[85] The pamphlet ABC of the Invisible Empire, published in Atlanta by Simmons in 1917, identified the Klan's goals as "to shield the sanctity of the home and the chastity of womanhood; to maintain white supremacy; to teach and faithfully inculcate a high spiritual philosophy through an exalted ritualism; and by a practical devotedness to conserve, protect and maintain the distinctive institutions, rights, privileges, principles and ideals of a pure Americanism."[86]
The second Klan emerged during the nadir of American race relations, but much of its growth was in response to new issues such as urbanization, immigration and industrialization. The massive immigration of Catholics and Jews from eastern and southern Europe led to fears among Protestants about the new peoples, and especially about job and social competition. The Great Migration of African Americans to the North stoked job and housing competition and racism by whites in Midwestern and Western industrial cities. The second Klan achieved its greatest political power in Indiana; it was active throughout the South, Midwest, especially Michigan; and in the West, in Colorado and Oregon. The migration of both African Americans and whites from rural areas to Southern and Midwestern cities increased social tensions.
The Klan became most prominent in urbanizing cities with high growth rates between 1910 and 1930, such as Detroit, Memphis, and Dayton in the Upper South and Midwest; and Atlanta, Dallas, and Houston in the South. In Michigan, close to 50% of the Klan members lived in Detroit, where they numbered 40,000; they were concerned about with finite housing possibilities, rapid social change, and competition for jobs with European immigrants and Southerners both black and white.[87]
The founder of the new Klan, William J. Simmons, joined twelve different fraternal organizations. He recruited for the Klan with his chest covered with fraternal badges, and consciously modeled the Klan after fraternal organizations.[88]
Klan organizers, called "Kleagles", signed up hundreds of new members, who paid initiation fees and received KKK costumes in return. The organizer kept half the money and sent the rest to state or national officials. When the organizer was done with an area, he organized a huge rally, often with burning crosses, and perhaps presented a Bible to a local Protestant preacher. He left town with the money collected. The local units operated like many fraternal organizations and occasionally brought in speakers.
The Klan's growth was also affected by the mobilization for World War I and postwar tensions, especially in the cities, where strangers came up against each other more often and competed for housing and jobs. Southern whites resented the arming of black soldiers. Black veterans did not want to return to second-class status in the South. Some black veterans in the South were lynched while still in uniform, after returning from overseas service.[89]
Activities
Simmons initially met with little success in either recruiting members or in raising money, and the Klan remained a small operation in the Atlanta area until 1920, when he handed its day-to-day activities over to two professional publicists, Elizabeth Tyler and Edward Young Clarke.[90] The revived Klan appealed to new members based on current social tensions, and stressed responses to fears raised by immigration and mass migrations within industrializing cities: it became anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant and later anti-Communist. It presented itself as a fraternal, nativist and strenuously patriotic organization; and its leaders emphasized support for vigorous enforcement of prohibition laws. It expanded membership dramatically; by the 1920s, most of its members lived in the Midwest and West. It had a national base by 1925.
Religion was a major selling point. Baker argues that Klansmen seriously embraced Protestantism as an essential component of their white supremacist, anti-Catholic, and paternalistic formulation of American democracy and national culture. Their cross was a religious symbol, and their ritual honored Bibles and local ministers. No nationally prominent religious leader said he was a Klan member.[91]
Prohibition
Historians agree that the Klan's resurgence in the 1920s was aided by the national debate over prohibition.[92] The historian Prendergast says that the KKK's "support for Prohibition represented the single most important bond between Klansmen throughout the nation".[93] The Klan opposed bootleggers, sometimes with violence. In 1922, two hundred Klan members set fire to saloons in Union County, Arkansas. The national Klan office was established in Dallas, Texas, but Little Rock, Arkansas was the home of the Women of the Ku Klux Klan. The first head of this auxiliary was a former president of the Arkansas WCTU.[94][verification needed] Membership in the Klan and in other prohibition groups overlapped, and they often coordinated activities.[95]
Urbanization



 "The End" Referring to the end of Catholic influence in the US. Klansmen: Guardians of Liberty 1926
A significant characteristic of the second Klan was that it was an organization based in urban areas, reflecting the major shifts of population to cities in both the North and the South. In Michigan, for instance, 40,000 members lived in Detroit, where they made up more than half of the state's membership. Most Klansmen were lower- to middle-class whites who were trying to protect their jobs and housing from the waves of newcomers to the industrial cities: immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, who tended to be Catholic and Jewish in numbers higher than earlier groups of immigrants; and black and white migrants from the South. As new populations poured into cities, rapidly changing neighborhoods created social tensions. Because of the rapid pace of population growth in industrializing cities such as Detroit and Chicago, the Klan grew rapidly in the U.S. Midwest. The Klan also grew in booming Southern cities such as Dallas and Houston.[96]
In the medium-size industrial city of Worcester, Massachusetts in the 1920s, the Klan ascended to power quickly but declined as a result of opposition from the Catholic Church. There was no violence and the local newspaper ridiculed Klansmen as "night-shirt knights". Half of the members were Swedish American, including some first-generation immigrants. The ethnic and religious conflicts among more recent immigrants contributed to the rise of the Klan in the city. Swedish Protestants were struggling against Irish Catholics, who had been entrenched longer, for political and ideological control of the city.[97]
For some states, historians have obtained membership rosters of some local units and matched the names against city directory and local records to create statistical profiles of the membership. Big city newspapers were often hostile and ridiculed Klansmen as ignorant farmers. Detailed analysis from Indiana showed the rural stereotype was false for that state:

Indiana's Klansmen represented a wide cross section of society: they were not disproportionately urban or rural, nor were they significantly more or less likely than other members of society to be from the working class, middle class, or professional ranks. Klansmen were Protestants, of course, but they cannot be described exclusively or even predominantly as fundamentalists. In reality, their religious affiliations mirrored the whole of white Protestant society, including those who did not belong to any church.[98]
The Klan attracted people but most of them did not remain in the organization for long. Membership in the Klan turned over rapidly as people found out that it was not the group they wanted. Millions joined, and at its peak in the 1920s, the organization included about 15% of the nation's eligible population. The lessening of social tensions contributed to the Klan's decline.
The burning cross



Cross burning was introduced by William J. Simmons, the founder of the second Klan in 1915.
The second Klan embraced a burning Latin cross primarily as a symbol of intimidation.[99] No crosses had been used as a symbol by the first Klan. Additionally, the cross was henceforth a representation of the Klan's Christian message. Thus, its lighting during meetings was often accompanied by prayer, the singing of hymns, and other overtly religious symbolism.[100]
The practice of cross burning had been loosely based on ancient Scottish clans' burning a St. Andrew's cross (an X-shaped cross) as a beacon to muster forces for war. In The Clansman (see above), Dixon had falsely claimed that the first Klan had used fiery crosses when rallying to fight against Reconstruction. Griffith brought this image to the screen in The Birth of a Nation; he portrayed the burning cross as an upright Latin cross rather than the St. Andrew's cross. Simmons adopted the symbol wholesale from the movie, prominently displaying it at the 1915 Stone Mountain meeting. The symbol has been associated with the Klan ever since.[101]
Education
In 1921, in an attempt to gain a foothold in education, the Klan bought Lanier University, a struggling Baptist university in Atlanta. Nathan Bedford Forrest, grandson of the Confederate general by the same name, was appointed its business manager. The school was to teach "pure, 100 percent Americanism". Enrollment was dismal, and the school closed after the first year of Klan ownership.[102]
Women
By the 1920s, the KKK developed a women's auxiliary, with chapters in many areas. Its activities included participation in parades, cross lighting, lectures, rallies, and boycotts of local businesses owned by Catholics and Jews. The Women's Klan was active in promoting prohibition, stressing liquor's negative impact on wives and children. Its efforts in public schools included distributing Bibles and petitioning for the dismissal of Roman Catholic teachers. As a result of the Women's Klan's efforts, Texas would not hire Catholic teachers to work in its public schools. As scandals rocked the Klan leadership late in the 1920s, the organization's popularity among both men and women dropped off sharply.[103]
Political role



 Sheet music to "We Are All Loyal Klansmen", 1923
The members of the first Klan in the South were exclusively Democrats. The second Klan expanded with new chapters in the Midwest and West, where for a time, its members were courted by both Republicans and Democrats. The KKK state organizations endorsed candidates from either party that supported its goals; Prohibition in particular helped the Klan and some Republicans to make common cause in the Midwest.
The Klan had numerous members in every part of the United States, but was particularly strong in the South and Midwest. At its peak, claimed Klan membership exceeded four million and comprised 20% of the adult white male population in many broad geographic regions, and 40% in some areas.[104] The Klan also moved north into Canada, especially Saskatchewan, where it opposed Catholics.[105]
With expanded membership came election of Klan members to political office. In Indiana, members were chiefly American-born, white Protestants of many income and social levels. In the 1920s, Indiana had the most powerful Ku Klux Klan in the nation. It had a high number of members statewide (over 30% of its white male citizens[106]), and in 1924 elected the Klan member Edward Jackson as governor.[107]
Given success in state and local elections, the Klan issue contributed to the bitterly divisive 1924 Democratic National Convention in New York City. The leading candidates were William Gibbs McAdoo, a Protestant with a base in areas where the Klan was strong, and New York Governor Al Smith, a Catholic with a base in the large cities. After weeks of stalemate, both candidates withdrew in favor of a compromise. Anti-Klan delegates proposed a resolution indirectly attacking the Klan; it was narrowly defeated.[108][109]



 Two children wearing Ku Klux Klan robes and hoods stand on either side of Dr. Samuel Green, a Ku Klux Klan Grand Dragon, at Stone Mountain, Georgia on July 24, 1948.
In some states, such as Alabama and California, KKK chapters had worked for political reform. In 1924, Klan members were elected to the city council in Anaheim, California. The city had been controlled by an entrenched commercial-civic elite that was mostly German American. Given their tradition of moderate social drinking, the German Americans did not strongly support prohibition laws—the mayor had been a saloon keeper. Led by the minister of the First Christian Church, the Klan represented a rising group of politically oriented non-ethnic Germans who denounced the elite as corrupt, undemocratic and self-serving. The historian Christopher Cocoltchos says the Klansmen tried to create a model, orderly community. The Klan had about 1200 members in Orange County, California. The economic and occupational profile of the pro and anti-Klan groups shows the two were similar and about equally prosperous. Klan members were Protestants, as were most of their opponents, but the latter also included many Catholic Germans. Individuals who joined the Klan had earlier demonstrated a much higher rate of voting and civic activism than did their opponents. Cocoltchos suggests that many of the individuals in Orange County joined the Klan out of that sense of civic activism. The Klan representatives easily won the local election in Anaheim in April 1924. They fired known city employees who were Catholic and replaced them with Klan appointees. The new city council tried to enforce prohibition. After its victory, the Klan chapter held large rallies and initiation ceremonies over the summer.[110]
The opposition organized, bribed a Klansman for the secret membership list, and exposed the Klansmen running in the state primaries; they defeated most of the candidates. Klan opponents in 1925 took back local government, and succeeded in a special election in recalling the Klansmen who had been elected in April 1924. The Klan in Anaheim quickly collapsed, its newspaper closed after losing a libel suit, and the minister who led the local Klavern moved to Kansas.[110]
In the South, Klan members were still Democratic, as it was a one-party region for whites. Klan chapters were closely allied with Democratic police, sheriffs, and other functionaries of local government. Since disfranchisement of most African Americans and many poor whites around the start of the 20th century, the only political activity for whites took place within the Democratic Party.
In Alabama, Klan members advocated better public schools, effective prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other political measures to benefit lower-class white people. By 1925, the Klan was a political force in the state, as leaders such as J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black tried to build political power against the Black Belt planters, who had long dominated the state.[111] In 1926, with Klan support, Bibb Graves won the Alabama governor's office. He was a former Klan chapter head. He pushed for increased education funding, better public health, new highway construction, and pro-labor legislation. Because the Alabama state legislature refused to redistrict until 1972, and then under court order, the Klan was unable to break the planters' and rural areas' hold on legislative power. Scholars and biographers have recently examined Hugo Black's Klan role. Ball finds regarding the KKK that Black "sympathized with the group's economic, nativist, and anti-Catholic beliefs."[112] Newman says Black "disliked the Catholic Church as an institution" and gave over 100 anti-Catholic speeches in his 1926 election campaign to KKK meetings across Alabama.[113] Black was elected US senator in 1926 as a Democrat. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937 appointed Black to the Supreme Court without knowing how active in the Klan he had been in the 1920s. He was confirmed by his fellow Senators before the full KKK connection was known; Justice Black said he left the Klan when he became a senator.[114]
Resistance and decline



D. C. Stephenson, Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan. His conviction in 1925 for the murder of Madge Oberholtzer, a white schoolteacher, led to the decline of the Indiana Klan.
Many groups and leaders, including prominent Protestant ministers such as Reinhold Niebuhr in Detroit, spoke out against the Klan, gaining national attention. The Jewish Anti-Defamation League was formed in the early 20th century in response to attacks against Jewish Americans and the Klan's campaign to outlaw private schools. Opposing groups worked to penetrate the Klan's secrecy. After one civic group began to publish Klan membership lists, there was a rapid decline in members. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People created public education campaigns in order to inform people about Klan activities and lobbied in Congress against Klan abuses. After its peak in 1925, Klan membership in most areas began to decline rapidly.[96]
Specific events contributed to the decline as well. In Indiana, the scandal surrounding the 1925 murder trial of Grand Dragon D.C. Stephenson destroyed the image of the KKK as upholders of law and order. By 1926 the Klan was "crippled and discredited."[107] D. C. Stephenson was the Grand Dragon of Indiana and 22 northern states. In 1923 he had led the states under his control to separate from the national KKK organization. In his 1925 trial, he was convicted for second degree murder for his part in the rape, and subsequent death of Madge Oberholtzer.[115] After Stephenson's conviction, the Klan declined dramatically in Indiana. The historian Leonard Moore says that a failure in leadership caused the Klan's collapse:

Stephenson and the other salesmen and office seekers who maneuvered for control of Indiana's Invisible Empire lacked both the ability and the desire to use the political system to carry out the Klan's stated goals. They were uninterested in, or perhaps even unaware of, grass roots concerns within the movement. For them, the Klan had been nothing more than a means for gaining wealth and power. These marginal men had risen to the top of the hooded order because, until it became a political force, the Klan had never required strong, dedicated leadership. More established and experienced politicians who endorsed the Klan, or who pursued some of the interests of their Klan constituents, also accomplished little. Factionalism created one barrier, but many politicians had supported the Klan simply out of expedience. When charges of crime and corruption began to taint the movement, those concerned about their political futures had even less reason to work on the Klan's behalf.[116]
By 1920 Klan membership in Alabama dropped to less than 6,000. Small independent units continued to be active in the industrial city of Birmingham. In the late 1940s and 1950s, members launched a reign of terror by bombing the homes of upwardly mobile African Americans. Activism by such independent KKK groups increased as a reaction against the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.



 Ku Klux Klan members march down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. in 1928
In Alabama, KKK vigilantes launched a wave of physical terror in 1927. They targeted both blacks and whites for violation of racial norms and for perceived moral lapses.[117] This led to a strong backlash, beginning in the media. Grover C. Hall, Sr., editor of the Montgomery Advertiser from 1926, wrote a series of editorials and articles that attacked the Klan. (Today the paper says it "waged war on the resurgent [KKK]".)[118] Hall won a Pulitzer Prize for the crusade, the 1928 Editorial Writing Pulitzer, citing "his editorials against gangsterism, floggings and racial and religious intolerance."[119][120] Other newspapers kept up a steady, loud attack on the Klan, referring to the organization as violent and "un-American". Sheriffs cracked down on activities. In the 1928 presidential election, the state voters overcame initial opposition to the Catholic candidate Al Smith, and voted the Democratic Party line as usual.
Although in decline, a measure of the Klan's influence was its march along Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC in 1928.
Labor and anti-unionism
In southern cities such as Birmingham, Alabama, Klan members kept control of access to the better-paying industrial jobs and opposed unions. During the 1930s and 1940s, Klan leaders urged members to disrupt the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which advocated industrial unions and accepted African-American members, unlike earlier unions. With access to dynamite and using the skills from their jobs in mining and steel, in the late 1940s some Klan members in Birmingham used bombings in order to intimidate upwardly mobile blacks who moved into middle-class neighborhoods. "By mid-1949, there were so many charred house carcasses that the area [College Hills] was informally named Dynamite Hill."[121] Independent Klan groups remained active in Birmingham and violently opposed the Civil Rights Movement.[121]
In 1939, after years of the Great Depression, the Imperial Wizard Hiram Wesley Evans sold the national organization to James Colescott, an Indiana veterinarian, and Samuel Green, an Atlanta obstetrician. They could not revive the declining membership. In 1944, the IRS filed a lien for $685,000 in back taxes against the Klan, and Colescott dissolved the organization that year. Local Klan groups closed over the following years.[122]
After World War II, the folklorist and author Stetson Kennedy infiltrated the Klan; he provided internal data to media and law enforcement agencies. He also provided secret code words to the writers of the Superman radio program, resulting in episodes in which Superman took on the KKK. Kennedy stripped away the Klan's mystique and trivialized its rituals and code words, which may have contributed to the decline in Klan recruiting and membership.[123] In the 1950s, Kennedy wrote a bestselling book about his experiences, which further damaged the Klan.[124]
The following table shows the change in the Klan's estimated membership over time.[125] (The years given in the table represent approximate time periods.)


Year
Membership

1920
4,000,000 [126]
1924
6,000,000 
1930
30,000 
Historiography of the second Klan
The historiography of the second Klan of the 1920s can be sharply divided into two opposing interpretations, one based on elite sources and the other based on the new social history.[127][128] [129]
Elitist interpretations
The KKK was a secret organization; apart from a few top leaders the members never revealed their membership and wore masks in public. Investigators in the 1920s used KKK publicity, court cases, exposés by disgruntled Klansman, newspaper reports, and speculation to write stories about what the Klan was doing. Almost all the major newspapers and magazines were hostile. Published accounts exaggerated the official viewpoint of the Klan leadership, and repeated the interpretations of hostile newspapers and the Klan's enemies. There was almost no evidence regarding the actual behavior or beliefs of individual Klansmen. The resulting popular and scholarly interpretation of the Klan from the 1920s into recent decades, based on those sources, says Pegram, emphasized the Southern roots, and violent vigilante-style actions of the Klan in its efforts to turn back the clock of modernity. Scholars compared it to fascism, which in the 1920s took over Italy.[130] Pegram says this original interpretation:
Depicted the Klan movement as an irrational rebuke of modernity by undereducated, economically marginal bigots, religious zealots, and dupes willing to be manipulated by the Klan's cynical, mendacious leaders. It was, in this view, a movement of country parsons and small-town malcontents who were out of step with the dynamism of twentieth-century urban America."[131]
New social history interpretations
The "social history" revolution in historiography after the 1960s called for history from the bottom up, that would focus on the characteristics, beliefs, and behavior of the typical membership, and downplay claims from elite sources.[132][133] This approach was made possible by the discovery of membership lists and the minutes of local meetings from chapters scattered around the country. Historians apply the newest techniques of methodology to test the original interpretation. They discovered that the original interpretation was very largely mistaken about the membership and activities of the Klan. The membership was not anti-modern rural or rustic. It comprised fairly well educated middle-class joiners and community activists. Half the members lived in the fast-growing cities; Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia, Denver, and Portland, Oregon, were the Klan strongholds rather than the sleepy rural areas.[134]
Studies using the new social history find that in general, the membership was from the stable, successful middle classes, with few members drawn from the elite or the working classes. Pegram, reviewing the studies, concludes, "the popular Klan of the 19205, while diverse, was more of a civic exponent of white Protestant social values than a repressive hate group."[135]
Indiana and Alabama
In Indiana, traditional political historians focused on notorious leaders, especially D. C. Stephenson, the Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan, whose conviction for murder in 1925 helped destroy the movement nationwide. By contrast new social historian Leonard Moore titled his monograph Citizen Klansmen, and contrasted the sordid and intolerant rhetoric of the group's leaders with that of its much better behaved membership. The Klan was indeed white Protestant, and was highly suspicious of Catholics, Jews and blacks who were accused of subverting the ideal Protestant moral standards. Violence was quite uncommon in the chapters. Threats and vocational actions were directed primarily against fellow white Protestants for transgressions of community moral standards, such as adultery, wife-beating, gambling and heavy drinking. Up to one third of Indiana's Protestant men joined the order making it, Moore argued, "a kind of interest group for average white Protestants who believed that their values should be dominant in their community and state.[136]
Moore goes on to say that they joined:
because it stood for the most organized means of resisting the social and economic forces that had transformed community life, undermined traditional values, and made average citizens feel more isolated from one another and more powerless in their relationships with the major institutions that governed their lives.[137]
In Alabama, the young urban activists, such as Hugo Black, were reformers fighting against the old guard in state politics. The Klan in rural Alabama also had much more recourse to violence.[138]
Later Klans: 1950–1960s
The name "Ku Klux Klan" began to be used by several independent groups. Beginning in the 1950s, for instance, individual Klan groups in Birmingham, Alabama, began to resist social change and blacks' efforts to improve their lives by bombing houses in transitional neighborhoods. There were so many bombings in Birmingham of blacks' homes by Klan groups in the 1950s that the city's nickname was "Bombingham".[24]
During the tenure of Bull Connor as police commissioner in the city, Klan groups were closely allied with the police and operated with impunity. When the Freedom Riders arrived in Birmingham, Connor gave Klan members fifteen minutes to attack the riders before sending in the police to quell the attack.[24] When local and state authorities failed to protect the Freedom Riders and activists, the federal government established effective intervention.
In states such as Alabama and Mississippi, Klan members forged alliances with governors' administrations.[24] In Birmingham and elsewhere, the KKK groups bombed the houses of civil rights activists. In some cases they used physical violence, intimidation and assassination directly against individuals. Continuing disfranchisement of blacks across the South meant that most could not serve on juries, which were all white.



 Goodman, Chaney, and Schwerner were three civil rights workers abducted and murdered by members of the Ku Klux Klan.
According to a report from the Southern Regional Council in Atlanta, the homes of 40 black Southern families were bombed during 1951 and 1952. Some of the bombing victims were social activists whose work exposed them to danger, but most were either people who refused to bow to racist convention or were innocent bystanders, unsuspecting victims of random violence.[139] Among the more notorious murders by Klan members:
The 1951 Christmas Eve bombing of the home of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) activists Harry and Harriette Moore in Mims, Florida, resulting in their deaths.[140]
The 1957 murder of Willie Edwards, Jr. Klansmen forced Edwards to jump to his death from a bridge into the Alabama River.[141]
The 1963 assassination of NAACP organizer Medgar Evers in Mississippi. In 1994, former Ku Klux Klansman Byron De La Beckwith was convicted.
The 1963 bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, which killed four African-American girls. The perpetrators were Klan members Robert Chambliss, convicted in 1977, Thomas Edwin Blanton, Jr. and Bobby Frank Cherry, convicted in 2001 and 2002. The fourth suspect, Herman Cash, died before he was indicted.
The 1964 murders of three civil rights workers, Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner, in Mississippi. In June 2005, Klan member Edgar Ray Killen was convicted of manslaughter.[142]
The 1964 murder of two black teenagers, Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore in Mississippi. In August 2007, based on the confession of Klansman Charles Marcus Edwards, James Ford Seale, a reputed Ku Klux Klansman, was convicted. Seale was sentenced to serve three life sentences. Seale was a former Mississippi policeman and sheriff's deputy.[143]
The 1965 Alabama murder of Viola Liuzzo. She was a Southern-raised Detroit mother of five who was visiting the state in order to attend a civil rights march. At the time of her murder Liuzzo was transporting Civil Rights Marchers.
The 1966 firebombing death of NAACP leader Vernon Dahmer Sr., 58, in Mississippi. In 1998 former Ku Klux Klan wizard Sam Bowers was convicted of his murder and sentenced to life. Two other Klan members were indicted with Bowers, but one died before trial, and the other's indictment was dismissed.
The 1967 multiple bombings in Jackson, Mississippi of the residence of a Methodist activist, Robert Kochtitzky, and those at the synagogue and at the residence of Rabbi Perry Nussbaum on Old Canton Road were executed by a Klan member named Thomas Albert Tarrants III who was convicted in 1968. Another Klan bombing was averted in Meridian the same year.[144]
Resistance
There was also resistance to the Klan. In 1953, newspaper publishers W. Horace Carter (Tabor City, NC), who had campaigned for three years, and Willard Cole (Whiteville, NC) shared the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service citing "their successful campaign against the Ku Klux Klan, waged on their own doorstep at the risk of economic loss and personal danger, culminating in the conviction of over one hundred Klansmen and an end to terrorism in their communities."[145] In a 1958 incident in North Carolina, the Klan burned crosses at the homes of two Lumbee Native Americans who had associated with white people, and they threatened to return with more men. When the KKK held a nighttime rally nearby, they were quickly surrounded by hundreds of armed Lumbees. Gunfire was exchanged, and the Klan was routed at what became known as the Battle of Hayes Pond.[146]
While the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had paid informants in the Klan, for instance in Birmingham in the early 1960s, its relations with local law enforcement agencies and the Klan were often ambiguous. The head of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, appeared more concerned about Communist links to civil rights activists than about controlling Klan excesses against citizens. In 1964, the FBI's COINTELPRO program began attempts to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights groups.[24]
As 20th-century Supreme Court rulings extended federal enforcement of citizens' civil rights, the government revived the Force Acts and the Klan Act from Reconstruction days. Federal prosecutors used these laws as the basis for investigations and indictments in the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner;[147] and the 1965 murder of Viola Liuzzo. They were also the basis for prosecution in 1991 in Bray v. Alexandria Women's Health Clinic.
Contemporary Klan: 1970s–present



 Violence at a Klan march in Mobile, Alabama, 1977
Once African Americans secured federal legislation to protect civil and voting rights, the KKK shifted its focus to opposing court-ordered busing to desegregate schools, affirmative action and more open immigration. In 1971, KKK members used bombs to destroy 10 school buses in Pontiac, Michigan.
Altercation with Communist Workers Party
Main article: Greensboro massacre
On November 3, 1979, five communist protesters were killed by KKK and American Nazi Party members in the Greensboro massacre in Greensboro, North Carolina.[148] This incident took place during the Death to the Klan rally sponsored by the Communist Workers Party, in their efforts to organize predominantly black industrial workers in the area.[149]
Jerry Thompson infiltration
Jerry Thompson, a newspaper reporter who infiltrated the KKK in 1979, reported that the FBI's COINTELPRO efforts were highly successful. Rival KKK factions accused each other's leaders of being FBI informants. Bill Wilkinson of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was revealed to have been working for the FBI.[150]
Thompson also related that KKK leaders who appeared indifferent to the threat of arrest showed great concern about a series of civil lawsuits filed by the Southern Poverty Law Center for damages amounting to millions of dollars. These were filed after KKK members shot into a group of African Americans. Klansmen curtailed activities to conserve money for defense against the lawsuits. The KKK also used lawsuits as tools; they filed a libel suit to prevent publication of a paperback edition of Thompson's book.
Tennessee shooting
In 1980, three KKK members shot four elderly black women (Viola Ellison, Lela Evans, Opal Jackson and Katherine Johnson) in Chattanooga, Tennessee, following a KKK initiation rally. A fifth woman, Fannie Crumsey, was injured by flying glass in the incident. Attempted murder charges were filed against the three KKK members, two of whom—Bill Church and Larry Payne—were acquitted by an all-white jury, and the other of whom—Marshall Thrash—was sentenced by the same jury to nine months on lesser charges. He was released after three months.[151][152][153] In 1982, a jury awarded the five women $535,000 in a civil rights trial.[154]
Michael Donald lynching
After Michael Donald was lynched in 1981 in Alabama, the FBI investigated his death and two local KKK members were convicted of having a role, including Henry Francis Hays, who was sentenced to death. With the support of attorneys Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), Donald's mother, Beulah Mae Donald, sued the KKK in civil court in Alabama. Her lawsuit against the United Klans of America was tried in February 1987. The all-white jury found the Klan responsible for the lynching of Donald and ordered the Klan to pay US$7 million. To pay the judgment, the KKK turned over all of its assets, including its national headquarters building in Tuscaloosa. After exhausting the appeals process, Hays was executed for Donald's death in Alabama on June 6, 1997. It was the first time since 1913 that a white man had been executed in Alabama for a crime against an African American.
Neo-Nazi alliances and Stormfront
Main article: Stormfront (website)
In 1995, Don Black and Chloê Hardin, former KKK Grand Wizard David Duke's ex-wife, began a small bulletin board system (BBS) called Stormfront. Today, Stormfront has become a prominent online forum for white nationalism, Neo-Nazism, hate speech, racism, and antisemitism.[155][156][157] Duke has an account on Stormfront which he uses to post articles from his own website, as well as polling forum members for opinions and questions, in particular during his internet broadcasts. Duke has worked with Don Black on numerous projects including Operation Red Dog in 1980.[158][159]
Current developments
The modern KKK is not one organization; rather it is composed of small independent chapters across the U.S.[160] The formation of independent chapters has made KKK groups more difficult to infiltrate, and researchers find it hard to estimate their numbers. Estimates are that about two-thirds of KKK members are concentrated in the Southern United States, with another third situated primarily in the lower Midwest.[161][162][163]



Daryl Davis, a black musician, is credited with dismantling the entire KKK network in Maryland.
The Klan has expanded its recruitment efforts to white supremacists at the international level.[164] For some time the Klan's numbers are steadily dropping. This decline has been attributed to the Klan's lack of competence in the use of the Internet, their history of violence, a proliferation of competing hate groups, and a decline in the number of young racist activists who are willing to join groups at all.[165]
Recent membership campaigns have been based on issues such as people's anxieties about illegal immigration, urban crime, civil unions and same-sex marriage.[166] Akins argues that, "Klan literature and propaganda is rabidly homophobic and encourages violence against gays and lesbians....Since the late 1970s, the Klan has increasingly focused its ire on this previously ignored population.[167] Many KKK groups have formed strong alliances with other white supremacist groups, such as neo-Nazis. Some KKK groups have become increasingly "nazified", adopting the look and emblems of white power skinheads.[168]
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has provided legal support to various factions of the KKK in defense of their First Amendment rights to hold public rallies, parades, and marches, as well as their right to field political candidates.[169]
Current Klan organizations



 The flag of the Knights Party, the political branch of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.
A list is maintained by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL):[170]
Bayou Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, prevalent in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana and other areas of the Southern U.S.
Church of the American Knights of the Ku Klux Klan[161]
Imperial Klans of America[171]
Knights of the White Camelia[172]
Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, headed by national director and self-claimed pastor Thom Robb, and based in Zinc, Arkansas.[173] It claims to be the biggest Klan organization in America today.
Other countries
Aside from Canada, there have been various attempts to organise KKK chapters outside the United States. In Australia in the late 1990s, former One Nation founding member Peter Coleman established branches throughout the country,[174][175] and in recent years the KKK has attempted to infiltrate other political parties such as Australia First.[176] Recruitment activity has also been reported in the United Kingdom,[177][178] dating back to the 1960s when Robert Relf was involved in establishing a British KKK.[179]
In Germany a KKK-related group, the European White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, has organised and it gained notoriety in 2012 when it was widely reported in the German media that two police officers who held membership in the organisation would be allowed to keep their jobs.[180][181][182] A group was even established in Fiji in the early 1870s by white settlers, although it was put down by the British who, although not officially established as Fiji's colonial rulers, had played a leading role in establishing a new constitutional monarchy that was being threatened by the Fijian Klan.[183] In São Paulo, Brazil, the website of a group called Imperial Klans of Brazil was shut down in 2003, and the group's leader was arrested.[184]
Titles and vocabulary
Main article: Ku Klux Klan titles and vocabulary
Membership in the Klan is secret. Like many fraternal organizations, the Klan has signs which members can use to recognize one another. A member may use the acronym AYAK (Are you a Klansman?) in conversation to surreptitiously identify himself to another potential member. The response AKIA (A Klansman I am) completes the greeting.[185]
Throughout its varied history, the Klan has coined many words[186] beginning with "Kl" including:
Klabee - treasurers
Klavern - local organization
Imperial Kleagle - recruiter
Klecktoken - initiation fee
Kligrapp - secretary
Klonvocation - gathering
Kloran - ritual book
Kloreroe - delegate
Imperial Kludd - chaplain
All of the above terminology was created by William Joseph Simmons, as part of his 1915 revival of the Klan.[187] The Reconstruction-era Klan used different titles; the only titles to carry over were "Wizard" for the overall leader of the Klan and "Night Hawk" for the official in charge of security.
The Imperial Kludd was the chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and he performed "such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard."
The Imperial Kaliff was the second highest position after the Imperial Wizard.[188]
See also

Portal icon Discrimination portal
Anti-mask laws
Black Legion (political movement)
History of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey
Ku Klux Klan in Canada
Ku Klux Klan in Inglewood, California
Ku Klux Klan in Maine
Ku Klux Klan members in United States politics
Ku Klux Klan recruitment
Ku Klux Klan regalia and insignia
Leaders of the Ku Klux Klan
List of Ku Klux Klan organizations
List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
List of white nationalist organizations
Neo-Confederate
Rosewood massacre
Tulsa race riot
White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan
References
1.Jump up ^ McVeigh, Rory. "Structural Incentives for Conservative Mobilization: Power Devaluation and the Rise of the Ku Klux Klan, 1915–1925". Social Forces, Vol. 77, No. 4 (June 1999), p. 1463.
2.^ Jump up to: a b "Ku Klux Klan". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
3.Jump up ^ Klanwatch Project (2011). Ku Klux Klan: a History of Racism and Violence (PAMPHLET) (Sixth ed.). Montgomery, Alabama: Southern Poverty Law Center. p. 15. Retrieved 16 December 2014. "Whatever the actual date, it is clear that as an organized, cohesive body across the South, the Ku Klux Klan had ceased to exist by the end of 1869."
4.Jump up ^ Rory McVeigh, The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (2009)
5.Jump up ^ Matthew N. Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America (2000) ch 3, 5, 13
6.Jump up ^ Both the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center include it in their lists of hate groups. See also Brian Levin, "Cyberhate: A Legal and Historical Analysis of Extremists' Use of Computer Networks in America" in Perry, Barbara, editor. Hate and Bias Crime: A Reader. p. 112 p. Google Books.
7.Jump up ^ See, e.g., Klanwatch Project (2011), illustrations, pp. 9-10
8.Jump up ^ Elaine Frantz Parsons, "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". Journal of American History 92.3 (2005): 811–36, in History Cooperative.
9.Jump up ^ Wyn Craig Wade, The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (Oxford University Press, 1998)
10.Jump up ^ Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida.
11.Jump up ^ Perlmutter, Philip (1 January 1999). Legacy of Hate: A Short History of Ethnic, Religious, and Racial Prejudice in America. M.E. Sharpe. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-7656-0406-4. "Kenneth T. Jackson, in his The Ku Klux Klan in the City 1915-1930, reminds us that "virtually every" Protestant denomination denounced the KKK, but that most KKK members were not "innately depraved or anxious to subvert American institutions," but rather saw their membership in keeping with "one-hundred percent Americanism" and Christianity morality."
12.^ Jump up to: a b "Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Adl.org. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
13.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era". New Georgia Encyclopedia. October 3, 2002. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
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15.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan Act (1871): Major Acts of Congress". Enotes.com. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
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18.Jump up ^ Thomas R. Pegram, One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (2011), pp. 47-88.
19.Jump up ^ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915-1930 (2011), p. 248.
20.Jump up ^ Jackson 1992 ed., pp. 241–242.
21.Jump up ^ Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College.
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28.Jump up ^ Lee, Jennifer (November 6, 2006). "Samuel Bowers, 82, Klan Leader Convicted in Fatal Bombing, Dies". NY Times. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
29.Jump up ^ Brush, Pete (May 28, 2002). "Court Will Review Cross Burning Ban". CBS News. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
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33.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 9. The founders were John C. Lester, John B. Kennedy, James R. Crowe, Frank O. McCord, Richard R. Reed, and J. Calvin Jones.
34.Jump up ^ Fleming, Walter J., Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment, p. 27, 1905, Neale Publishing.
35.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 11, states that Reed proposed κύκλος (kyklos) and Kennedy added clan. Wade 1987, p. 33 says that Kennedy came up with both words, but Crowe suggested transforming κύκλος into kuklux.
36.Jump up ^ W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 679–680.
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48.Jump up ^ Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988) p. 432.
49.Jump up ^ Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880 pp. 674–675.
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68.Jump up ^ Quotes from Wade 1987.
69.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 360.
70.Jump up ^ Horn 1939, p. 362.
71.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 85.
72.Jump up ^ Wade, p. 102.
73.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 109, writes that by ca. 1871–1874, "For many, the lapse of the enforcement acts was justified since their reason for being—the Ku-Klux Klan—had been effectively smashed as a result of the dramatic showdown in South Carolina".
74.Jump up ^ Foner, Reconstruction (1988) pp 458-459
75.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 109–110.
76.Jump up ^ Balkin, Jack M. (2002). "History Lesson" (PDF). Yale University.
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78.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 144.
79.Jump up ^ "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow: The Enforcement Acts, 1870–1871", Public Broadcast Service. Retrieved April 5, 2008.
80.Jump up ^ "The Various Shady Lives of the Ku Klux Klan". Time magazine. April 9, 1965. "An itinerant Methodist preacher named William Joseph Simmons started up the Klan again in Atlanta in 1915. Simmons, an ascetic-looking man, was a fetishist on fraternal organizations. He was already a "colonel" in the Woodmen of the World, but he decided to build an organization all his own. He was an effective speaker, with an affinity for alliteration; he had preached on "Women, Weddings and Wives," "Red Heads, Dead Heads and No Heads," and the "Kinship of Kourtship and Kissing." On Thanksgiving Eve 1915, Simmons took 15 friends to the top of Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, built an altar on which he placed an American flag, a Bible and an unsheathed sword, set fire to a crude wooden cross, muttered a few incantations about a "practical fraternity among men," and declared himself Imperial Wizard of the Invisible Empire of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan."
81.Jump up ^ Dray 2002, p. 198. Griffith quickly relayed the comment to the press, where it was widely reported.
82.Jump up ^ Letter from J. M. Tumulty, secretary to President Wilson, to the Boston branch of the NAACP, quoted in John Milton Cooper, Jr. (2011). Woodrow Wilson: A Biography. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 273.
83.Jump up ^ Chester L. Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan and Related American Racialist and Antisemitic Organizations: A History and Analysis, p. 219. The second Klan's constitution and preamble attributed debt to the original Klan's Prescripts.
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91.Jump up ^ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915–1930 (University Press of Kansas, 2011)
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104.Jump up ^ Marty Gitlin, The Ku Klux Klan: A Guide to an American Subculture (2009) p. 20.
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110.^ Jump up to: a b Christopher N. Cocoltchos, "The Invisible Empire and the Search for the Orderly Community: The Ku Klux Klan in Anaheim, California", in Shawn Lay, ed. The invisible empire in the West (2004), pp. 97-120.
111.Jump up ^ Feldman 1999.
112.Jump up ^ Howard Ball, Hugo L. Black: cold steel warrior (1996) p. 16
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114.Jump up ^ Ball, Hugo L. Black: cold steel warrior (1996) p. 96
115.Jump up ^ "D. C. Stephenson manuscript collection". Indiana Historical Society. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
116.Jump up ^ Moore 1991, p. 186
117.Jump up ^ Rogers et al., pp. 432–433.
118.Jump up ^ "History of the Montgomery Advertiser". Montgomery Advertiser: a Gannett Company. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
119.Jump up ^ Rogers et al., p. 433.
120.Jump up ^ "Editorial Writing". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
121.^ Jump up to: a b Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution, New York: Touchstone Book, 2002, p. 75.
122.Jump up ^ "Georgia Orders Action to Revoke Charter of Klan. Federal Lien Also Put on File to Collect Income Taxes Dating Back to 1921. Governor Warns of a Special Session if Needed to Enact 'De-Hooding' Measures Tells of Phone Threats Georgia Acts to Crush the Klan. Federal Tax Lien Also Is Filed". New York Times. May 31, 1946. Retrieved January 12, 2010. "Governor Ellis Arnall today ordered the State's legal department to bring action to revoke the Georgia charter of the Ku Klux Klan. ... 'It is my further information that on June 4, 1944, the Ku Klux Klan ..."
123.Jump up ^ von Busack, Richard. "Superman Versus the KKK". MetroActive.
124.Jump up ^ Kennedy 1990.
125.Jump up ^ "The Ku Klux Klan, a brief biography". The African American Registry. Retrieved July 19, 2012. and Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College.
126.Jump up ^ "The Various Shady Lives of The Ku Klux Klan". TIME. April 9, 1965. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
127.Jump up ^ Craig Fox, "Changing interpretations of the 1920s Klan: A selected historiography" in Fox, Everyday Klansfolk: White Protestant Life and the KKK in 1920s Michigan (2012), Introduction online
128.Jump up ^ Thomas R. Pegram (2011). One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. Ivan R. Dee. pp. 221–28.
129.Jump up ^ Jesse Walker, "Hooded Progressivism: The secret reformist history of the Ku Klux Klan," Reason.com December 2, 2005 online
130.Jump up ^ The best scholarly study in this approach is David M. Chalmers, Hooded Americanism: The First Century of the Ku Klux Klan, 1865-1965 (1965), with excellent national and state coverage.
131.Jump up ^ Pegram. One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. p. 222.
132.Jump up ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American p 225
133.Jump up ^ Leonard J. Moore, "Good Old-Fashioned New Social History and the Twentieth-Century American Right." Reviews in American History (1996) 24#4 pp: 555-573 online.
134.Jump up ^ Kenneth T. Jackson, The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915-1930 (1967)
135.Jump up ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American p.225
136.Jump up ^ Leonard J. Moore (1997). Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921-1928. U. North Carolina Press. p. 188.
137.Jump up ^ Moore, Citizen Klansmen p 188
138.Jump up ^ Glenn Feldman, Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915-1949 (1999)
139.Jump up ^ Egerton 1994, p. 562–563.
140.Jump up ^ "Who Was Harry T. Moore?" — The Palm Beach Post, August 16, 1999.
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142.Jump up ^ Axtman, Kris (June 23, 2005). "Mississippi verdict greeted by a generation gap". The Christian Science Monitor.
143.Jump up ^ "Reputed Klansman, Ex-Cop, and Sheriff's Deputy Indicted For The 1964 Murders of Two Young African-American Men in Mississippi; U.S. v. James Ford Seale". January 24, 2007. Retrieved March 23, 2008.
144.Jump up ^ Nelson, Jack. (1993). Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 208-211. ISBN 0671692232.
145.Jump up ^ "Public Service". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
146.Jump up ^ Ingalls 1979; Graham, Nicholas (January 2005). "January 1958 – The Lumbees face the Klan". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
147.Jump up ^ Simon, Dennis M. "The Civil Rights Movement, 1964–1968". Southern Methodist University.
148.Jump up ^ "Remembering the 1979 Greensboro Massacre: 25 Years Later Survivors Form Country's First Truth and Reconciliation Commission". Democracy Now. November 18, 2004. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
149.Jump up ^ Mark Hand (November 18, 2004). "The Greensboro Massacre". Press Action.
150.Jump up ^ Thompson 1982.
151.Jump up ^ The White Separatist Movement in the United States: "White Power, White Pride!", by Betty A. Dobratz & Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile. November 2000. ISBN 978-0-8018-6537-4. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
152.Jump up ^ "Women's Appeal for Justice in Chattanooga – US Department of Justice" (PDF). Retrieved February 20, 2011.
153.Jump up ^ "The Victoria Advocate: Bonds for Klan Upheld". News.google.com. April 22, 1980. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
154.Jump up ^ UPI (February 28, 1982). "New York Times: History Around the Nation; Jury Award to 5 Blacks Hailed as Blow to Klan". Nytimes.com (Tennessee; Chattanooga (Tenn)). Retrieved February 20, 2011.
155.Jump up ^ "RedState, White Supremacy, and Responsibility", Daily Kos, December 5, 2005.
156.Jump up ^ Bill O'Reilly, "Circling the Wagons in Georgia", Fox News Channel, May 8, 2003.
157.Jump up ^ "WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center: Case No. DTV2001-0023", World Intellectual Property Organization, January 13, 2002.
158.Jump up ^ Captmike works undercover with the US Government to stop the invasion of the Island Nation of Dominica, manana.com.
159.Jump up ^ Operation Red Dog: Canadian neo-nazis were central to the planned invasion of Dominica in 1981,[dead link] canadiancontent.ca.
160.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. According to the report, the KKK's estimated size then was "No more than a few thousand, organized into slightly more than 100 units."
161.^ Jump up to: a b "Church of the American Knights of the KKK". Anti-Defamation League. October 22, 1999. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
162.Jump up ^ "Active U.S. Hate Groups". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center.
163.Jump up ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
164.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan warns race war if Obama wins". Sify News. November 3, 2008. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
165.Jump up ^ Palmer, Brian (March 8, 2012). "Ku Klux Kontraction: How did the KKK lose nearly one-third of its chapters in one year?". Slate Magazine. Retrieved March 25, 2012.
166.Jump up ^ Knickerbocker, Brad (February 9, 2007). "Anti-Immigrant Sentiments Fuel Ku Klux Klan Resurgence". The Christian Science Monitor.
167.Jump up ^ Akins, J. Keith (January 2006). "The Ku Klux Klan: America's Forgotten Terrorists". Law Enforcement Executive Forum. p. 137.
168.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan – Affiliations – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
169.Jump up ^ See, e.g., "A.C.L.U. Lawsuit Backs Klan In Seeking Permit for Cross". The New York Times. December 16, 1993. (accessed August 2009); "ACLU Defends KKK, Wins". Channel3000. January 4, 1999. Retrieved July 28, 2010. The ACLU professes a mission to defend the constitutional rights of all groups, whether left, center, or right.
170.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America – Active Groups (by state)". adl.org. Anti-Defamation League. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
171.Jump up ^ "No. 2 Klan group on trial in Ky. teen's beating". Associated Press. November 11, 2008. Retrieved November 22, 2008.
172.Jump up ^ "White Camelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan – Home page". wckkkk.org. White Camelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
173.Jump up ^ "Arkansas Klan Group Loses Legal Battle with North Carolina Newspaper". Anti-Defamation League. July 9, 2009. Retrieved August 15, 2008.
174.Jump up ^ "Ku Klux Klan sets up Australian branch". BBC News. June 2, 1999. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
175.Jump up ^ Ansley, Greg (June 5, 1999). "Dark mystique of the KKK". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
176.Jump up ^ Jensen, Erik (July 10, 2009). "We have infiltrated party: KKK". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
177.Jump up ^ Hosken, Andy (June 10, 1999). "KKK plans 'infiltration' of the UK". BBC News. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
178.Jump up ^ Parry, Ryan (October 19, 2011). "We expose vile racist biker as British leader of the Ku Klux Klan". Daily Mail. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
179.Jump up ^ Peter Barberis, John McHugh, Mike Tyldesley, Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations, 2002, p. 184
180.Jump up ^ German Police Kept Jobs Despite KKK Involvement, Der Spiegel
181.Jump up ^ Ku Klux Klan: German Police Officers Allowed to Stay on Job Despite Links with European Branch of White Supremacists, International Business Times
182.Jump up ^ 'KKK cops' scandal uncovered amid German neo-Nazi terror probe, Russia Today
183.Jump up ^ Kim Gravelle, Fiji's Times: A History of Fiji, Suva: The Fiji Times, 1988, pp. 120-124
184.Jump up ^ Jovem ligado à Ku Klux Klan é detido em São Paulo
185.Jump up ^ "A Visual Database of Extremist Symbols, Logos and Tattoos". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
186.Jump up ^ Axelrod 1997, p. 160.
187.Jump up ^ Wade 1987, p. 142. "'It was rather difficult, sometimes, to make the two letters fit in,' he recalled later, 'but I did it somehow.'"
188.Jump up ^ Chester L. Quarles (1999). The Ku Klux Klan and related American racialist and antisemitic organizations. McFarland Publishing. ISBN 0-7864-0647-X. "Imperial Kludd: Is the Chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and shall perform such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard ..."
Further reading
Axelrod, Alan (1997). The International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies & Fraternal Orders. New York: Facts On File.
Baker, Kelly J. Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915-1930 (University Press of Kansas, 2011) ISBN 978-0700617920.
Barr, Andrew (1999). Drink: A Social History of America. New York: Carroll & Graf.
Chalmers, David M. (1987). Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan. Durahm, N.C.: Duke University Press. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-8223-0730-3.
Chalmers, David M. (2003). Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement. ISBN 0-7425-2310-1.
Cunningham, David. Klansville, USA: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-Era Ku Klux Klan (Oxford University Press, 2013). 360pp.
Dray, Philip (2002). At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America. New York: Random House.
Egerton, John (1994). Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South. Alfred and Knopf Inc.
Feldman, Glenn (1999). Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press.
Fleming, Walter J. Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment (1905)
Foner, Eric (1989). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. Perennial (HarperCollins).
Fox, Craig. Everyday Klansfolk: White Protestant Life and the KKK in 1920s Michigan (Michigan State University Press, 2011), 274 pp. ISBN 978-0-87013-995-6.
Franklin, John Hope (1992). Race and History: Selected Essays 1938–1988. Louisiana State University Press.
Fryer, Roland G., Jr; Levitt, Steven D. (September 2007), Hatred and Profits: Getting Under the Hood of the Ku Klux Klan, National Bureau of Economic Research, retrieved 22 January 2015
Horn, Stanley F. (1939). Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871. Montclair, New Jersey: Patterson Smith Publishing Corporation.
Ingalls, Robert P. (1979). Hoods: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Jackson, Kenneth T. (1967). The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (1992 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Kennedy, Stetson (1990). The Klan Unmasked. University Press of Florida.
McVeigh, Rory. The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (2009), on 1920s.
Lender, Mark E.; Martin, James K. (1982). Drinking in America. New York: Free Press.
Lewis, George. ""An Amorphous Code": The Ku Klux Klan and Un-Americanism, 1915–1965." Journal of American Studies (2013) 47#4 pp: 971-992.
McWhorter, Diane (2001). Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Moore, Leonard J. (1991). Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Newton, Michael; Newton, Judy Ann (1991). The Ku Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia. New York & London: Garland Publishing.
Parsons, Elaine Frantz (2005). "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". The Journal of American History 92 (3): 811–836. doi:10.2307/3659969.
Pegram, Thomas R. One hundred percent American: the rebirth and decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (Rowman & Littlefield, 2011)
Pitsula, James M. Keeping Canada British: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Saskatchewan (University of British Columbia Press, 2013)
Prendergast, Michael L. (1987). "A History of Alcohol Problem Prevention Efforts in the United States". In Holder, Harold D. Control Issues in Alcohol Abuse Prevention: Strategies for States and Communities. Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press.
Rhodes, James Ford (1920). History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896 7. Winner of the 1918 Pulitzer Prize for history.
Rogers, William; Ward, Robert; Atkins, Leah; Flynt, Wayne (1994). Alabama: The History of a Deep South State. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press.
Steinberg, Alfred (1962). The man from Missouri; the life and times of Harry S. Truman. New York: Putnam. OCLC 466366.
Taylor, Joe G. (1974). Louisiana Reconstructed, 1863–1877. Baton Rouge.
Thompson, Jerry (1982). My Life in the Klan. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-12695-3.
Trelease, Allen W. (1995). White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction. Louisiana State University Press.
Wade, Wyn Craig. The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (Oxford University Press, 1998)
Historiography
Eagles, Charles W. "Urban‐Rural Conflict in the 1920s: A Historiographical Assessment." Historian (1986) 49#1 pp: 26-48.
Horowitz, David A. "The Normality of Extremism: The Ku Klux Klan Revisited." Society (1998) 35#6 pp: 71-77.
Lay, Shawn, ed. "The invisible empire in the west: Toward a new historical appraisal of the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s" (University of Illinois Press, 2004)
Lewis, Michael, and Jacqueline Serbu. "Kommemorating the Ku Klux Klan." Sociological Quarterly (1999) 40#1: 139-158. Deals with the memory of the KKK in Pulaski, Tennessee. Online
Moore, Leonard J. "Historical Interpretations of the 1920's Klan: The Traditional View and the Populist Revision" Journal of Social History (1990) 24#2 pp 341–357.
Sneed, Edgar P. "A Historiography of Reconstruction in Texas: Some Myths and Problems." Southwestern Historical Quarterly (1969): 435-448. in JSTOR
Further reading
Blee, Kathleen M. (1992). Women of the Klan. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07876-4.
Brooks, Michael E. The Ku Klux Klan in Wood County, Ohio. Charleston: The History Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1626193345.
Cunningham, David. Klansville, USA: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-Era Ku Klux Klan. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
"White supremacist groups flourishing". Gainesville Press. Associated Press. February 6, 2007.
Nelson, Jack (1993). Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69223-2.
Chalmers, David M. (2003). Backfire: how the Ku Klux Klan helped the civil rights movement. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-2310-1.
External links
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ku Klux Klan.
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Portal:Ku Klux Klan

Prescript of the * * first edition of the Klans 1867 prescript
Revised and Amended Prescript of the Order of the * * * first edition of the Klans 1868 prescript
Civil Rights Greensboro
The Ku Klux Klan in Washington State, from the Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, examines the influence of the second KKK in the State during the 1920s.
"Ku Klux Klan", Southern Poverty Law Center
"KKK", Anti-Defamation League
"Inside Today's KKK", multimedia, Life magazine, April 13, 2009
Interview with Stanley F. Horn, author of Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871 (1939), Forest History Society, Inc., May 1978
Booknotes interview with Jack Nelson on Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews, February 7, 1993


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Neo-Nazism

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Neo-Nazism consists of post-World War II social or political movements seeking to revive the far-right-wing tenets of Nazism.[1][2][3][4] The term neo-Nazism can also refer to the ideology of these movements.[5][6]
Neo-Nazism borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including ultranationalism, racism, ableism, xenophobia, homophobia, antisemitism, and initiating the Fourth Reich. Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is incorporation of Nazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler.
Neo-Nazi activity is a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries, as well as international networks. In some European and Latin American countries, laws have been enacted that prohibit the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, anti-Semitic or homophobic views. Many Nazi-related symbols are banned in European countries in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism.[7][8][9]


Contents  [hide]
1 Europe 1.1 Austria
1.2 Belgium
1.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina
1.4 Croatia
1.5 Czech Republic
1.6 Estonia
1.7 France
1.8 Germany
1.9 Greece
1.10 Hungary
1.11 Netherlands
1.12 Poland
1.13 Russia
1.14 Serbia
1.15 Sweden
1.16 Switzerland
1.17 Turkey
1.18 Ukraine
1.19 United Kingdom
2 Asia 2.1 Israel
2.2 Mongolia
2.3 Myanmar
2.4 Taiwan
3 The Americas 3.1 Brazil
3.2 Canada
3.3 Chile
3.4 Costa Rica
3.5 United States
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Bibliography 6.1 Primary sources
6.2 Academic surveys
7 External links

Europe[edit]



 Neo-Nazi march in Leipzig, Germany on October 17, 2009
Austria[edit]
The major postwar far-right party was the Austrian National Democratic Party (NDP), until it was banned in 1988 for violating Austria's anti-Nazi legislation, Verbotsgesetz 1947.[10] The Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception. In 1980, scandals undermined Austria's two main parties, and the economy stagnated. Jörg Haider became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for Nazism, calling its employment policy effective. In the 1994 Austrian election, the FPÖ won 22 percent of the vote, as well as 33 percent of the vote in Carinthia and 22 percent in Vienna; showing that it had become a force capable of reversing the old pattern of Austrian politics.[11]
Historian Walter Laqueur writes that even though Haider welcomed former Nazis at his meetings and went out of his way to address Schutzstaffel (SS) veterans, the FPÖ is not a fascist party in the traditional sense, since it has not made anti-communism an important issue, and does not advocate the overthrow of the democratic order or the use of violence. In his view, the FPÖ is "not quite fascist", although it is part of a tradition, similar to that of 19th-century Viennese mayor Karl Lueger, that involves nationalism, xenophobic populism, and authoritarianism.[12] Professor Ali Mazrui, however, identified the FPÖ as neo-Nazi in a BBC world lecture.[13]
Haider, who in 2005 left the Freedom Party and formed the Alliance for Austria's Future, was killed in a traffic accident in October, 2008.[14]
Barbara Rosenkranz, the Freedom Party's candidate for the Austrian presidential election, 2010, is controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements.[15] Rosenkranz is married to Horst Rosenkranz, a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, and known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she cannot detect anything "dishonourable" in her husband's activities.[16]
The volume Rechtsextremismus in Österreich seit 1945 (Right-wing Extremism in Austria since 1945), issued by DÖW in 1979, listed nearly 50 active far right organizations in Austria. Their influence waned gradually, partly due to liberalization programs in secondary schools and universities that emphasized Austrian identity and democratic traditions. Votes for the RFS (Ring Freiheitlicher Studenten), the Freedom Party's academic student organization, in student elections fell from 30% in the 1960s to 2% in 1987. In the 1995 elections for the student representative body Österreichische Hochschülerschaft (Austrian Students' Association), the RFS got 4% of the vote. The FPÖ won 22% of the votes at the General Election in the same year.[17]
A radical non-parliamentary, anti-democratic far-right organization active in Austria was the VAPO (Volkstreue Außerparlamentarische Opposition) founded by the Austrian neo-Nazi Gottfried Küssel in 1986, who publicly declared to be a member of the US-American neo-Nazi organization NSDAP/AO since 1977. Neither an association nor a party, the VAPO was loosely organized in "Kameradschaften" (comradeships) and defined itself as a "battle alliance of nationalist groups and persons" with the aims of "reestablishing the NSDAP" and the "seizure of power".[18] In 1993 Küssel was repeatedly convicted on charges of "NS-Wiederbetätigung" (re-engagement in national socialism) under the Austrian anti-Nazi law (Verbotsgesetz 1947) and sentenced to ten years of prison.[19] The VAPO de facto disbanded in the course of the imprisonment of its leading figures, much due to its loose organizational structure. Due to procedural errors Küssel's sentence was revoked by the OGH (Austrian Supreme Court) and the trial reheld in 1994 where Küssel was sentenced to eleven years in prison.[20]
Belgium[edit]
Main article: Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw



 Anti-Nazi logo in Belgium
A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Blood, Soil, Honour and Loyalty), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (Blood and Honour). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, antisemitism and supporters of censorship. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael, the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" Belgium.[21][22] According to journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances network, the ultras of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through Westland New Post and the Front de la Jeunesse.[23]
A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in Leopoldsburg near the Dutch border: Kleine-Brogel, Peer, Brussels (Royal military school) and Zedelgem– as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders. They found weapons, munitions, explosives, and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode." The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons, and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far-right movement De Nationale Alliantie.[24][25][26][27][28][29]
Bosnia and Herzegovina[edit]
The neo-Nazi white nationalist organization Bosanski Pokret Nacionalnog Ponosa (Bosnian Movement of National Pride) was founded in Bosnia and Herzegovina in July 2009. Their model is the Waffen-SS Handschar Division, composed of Bosnian Muslim volunteers.[30] They proclaimed their main enemies to be "Jews, Gypsies, Serbian Chetniks, the Croatian separatists, Josip Broz Tito, Communists, homosexuals and blacks".[31][32] They mix an ideology of Bosnian nationalism, National Socialism and white nationalism. The group is led by a person nicknamed Sauberzwig, after the commander of the 13 SS Handschar. The group's strongest area of operations is in the Tuzla area of Bosnia.
Croatia[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in Croatia
Neo-Nazis in Croatia base their ideology on the writings of Ante Pavelić and the Ustaše, a fascist anti-Yugoslav separatist movement.[33] The Ustaše regime committed a genocide against Serbs, Jews and Gypsies. At the end of World War II, many Ustaše members fled to the West, where they found sanctuary and continued their political and terrorist activities (which were tolerated because of Cold War hostilities).[34][35] Jonathan Levy, a lawyer who represented plaintiffs in a 1999 lawsuit against the Ustaše and others, said: "Many are still terrified of the Ustashe, the Serbs particularly. Unlike the Nazi Party, the Ustashe still exist and have a party headquarters in Zagreb."[36]
In 1999, Zagreb's Square of the Victims of Fascism was renamed The Square of The Great Men of Croatia, provoking widespread criticism of Croatia's attitude toward the Holocaust.[37] In 2000, the city council renamed the square the Square of the Victims of Fascism.[38] Many streets in Croatia were renamed after the prominent Ustaše figure Mile Budak, which provoked outrage amongst the Serbian minority. Since 2002, there has been a reversal of this development, and streets with the name of Mile Budak or other persons connected with the Ustaše movement are few or non-existent.[39] A plaque in Slunj with the inscription "Croatian Knight Jure Francetić" was erected to commemorate Francetić, the notorious Ustaše leader of the Black Legion. The plaque remained there for four years, until it was removed by the authorities.[39][40]
In 2003, an attempt was made to amend the Croatian penal code by adding articles prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, historical revisionism and holocaust denial, but this attempt was prevented by the Croatian constitutional court.[41] An amendment was added in 2006 to prohibit any type of hate crime based on factors such as race, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion or national origin.[42]
There have been instances of hate speech in Croatia, such as the use of the phrase Srbe na vrbe! ("(hang) Serbs on the willow trees!"). In 2004, an Orthodox church was spray-painted with pro-Ustaše graffiti.[43][44] During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other suspected war criminals have carried nationalist symbols and pictures of Pavelić.[45] On May 17, 2007, a concert in Zagreb by Thompson, a popular Croatian singer, was attended by 60,000 people, some of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes and shouted the Ustaše slogan "Za dom spremni" (for the homeland – ready!). This event prompted the Jerusalem office of the Simon Wiesenthal Center to publicly issue a protest to the Croatian president.[46][47][48][49][50] In 2007, Austrian authorities launched a criminal investigation into the widespread display of Ustaše symbols at a gathering of Croatian nationalists in Bleiburg, Austria.[51][52]
Czech Republic[edit]
Czech Republic strictly punishes Neo-Nazism (Czech: Neonacismus) although there are still small groups of Neo-Nazist from Germany. According to the report from Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic Neo-Nazist committed more than 211 crimes in 2013. Czech Republic has more than 150 members of various groups. One of them is group Wotan Jugend based in Germany.
Estonia[edit]
In 2006, Roman Ilin, a Jewish theatre director from St. Petersburg, Russia, was attacked by neo-Nazis when returning from an underground tunnel after a rehearsal. Ilin subsequently accused Estonian police of indifference after filing the incident.[53] When a dark-skinned French student was attacked in Tartu, the head of an association of foreign students claimed that the attack was characteristic of a wave of neo-Nazi violence. An Estonian police official, however, stated that there were only a few cases involving foreign students over the previous two years.[54] In November 2006, the Estonian government passed a law banning the display of Nazi symbols.[55]
The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur's Report noted that community representatives and non-governmental organizations devoted to human rights had pointed out that neo-Nazi groups were active in Estonia—particularly in Tartu—and had perpetrated acts of violence against non-European minorities.[56]
France[edit]
Main article: History of far-right movements in France
Neo-Nazi organizations in France are outlawed, yet a significant number exist.[57] Legal far-right groups are also numerous, and include the Bloc identitaire, created by former members of Christian Bouchet's Unité Radicale group. Close to National Bolshevism and Third Position ideologies, Unité Radicale was dissolved in 2002 following Maxime Brunerie's assassination attempt on July 14, 2002 against then-President Jacques Chirac. Christian Bouchet had previously been a member of Nouvelle Résistance (NR), an offshoot of Troisième Voie (Third Way) which described itself as "nationalist revolutionary". Although Nouvelle Résistance at first opposed the "national conservatives" of Jean-Marie Le Pen's National Front, it changed strategy, adopting the slogan "Less Leftism! More Fascism![58] " Nouvelle Résistance was also a successor to Jean-François Thiriart's Jeune Europe neo-Nazi Europeanist movement of the 1960s, which had participated in the National Party of Europe, along with Oswald Mosley's Union Movement, Otto Strasser and others. The French government estimated that neo-Nazi groups in France had 3,500 members.[59] In 2011 alone, 129 violent actions were recorded in France against the Jewish pupulation, with 60.5% of those cases occurring in the Île-de-France region. The CNCDH notes that in 19 cases, these violent actions could be imputed to persons of ‘Arab origin or Muslim confession’, with 15 others relating to neo-Nazi ideology, mainly consisting of displaying swastikas. In relation to these violent actions 36 persons were arrested, 28 of whom were minors. Of the 129 violent actions recorded, 50.4% were for degradations, 44.2% for violence and assault and battery, and the remaining 5.4% for arson. In France in 2011, 260 threats were recorded, with 53% of those (138 cases) occurring in the Île-de-France region. Of these threats, 15% related to neo-Nazi ideology, with another 14% imputable to persons of ‘Arab origin or Muslim confession’. Thirty-two persons were arrested in relation to these threats, nine of whom were minors. Of the 260 threats, 44% consisted of speech acts and threatening gestures and insults, 38% of graffiti and the remaining 18% of pamphlets and emails.[60]
Germany[edit]
Main article: Far right in Germany
See also: Category:Neo-Nazism in Germany.



 Anti-Nazi demonstration in Dresden, Germany, February 13, 2012
In Germany, immediately after World War II, Allied forces and the new German government attempted to prevent the creation of the new Nazi movement through a process known as denazification. However, with the onset of the Cold War it had lost interest in prosecuting anyone.[61] Many of the more than 90,000 Nazi war criminals recorded in German files were serving in positions of prominence under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.[62][63] Not until 1964 and 1965 were the former SS members from Treblinka brought to trial by West Germany.[64] The government had passed laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs. Displaying the swastika became an offense punishable by up to one year imprisonment. Nevertheless, some former National Socialists retained their political beliefs and passed them down to new generations who formed the extreme-right National Democratic Party.[65]
After German reunification in the 1990s, post-National Socialist groups gained more followers, mostly among the younger generation in the former East Germany.[65] They have expressed an aversion to people from Slavic countries (especially Poland) and people of other national backgrounds who moved from the former West Germany into the former East Germany after Germany was reunited.[66] According to the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (Verfassungsschutz) for 2012, at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6,000 neo-Nazis.[67] The Neo-Nazi organizations are not outlawed in Germany,[65] although Holocaust denial is, according to the German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch § 86a) and § 130 (public incitement).
Greece[edit]
The far right political party Golden Dawn (Chrysi Avyi) is generally labelled neo-Nazi, although the group rejects this label. A few Golden Dawn members participated in the Bosnian War in the Greek Volunteer Guard (GVG) and were present in Srebrenica during the Srebrenica massacre.[68][69] Another Greek neo-Nazi group is the Strasserist "Mavros Krinos" (Μαύρος Κρίνος – Black Lily).
In the elections of 6 May 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.97% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament for the first time with 21 representatives. Due to no coalition amongst the elected parties so as to form a Greek Government, new elections were proclaimed.
In the elections of 17 June 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.92% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament with 18 representatives.
Hungary[edit]
Further information: History of the Jews in Hungary
Today, Neo-Nazism in Hungary takes the form of hatred towards Judaism and Israel, it can be observed from many prominent Hungarian politicians. The most famous example is the MIÉP-Jobbik Third Way Alliance of Parties. Antisemitism in Hungary is manifested mainly in far right publications and demonstrations. Hungarian Justice and Life Party supporters continued their tradition of shouting antisemitic slogans and tearing the US flag to shreds at their annual rallies in Budapest in March 2003 and 2004, commemorating the 1848–49 revolution. Further, during the demonstrations held to celebrate the anniversary of the 1956 uprising, a post-Communist tradition celebrated by the left and right of the political spectrum, antisemitic and anti-Israel slogans were heard from the right wing. The center-right traditionally keeps its distance from the right-wing Csurka-led and other far-right demonstrations.[70]
Netherlands[edit]
The Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism reports that on 17 May 2011 in Leek, Groningen, antisemitic graffiti was found at a Jewish school. The graffiti consisted of a swastika and the text "C18", or Combat 18, a neo-Nazi organisation active throughout Europe. The number 18 refers to the initials of Adolf Hitler, A and H being the first and eighth letters of the alphabet, respectively.[71]
Poland[edit]
Although several small far-right and anti-semitic organisations exist, most notably NOP and ONR, they frequently adhere to Polish nationalism and National Democracy, in which nazism is generally considered to be against ultra-nationalist principles, and therefore although classed as white nationalist and fascist movements, they are at the same time considered anti-nazi. Some elements may resemble neo-nazi features, but the groups frequently dissociate themselves from Nazi elements, claiming such acts as unpatriotic and arguing that Nazism misappropriated or slightly altered several pre-existing symbols and features, such as distinguishing the Roman salute from the Nazi salute.[72]
Russia[edit]
Main articles: Racism in Russia and Radical nationalism in Russia



 Neo-Nazism in Russia: The photograph was taken at an anti-homosexual demonstration in Moscow in October 2010
Many Russian neo-Nazis openly admire Adolf Hitler and use the swastika as their symbol. Russian neo-Nazis are characterized by racism, antisemitism, homophobia, Islamophobia and extreme xenophobia towards people from Asia.[73] Their ideology centers on defending Russian national identity against what they perceive as a takeover by minority groups such as Jews, Caucasians, homosexuals, Central Asians, East Asians, Roma people, and Muslims.
Russian neo-Nazis have made it an explicit goal to take over the country by force, and have put serious effort into preparing for this. Paramilitary organizations operating under the guise of sports clubs have trained their members in squad tactics, hand to hand combat and weapons handling. They have stockpiled and used weapons, often illegally.
Some observers have noted a subjective irony of Russians embracing Nazism, because one of Hitler's ambitions at the start of World War II was the Generalplan Ost (Master Plan East) which allegedly envisaged to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs from central and eastern Europe (i.e., Russians, Ukrainians, Poles etc.).[74] Russian neo-Nazis deny the authenticity of this plan.[74] At the end of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, over 25 million Soviet citizens had died.[75] In a 2007 news story, ABC News reported, "In a country that lost more people defeating the Nazis than any other country, there are now an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 neo-Nazis, half of the world's total."[76]
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused great economic and social problems, including widespread unemployment and poverty. Several far right paramilitary organizations were able to tap into popular discontent, particularly among marginalized, lesser educated and unemployed youths. Of the three major age groups — youths, adults, and the elderly — youths may have been hit the hardest. The elderly suffered due to inadequate (or unpaid) pensions, but they found effective political representation in the Communist Party, and generally had their concerns addressed through better budget allocations. Adults, although often suffering financially and psychologically due to job losses, were generally able to find new sources of income.
Russian National Unity (RNE), founded in 1990 and led by Alexander Barkashov, has claimed to have members in 250 cities. RNE adopted the swastika as its symbol, and sees itself as the avant-garde of a coming national revolution. It is critical of other major far right organizations, such as the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR). Historian Walter Laqueur calls RNE far closer to the Nazi model than the LDPR. RNE publishes several news sheets; one of them, Russky poryadok, claims to have a circulation of 150,000. Full members of RNE are called Soratnik (comrades in arms), receive combat training at locations near Moscow, and many of them work as security officers or armed guards.[77]
On August 15, 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black swastika flag.[78] Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine ... There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally."[79] A Russian neo-Nazi group called the Russian National Socialist Party claimed responsibility for the murders.
Serbia[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in Serbia
Neo-Nazism in Serbia is mostly based on national and religious factors. Nacionalni stroj (National Alignment), a neo-Nazi organization[80][81] from the Vojvodina region, orchestrated several incidents. Charges were laid against 18 of the leading members.[82]
Sweden[edit]
Neo-Nazi activities in Sweden have previously been limited to white supremacist groups, none of which has more than a few hundred members.[83] The main neo-Nazi organizations as of 2014 are the Party of the Swedes and the Swedish Resistance Movement.
Switzerland[edit]
See also: Far right in Switzerland
The neo-Nazi and white power skinhead scene in Switzerland has seen significant growth in the 1990s and 2000s.[citation needed] It is reflected in the foundation of the Partei National Orientierter Schweizer in 2000, which resulted in an improved organizational structure of the neo-Nazi and white supremacist scene.
Turkey[edit]
See also: Turkish nationalism
Apart from neo-fascist[84][85][86][87][88][89][90] Grey Wolves and the Turkish ultranationalist[91][92][93][94][95][96] Nationalist Movement Party there are some Neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey like the Turkish Nazi Party[97] or the National Socialist Party of Turkey,[98] mainly based on the internet.[99][100][101]
Ukraine[edit]



 Fans of the FC Karpaty Lviv football club honoring the Waffen-SS Galizien division, in Lviv, Ukraine, 2013
In 1991 Svoboda (political party) was founded as the 'Social-National Party of Ukraine'.[102] The party combined radical nationalism and neo-Nazi features.[103] It was renamed and rebranded 13 years later as 'All-Ukrainian Association Svoboda' in 2004 under Oleh Tyahnybok. By 2005 an important step toward heroization of Ukrainian nationalism was Victor Yushchenko's appointment of Svoboda member Volodymyr Viatrovych as head of the Ukrainian security service (SBU) archives. This allowed Viatrovych not only to sanitize ultra nationalist history, but also officially promote its dissemination along with OUN(b) ideology based on 'ethnic purity' coupled with anti-Russian, anti-Polish and anti-semitic rhetoric; denial of UPA war crimes, and the paradoxical glorification of Nazi history with concomitant denial of wartime collaboration wrote Professor Per Anders Rudling.[104]:229–230 The extreme right wing now capitalize on 'Yushchenkoist' propaganda initiatives.[104]:235 This includes Iuryi Mykahl’chyshyn, an ideologue who proudly confesses himself part of the fascist tradition.[104] The autonomous nationalists focus on recruiting younger people, participates in violent actions, quoting "anti-bourgeoism, anti-capitalism, anti-globalism, anti-democratism, anti-liberalism, anti-bureaucratism, anti-dogmatism". In 2009 Svoboda fetched 34% of votes in one region of the state. Svoboda is part of a right wing Alliance of European National Movements.[104] Per Anders Rulig has suggested that "Viktor Yanukovych has indirectly aided Svoboda" by "granting Svoboda representatives disproportionate attention in the media".[104]:247
After Yanokovych's ouster in February 2014, the interim Yatsenyuk Government placed 4 Svoboda members in leading positions: Oleksandr Sych as Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine, Ihor Tenyukh as Minister of Defense, lawyer Ihor Shvaika as Minister of Agrarian Policy and Food and Andriy Mokhnyk as Minister of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine.[105] However, the U.S. State Department has stated in a March 5, 2014 fact sheet that "Far-right wing ultranationalist groups, some of which were involved in open clashes with security forces during the EuroMaidan protests, are not represented in the Rada."[106]
Ukraine's National Security and Defence Council chief Andriy Parubiy, one of the founders of Social-National Party of Ukraine,[107] oversees the "anti–terrorist" operation against pro-Russian separatists in eastern Ukraine.[108] Andriy Biletsky, the head of the ultra-nationalist and neo-Nazi political groups Social-National Assembly and Patriots of Ukraine,[109] is commander of the Azov Battalion,[110] a pro-Ukrainian volunteer paramilitary group fighting pro-Russian separatists in Donbas region.[111][112]
United Kingdom[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in the United Kingdom, Racism in the United Kingdom and List of British fascist parties
Asia[edit]
Israel[edit]
Neo-Nazi activity is not common or widespread in Israel, and the few activities reported have all been the work of extremists, who were punished severely. One notable case is that of Patrol 36, a cell in Petah Tikva made up of eight teenage immigrants from the former Soviet Union who had been attacking foreign workers and homosexuals, and vandalizing synagogues with Nazi images.[113][114] These neo-Nazis were reported to have operated in cities across Israel, and have been described as being influenced by the rise of neo-Nazism in Europe;[113][114][115] mostly influenced by similar movements in Russia and Ukraine, as the rise of the phenomenon is widely credited to immigrants from those two states, the largest sources of emigration to Israel.[116] Widely publicized arrests have led to a call to reform the Law of Return to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship for – and the subsequent deportation of – neo-Nazis.[114]
Mongolia[edit]



 Flag of the Dayar Mongol, a neo-Nazi party in Mongolia
Neo-Nazism is a growing political force in Mongolia. From 2008, Mongolian Neo-Nazi groups have defaced buildings in Ulan Bator, smashed Chinese shopkeepers' windows, and killed pro-Chinese Mongols. The Neo-Nazi Mongols' targets for violence are Chinese, Koreans,[117] Mongol women who sleep with Chinese men, and LGBT people.[118] They wear Nazi uniforms and revere the Mongol Empire and Genghis Khan. During World War II, the invading Nazi Germans also recruited Mongol Kalmyks to fight for them against the Soviet Union. Though Tsagaan Khass leaders say they do not support violence, they are self-proclaimed Nazis. "Adolf Hitler was someone we respect. He taught us how to preserve national identity," said the 41-year-old co-founder, who calls himself Big Brother. "We don't agree with his extremism and starting the Second World War. We are against all those killings, but we support his ideology. We support nationalism rather than fascism." Some have ascribed it to poor historical education.[117]
Myanmar[edit]
The Straits Times writes that the 969 Movement, which it says "is described as Myanmar's 'neo-Nazi group'", is facing scrutiny for "its role in spreading anti-Muslim sentiment".[119]
Taiwan[edit]
Main article: National Socialism Association
The National Socialism Association (NSA) is a neo-Nazi political organisation founded in Taiwan in September 2006 by Hsu Na-chi (Chinese: 許娜琦), at that time a 22-year-old female political science graduate of Soochow University. The NSA has an explicit stated goal of obtaining the power to govern the state. The NSA views Adolf Hitler as its leader and often proclaims "Long live Hitler" (Heil Hitler) as one of its slogans. The Simon Wiesenthal Centre condemned the National Socialism Association on March 13, 2007 for championing the former Nazi dictator and blaming democracy for Taiwan's "social unrest."[6]
The Americas[edit]
Brazil[edit]
Further information: Racism in Brazil
Several Brazilian neo-Nazi gangs appeared in the 1990s in Southern and Southeastern Brazil, regions with mostly white people, with their acts gaining more media coverage and public notoriety in the 2000s.[120][121][122][123][124][125][126] Some members of Brazilian neo-Nazi groups have been associated with football hooliganism.[127]
Their targets have included African, South American and Asian immigrants; Jews; Afro-Brazilians and internal migrants with origins in the northern regions of Brazil (who are mostly brown-skinned or Afro-Brazilian);[125][128] homeless people, prostitutes; recreational drug users; feminists and—more frequently reported in the media—homosexuals, bisexuals, the third-gendered and the transgendered.[124][129][130] News of their attacks has played a role in debates about anti-discrimination laws in Brazil (including to some extent hate speech laws) and the issues of sexual orientation and gender identity.[131][132][133]
Canada[edit]
Neo-Nazism in Canada began with the formation of the Canadian Nazi Party in 1965. In the 1970s and 1980s, neo-Nazism continued to spread in the country as organizations including the Western Guard and Church of the Creator (later renamed as Creativity) promoted white supremacist ideals.[134] Founded in the United States in 1973, Creativity calls for white people to wage racial holy war (Rahowa) against Jews and other perceived enemies.[135]
Don Andrews founded the Nationalist Party of Canada in 1977. The purported goals of the unregsistered party are "the promotion and maintenance of European Heritage and Culture in Canada," but the party is known for anti-Semitism and racism. Many influential neo-Nazi Leaders, such as Wolfgang Droege, were affiliated with the party, but many of its members left to join the Heritage Front, which was founded in 1989.[136]
Droege founded the Heritage Front in in Toronto at a time when leaders of the white supremacist movement were "disgruntled about the state of the radical right" and wanted to unite unorganized groups of white supremacists into an influential and efficient group with common objectives.[136] Plans for the organization began in September 1989, and the formation of the Heritage Front was formally announced a couple of months later in November. In the 1990s, George Burdi of Resistance Records and the band Rahowa popularized the Creativity movement and the white power music scene.[137]
Controversy and dissention has left many Canadian neo-Nazi organizations dissolved or weakened.[136]
Chile[edit]
Main article: Nazism in Chile
After the dissolution of the National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNSCH) in 1938, notable former members of MNSCH migrated into Partido Agrario Laborista (PAL), obtaining high positions.[138] Not all former MNSCH members joined the PAL; some continued to form parties that followed the MNSCH model until 1952.[138] A new old-school Nazi party was formed in 1964 by school teacher Franz Pfeiffer.[138] Among the activities of this group were the organization of a Miss Nazi beauty contest and the formation of a Chilean branch of the Ku Klux Klan.[138] The party disbanded in 1970. Pfeiffer attempted to restart it in 1983 in the wake of a wave of protests against the Augusto Pinochet regime.[138]
Nicolás Palacios considered the "Chilean race" to be a mix of two bellicose master races: the Visigoths of Spain and the Mapuche (Araucanians) of Chile.[139] Palacios traces the origins of the Spanish component of the "Chilean race" to the coast of the Baltic Sea, specifically to Götaland in Sweden,[139] one of the supposed homelands of the Goths. Palacios claimed that both the blonde-haired and the bronze-coloured Chilean Mestizo share a "moral physonomy" and a masculine psychology.[140] He opposed immigration from Southern Europe, and argued that Mestizos who are derived from south Europeans lack "cerebral control" and are a social burden.[141]
Costa Rica[edit]
Several neo-Nazi groups exist in Costa Rica, and the first to be in the spotlight was the Costa Rican National Socialist Party, which is now disbanded.[142] Others include Costa Rican National Socialist Youth, Costa Rican National Socialist Alliance, New Social Order, Costa Rican National Socialist Resistance (which is Costa Rica's member of the World Union of National Socialists)[143] and the Hiperborean Spear Society. The groups normally target Jewish-Costa Ricans, Afro-Costa Ricans, Communists, homosexuals and especially Nicaraguan and Colombian immigrants. The media has discovered the existence of an underground neo-Nazi group inside the police.[144]
United States[edit]



 The NSM rally on the West lawn of the US Capitol, Washington DC, 2008
There are several neo-Nazi groups in the United States. The National Socialist Movement (NSM), with about 400 members in 32 states,[145] is currently the largest neo-Nazi organization in the United States.[146] After World War II, new organizations formed with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles. The National States' Rights Party, founded in 1958 by Edward Reed Fields and J. B. Stoner countered racial integration in the Southern United States with Nazi-inspired publications and iconography. The American Nazi Party, founded by George Lincoln Rockwell in 1959, achieved high-profile coverage in the press through its public demonstrations.[147]
The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, which allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, and anti-Semitic views. A First Amendment landmark case was National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie, in which neo-Nazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neo-Nazis to stage a series of demonstrations in Chicago.
The Institute for Historical Review, formed in 1978, is a Holocaust denial body associated with neo-Nazism.
Organizations which report upon American neo-Nazi activities include the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. While a small minority of American neo-Nazis draw public attention, most operate underground, so they can recruit, organize and raise funds without interference or harassment. American neo-Nazis are known to attack, torment, and harass Jews, African Americans, Slavic Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, Asian Americans, Arab Americans, American Gypsies, homosexuals, "race traitors" and people with different political or religious opinions.[148] American neo-Nazi groups often operate websites, occasionally stage public demonstrations, and maintain ties to groups in Europe and elsewhere.[149]
See also[edit]
##Alex Linder
##American History X
##Aryan race
##The Believer
##Craig Cobb
##Documentation Centre of Austrian Resistance
##Esoteric Nazism
##Far-right politics
##Fascism
##Fourth Reich
##Holocaust denial
##List of neo-Nazi bands
##List of neo-Nazi organizations
##List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
##List of white nationalist organizations
##National Socialist black metal
##Nazi chic
##Nazi punk
##Nazism
##Neo-fascism
##Neo-Stalinism
##Rock Against Communism
##Romper Stomper
##Stormfront (website)
##Tom Metzger
##White nationalism
##White power skinhead
Notes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Lee McGowan (2002). The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present. Pearson Education. pp. 9, 178. ISBN 0-582-29193-3. OCLC 49785551.
2.Jump up ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda; Wolfgang Neugebauer. "Right-Wing Extremism in Austria: History, Organisations, Ideology". "Right-wing extremism can be equated neither with Nazism nor with neo-Fascism or neo-Nazism. Neo-Nazism, a legal term, is understood as the attempt to propagate, in direct defiance of the law (Verbotsgesetz), Nazi ideology or measures such as the denial, playing-down, approval or justification of Nazi mass murder, especially the Holocaust."
3.Jump up ^ Martin Frost. "Neo Nazism". "The term neo-Nazism refers to any social or political movement seeking to revive National Socialism, and which postdates the Second World War. Often, especially internationally, those who are part of such movements do not use the term to describe themselves."
4.Jump up ^ Lee, Martin A. 1997. The Beast Reawakens. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, pp. 85–118, 214–234, 277–281, 287–330, 333–378. On Volk concept," and a discussion of ethnonationalist integralism, see pp. 215–218
5.Jump up ^ Peter Vogelsang & Brian B. M. Larsen (2002). "Neo-Nazism". The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism is the name for a modern offshoot of Nazism. It is a radically right-wing ideology, whose main characteristics are extreme nationalism and violent xenophobia. Neo-Nazism is, as the word suggests, a modern version of Nazism. In general, it is an incoherent right-extremist ideology, which is characterised by ‘borrowing’ many of the elements that constituted traditional Nazism."
6.Jump up ^ Ondřej Cakl & Klára Kalibová (2002). "Neo-Nazism". Faculty of Humanities at Charles University in Prague, Department of Civil Society Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism: An ideology which draws upon the legacy of the Nazi Third Reich, the main pillars of which are an admiration for Adolf Hitler, aggressive nationalism ("nothing but the nation"), and hatred of Jews, foreigners, ethnic minorities, homosexuals and everyone who is different in some way."
7.Jump up ^ Werner Bergmann; Rainer Erb (1997). Anti-Semitism in Germany: The Post-Nazi Epoch Since 1945. Transaction Publishers. p. 91. ISBN 1-56000-270-0. OCLC 35318351. "In contrast to today, in which rigid authoritarianism and neo-Nazism are characteristic of marginal groups, open or latent leanings toward Nazi ideology in the 1940s and 1950s"
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111.Jump up ^ "Azov fighters are Ukraine's greatest weapon and may be its greatest threat". The Guardian. 10 September 2014.
112.Jump up ^ "German TV Shows Nazi Symbols on Helmets of Ukraine Soldiers". NBC News.
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120.Jump up ^ (Portuguese) To the shadow of the swastika: intolerance still ignites groups of young radicals who despise history, deny their own miscegenated race and threaten minorities
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123.Jump up ^ "Brazil: Lethal infighting among neo-Nazis leads to Police raids, exposing megalomaniacal plans for "Neuland"". Fighthatred.com. 2010-03-22. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
124.^ Jump up to: a b "neo-Nazis arrested over gay pride bombing in São Paulo". Abc.net.au. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
125.^ Jump up to: a b The Skinhead International: Brazil
126.Jump up ^ Brazil sets anti-neo-Nazi commission
127.Jump up ^ "Grêmio neo-Nazi fans arrested for attempted murder after football match". Bigsoccer.com. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
128.Jump up ^ (Portuguese) Neo-Nazis in São Paulo: Blacks and Northeasterners, we will kill you!
129.Jump up ^ "Homophobia is not just a neo-Nazi problem in Latin America". Americasouthandnorth.wordpress.com. 2012-04-03. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
130.Jump up ^ Kristian Jebsen (2012-04-08). "Brazil's surge in violence against gays is just getting worse". Thedailybeast.com. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
131.Jump up ^ (Portuguese) Brazil: homophobia, religion and politics
132.Jump up ^ (Portuguese) Shame of São Paulo is killing me
133.Jump up ^ (Portuguese) Understanding the Brazilian chamber's draft law 122/2006 - NO to homophobia
134.Jump up ^ "The Nizkor Project." 1999 (accessed March 10, 2011)
135.Jump up ^ Berlet, Chip and Stanislav Vysotsky. "Overview of U.S. White Supremacist Groups." Journal of Political and Military Sociology 34, no. 1 (2006): 11-48.
136.^ Jump up to: a b c Burstow, Bonnie. "Surviving and thriving by becoming more ‘groupuscular’: the case of the Heritage Front." Patterns of Prejudice 37, no. 4 (2003): 415-428.
137.Jump up ^ Hamm, Mark S. American Skinheads: The Criminology and Control of Hate Crime. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1993.
138.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Etchepare, Jaime Antonio; Stewart; Hamish I., Nazism in Chile: A Particular Type of Fascism in South America. Journal of Contemporary History (1995).
139.^ Jump up to: a b Palacios, Nicolás, Raza Chilena (Editorial Chilena, 1918), pp. 35—36.
140.Jump up ^ Palacios, Nicolás, Raza Chilena (Editorial Chilena, 1918), p. 37.
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142.Jump up ^ "nacion.com / Nacionales". Wvw.nacion.com. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
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144.Jump up ^ "Fuerza Pública investiga fotos de policía en Facebook - SUCESOS - La Nación". Nacion.com. 2012-04-16. Archived from the original on 2012-07-02. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
145.Jump up ^ "Neo-Nazi Father Is Killed; Son, 10, Steeped in Beliefs, Is Accused". The New York Times. May 10, 2011.
146.Jump up ^ "The National Socialist Movement". The Anti-Defamation League.
147.Jump up ^ Kaplan, Jeffrey, Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right (Rowman Altamira, 2000), pp. 1–3.
148.Jump up ^ "American Swastika: Inside the White Power Movement's Hidden Spaces of Hate" By Pete Simi, Robert Futrell
149.Jump up ^ Michael, George, The Enemy of My Enemy: The Alarming Convergence of Militant Islam and the Extreme Right (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006)
Bibliography[edit]
Primary sources[edit]
##Imperium by Francis Parker Yockey (using the pen name Ulick Varange, 1947, ISBN 0-911038-10-8)
##The Lightning and the Sun by Savitri Devi, (1958 (written 1948–56); ISBN 0-937944-14-9)
##White Power by George Lincoln Rockwell (1967; John McLaughlin, 1996, ISBN 0-9656492-8-8)
##This Time The World by George Lincoln Rockwell (1961; Liberty Bell Publications, 2004, ISBN 1-59364-014-5)
##National Socialism: Vanguard of the Future, Selected Writings of Colin Jordan (ISBN 87-87063-40-9)
##Merrie England– 2000 by Colin Jordan
##The Turner Diaries by William Pierce (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (1978, ISBN 1-56980-086-3) .
##Siege: The Collected Writings of James Mason edited and introduced by Michael M. Jenkins (Storm Books, 1992) or introduced by Ryan Schuster (Black Sun Publications, ISBN 0-9724408-0-1)
##Hunter by William Pierce (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1984, ISBN 0-937944-09-2)
##Faith of the Future by Matt Koehl (New Order; Rev edition, 1995, ISBN 0-9648533-0-2)
##Serpent's Walk by Randolph D. Calverhall (pseudonym), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1991, ISBN 0-937944-05-X)
##The Nexus periodical edited by Kerry Bolton
##Deceived, Damned & Defiant– The Revolutionary Writings of David Lane by David Lane, foreword by Ron McVan, preface by Katja Lane (Fourteen Word Press, 1999, ISBN 0-9678123-2-1)
##Resistance Magazine published by National Vanguard Books
Academic surveys[edit]
##The Beast Reawakens by Martin A. Lee, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997, ISBN 0-316-51959-6)
##Fascism (Oxford Readers) by Roger Griffin (1995, ISBN 0-19-289249-5)
##Beyond Eagle and Swastika: German nationalism since 1945 by Kurt P. Tauber (Wesleyan University Press; [1st ed.] edition, 1967)
##Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890 edited by Philip Rees, (1991, ISBN 0-13-089301-3)
##Hitler's Priestess: Savitri Devi, the Hindu-Aryan Myth, and Neo-Nazism by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (1998, ISBN 0-8147-3111-2 and ISBN 0-8147-3110-4)
##Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International by Kevin Coogan, (Autonomedia, Brooklyn, NY 1998, ISBN 1-57027-039-2)
##Hate: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by William H. Schmaltz (Potomac Books, 2000, ISBN 1-57488-262-7)
##American Fuehrer: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by Frederick J. Simonelli (University of Illinois Press, 1999, ISBN 0-252-02285-8)
##Fascism in Britain: A History, 1918–1985 by Richard C. Thurlow (Olympic Marketing Corp, 1987, ISBN 0-631-13618-5)
##Fascism Today: A World Survey by Angelo Del Boca and Mario Giovana (Pantheon Books, 1st American edition, 1969)
##Swastika and the Eagle: Neo-Naziism in America Today by Clifford L Linedecker (A & W Pub, 1982, ISBN 0-89479-100-1)
##The Silent Brotherhood: Inside America's Racist Underground by Kevin Flynn and Gary Gerhardt (Signet Book; Reprint edition, 1995, ISBN 0-451-16786-4)
##"White Power, White Pride!": The White Separatist Movement in the United States by Betty A. Dobratz with Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile (hardcover, Twayne Publishers, 1997, ISBN 0-8057-3865-7); a.k.a. The White Separatist Movement in the United States: White Power White Pride (paperback, Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9)
##Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right by Jeffrey Kaplan (Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, 2000, ISBN 0-7425-0340-2)
##Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads, and the Rise of a New White Culture by James Ridgeway (Thunder's Mouth Press; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 1-56025-100-X)
##A Hundred Little Hitlers: The Death of a Black Man, the Trial of a White Racist, and the Rise of the Neo-Nazi Movement in America by Elinor Langer (Metropolitan Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8050-5098-1)
##The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen by Raphael S. Ezekiel (Penguin (Non-Classics); Reprint edition, 1996, ISBN 0-14-023449-7)
##Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (2001, ISBN 0-8147-3155-4)
##Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe by Paul Hockenos (Routledge; Reprint edition, 1994, ISBN 0-415-91058-7)
##The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today by Geoff Harris, (Edinburgh University Press; New edition, 1994, ISBN 0-7486-0466-9)
##The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe by Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (Longman Publishing Group; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 0-582-23881-1)
##The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis by Herbert Kitschelt (University of Michigan Press; Reprint edition, 1997, ISBN 0-472-08441-0)
##Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe edited by Martin Schain, Aristide Zolberg, and Patrick Hossay (Palgrave Macmillan; 1st edition, 2002, ISBN 0-312-29593-6)
##The Fame of a Dead Man's Deeds: An Up-Close Portrait of White Nationalist William Pierce by Robert S. Griffin (Authorhouse, 2001, ISBN 0-7596-0933-0)
##Nation and Race: The Developing Euro-American Racist Subculture by Jeffrey Kaplan, Tore Bjorgo (Northeastern University Press, 1998, ISBN 1-55553-331-0)
##Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism by Mattias Gardell (Duke University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8223-3071-7)
##The Nazi conception of law (Oxford pamphlets on world affairs) by J. Walter Jones, Clarendon (1939)
##Hearst, Ernest, Chip Berlet, and Jack Porter. "Neo-Nazism." Encyclopaedia Judaica. Eds. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 15. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. 74–82. 22 vols. Thomson Gale.
##Goodrick-Clark, Nicholas (2002). Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-3155-4. OCLC 47665567.
##Blee, Kathleen (2002). Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement. Berkeley, California; London: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24055-3. OCLC 52566455.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neo-Nazism.
##Mainstreaming Neo-Nazism
##Rjabchikov, S.V., 2014. The Nazi Orders in the So-called "Donetsk People's Republic". The paper was read on the scientific session of the Sergei Rjabchikov Foundation – Research Centre for Studies of Ancient Civilisations and Cultures, September 29, 2014, Krasnodar, Russia
##Antisemitism And Racism in the Baltic Republics
##The history of modern fascism
##The Hate Directory a collection of monitored neo-Nazi web sites
##The Neo-Nazi Movement, Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC)


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Neo-Nazism

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Neo-Nazism consists of post-World War II social or political movements seeking to revive the far-right-wing tenets of Nazism.[1][2][3][4] The term neo-Nazism can also refer to the ideology of these movements.[5][6]
Neo-Nazism borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including ultranationalism, racism, ableism, xenophobia, homophobia, antisemitism, and initiating the Fourth Reich. Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is incorporation of Nazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler.
Neo-Nazi activity is a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries, as well as international networks. In some European and Latin American countries, laws have been enacted that prohibit the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, anti-Semitic or homophobic views. Many Nazi-related symbols are banned in European countries in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism.[7][8][9]


Contents  [hide]
1 Europe 1.1 Austria
1.2 Belgium
1.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina
1.4 Croatia
1.5 Czech Republic
1.6 Estonia
1.7 France
1.8 Germany
1.9 Greece
1.10 Hungary
1.11 Netherlands
1.12 Poland
1.13 Russia
1.14 Serbia
1.15 Sweden
1.16 Switzerland
1.17 Turkey
1.18 Ukraine
1.19 United Kingdom
2 Asia 2.1 Israel
2.2 Mongolia
2.3 Myanmar
2.4 Taiwan
3 The Americas 3.1 Brazil
3.2 Canada
3.3 Chile
3.4 Costa Rica
3.5 United States
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Bibliography 6.1 Primary sources
6.2 Academic surveys
7 External links

Europe[edit]



 Neo-Nazi march in Leipzig, Germany on October 17, 2009
Austria[edit]
The major postwar far-right party was the Austrian National Democratic Party (NDP), until it was banned in 1988 for violating Austria's anti-Nazi legislation, Verbotsgesetz 1947.[10] The Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception. In 1980, scandals undermined Austria's two main parties, and the economy stagnated. Jörg Haider became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for Nazism, calling its employment policy effective. In the 1994 Austrian election, the FPÖ won 22 percent of the vote, as well as 33 percent of the vote in Carinthia and 22 percent in Vienna; showing that it had become a force capable of reversing the old pattern of Austrian politics.[11]
Historian Walter Laqueur writes that even though Haider welcomed former Nazis at his meetings and went out of his way to address Schutzstaffel (SS) veterans, the FPÖ is not a fascist party in the traditional sense, since it has not made anti-communism an important issue, and does not advocate the overthrow of the democratic order or the use of violence. In his view, the FPÖ is "not quite fascist", although it is part of a tradition, similar to that of 19th-century Viennese mayor Karl Lueger, that involves nationalism, xenophobic populism, and authoritarianism.[12] Professor Ali Mazrui, however, identified the FPÖ as neo-Nazi in a BBC world lecture.[13]
Haider, who in 2005 left the Freedom Party and formed the Alliance for Austria's Future, was killed in a traffic accident in October, 2008.[14]
Barbara Rosenkranz, the Freedom Party's candidate for the Austrian presidential election, 2010, is controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements.[15] Rosenkranz is married to Horst Rosenkranz, a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, and known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she cannot detect anything "dishonourable" in her husband's activities.[16]
The volume Rechtsextremismus in Österreich seit 1945 (Right-wing Extremism in Austria since 1945), issued by DÖW in 1979, listed nearly 50 active far right organizations in Austria. Their influence waned gradually, partly due to liberalization programs in secondary schools and universities that emphasized Austrian identity and democratic traditions. Votes for the RFS (Ring Freiheitlicher Studenten), the Freedom Party's academic student organization, in student elections fell from 30% in the 1960s to 2% in 1987. In the 1995 elections for the student representative body Österreichische Hochschülerschaft (Austrian Students' Association), the RFS got 4% of the vote. The FPÖ won 22% of the votes at the General Election in the same year.[17]
A radical non-parliamentary, anti-democratic far-right organization active in Austria was the VAPO (Volkstreue Außerparlamentarische Opposition) founded by the Austrian neo-Nazi Gottfried Küssel in 1986, who publicly declared to be a member of the US-American neo-Nazi organization NSDAP/AO since 1977. Neither an association nor a party, the VAPO was loosely organized in "Kameradschaften" (comradeships) and defined itself as a "battle alliance of nationalist groups and persons" with the aims of "reestablishing the NSDAP" and the "seizure of power".[18] In 1993 Küssel was repeatedly convicted on charges of "NS-Wiederbetätigung" (re-engagement in national socialism) under the Austrian anti-Nazi law (Verbotsgesetz 1947) and sentenced to ten years of prison.[19] The VAPO de facto disbanded in the course of the imprisonment of its leading figures, much due to its loose organizational structure. Due to procedural errors Küssel's sentence was revoked by the OGH (Austrian Supreme Court) and the trial reheld in 1994 where Küssel was sentenced to eleven years in prison.[20]
Belgium[edit]
Main article: Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw



 Anti-Nazi logo in Belgium
A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Blood, Soil, Honour and Loyalty), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (Blood and Honour). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, antisemitism and supporters of censorship. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael, the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" Belgium.[21][22] According to journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances network, the ultras of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through Westland New Post and the Front de la Jeunesse.[23]
A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in Leopoldsburg near the Dutch border: Kleine-Brogel, Peer, Brussels (Royal military school) and Zedelgem– as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders. They found weapons, munitions, explosives, and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode." The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons, and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far-right movement De Nationale Alliantie.[24][25][26][27][28][29]
Bosnia and Herzegovina[edit]
The neo-Nazi white nationalist organization Bosanski Pokret Nacionalnog Ponosa (Bosnian Movement of National Pride) was founded in Bosnia and Herzegovina in July 2009. Their model is the Waffen-SS Handschar Division, composed of Bosnian Muslim volunteers.[30] They proclaimed their main enemies to be "Jews, Gypsies, Serbian Chetniks, the Croatian separatists, Josip Broz Tito, Communists, homosexuals and blacks".[31][32] They mix an ideology of Bosnian nationalism, National Socialism and white nationalism. The group is led by a person nicknamed Sauberzwig, after the commander of the 13 SS Handschar. The group's strongest area of operations is in the Tuzla area of Bosnia.
Croatia[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in Croatia
Neo-Nazis in Croatia base their ideology on the writings of Ante Pavelić and the Ustaše, a fascist anti-Yugoslav separatist movement.[33] The Ustaše regime committed a genocide against Serbs, Jews and Gypsies. At the end of World War II, many Ustaše members fled to the West, where they found sanctuary and continued their political and terrorist activities (which were tolerated because of Cold War hostilities).[34][35] Jonathan Levy, a lawyer who represented plaintiffs in a 1999 lawsuit against the Ustaše and others, said: "Many are still terrified of the Ustashe, the Serbs particularly. Unlike the Nazi Party, the Ustashe still exist and have a party headquarters in Zagreb."[36]
In 1999, Zagreb's Square of the Victims of Fascism was renamed The Square of The Great Men of Croatia, provoking widespread criticism of Croatia's attitude toward the Holocaust.[37] In 2000, the city council renamed the square the Square of the Victims of Fascism.[38] Many streets in Croatia were renamed after the prominent Ustaše figure Mile Budak, which provoked outrage amongst the Serbian minority. Since 2002, there has been a reversal of this development, and streets with the name of Mile Budak or other persons connected with the Ustaše movement are few or non-existent.[39] A plaque in Slunj with the inscription "Croatian Knight Jure Francetić" was erected to commemorate Francetić, the notorious Ustaše leader of the Black Legion. The plaque remained there for four years, until it was removed by the authorities.[39][40]
In 2003, an attempt was made to amend the Croatian penal code by adding articles prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, historical revisionism and holocaust denial, but this attempt was prevented by the Croatian constitutional court.[41] An amendment was added in 2006 to prohibit any type of hate crime based on factors such as race, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion or national origin.[42]
There have been instances of hate speech in Croatia, such as the use of the phrase Srbe na vrbe! ("(hang) Serbs on the willow trees!"). In 2004, an Orthodox church was spray-painted with pro-Ustaše graffiti.[43][44] During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other suspected war criminals have carried nationalist symbols and pictures of Pavelić.[45] On May 17, 2007, a concert in Zagreb by Thompson, a popular Croatian singer, was attended by 60,000 people, some of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes and shouted the Ustaše slogan "Za dom spremni" (for the homeland – ready!). This event prompted the Jerusalem office of the Simon Wiesenthal Center to publicly issue a protest to the Croatian president.[46][47][48][49][50] In 2007, Austrian authorities launched a criminal investigation into the widespread display of Ustaše symbols at a gathering of Croatian nationalists in Bleiburg, Austria.[51][52]
Czech Republic[edit]
Czech Republic strictly punishes Neo-Nazism (Czech: Neonacismus) although there are still small groups of Neo-Nazist from Germany. According to the report from Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic Neo-Nazist committed more than 211 crimes in 2013. Czech Republic has more than 150 members of various groups. One of them is group Wotan Jugend based in Germany.
Estonia[edit]
In 2006, Roman Ilin, a Jewish theatre director from St. Petersburg, Russia, was attacked by neo-Nazis when returning from an underground tunnel after a rehearsal. Ilin subsequently accused Estonian police of indifference after filing the incident.[53] When a dark-skinned French student was attacked in Tartu, the head of an association of foreign students claimed that the attack was characteristic of a wave of neo-Nazi violence. An Estonian police official, however, stated that there were only a few cases involving foreign students over the previous two years.[54] In November 2006, the Estonian government passed a law banning the display of Nazi symbols.[55]
The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur's Report noted that community representatives and non-governmental organizations devoted to human rights had pointed out that neo-Nazi groups were active in Estonia—particularly in Tartu—and had perpetrated acts of violence against non-European minorities.[56]
France[edit]
Main article: History of far-right movements in France
Neo-Nazi organizations in France are outlawed, yet a significant number exist.[57] Legal far-right groups are also numerous, and include the Bloc identitaire, created by former members of Christian Bouchet's Unité Radicale group. Close to National Bolshevism and Third Position ideologies, Unité Radicale was dissolved in 2002 following Maxime Brunerie's assassination attempt on July 14, 2002 against then-President Jacques Chirac. Christian Bouchet had previously been a member of Nouvelle Résistance (NR), an offshoot of Troisième Voie (Third Way) which described itself as "nationalist revolutionary". Although Nouvelle Résistance at first opposed the "national conservatives" of Jean-Marie Le Pen's National Front, it changed strategy, adopting the slogan "Less Leftism! More Fascism![58] " Nouvelle Résistance was also a successor to Jean-François Thiriart's Jeune Europe neo-Nazi Europeanist movement of the 1960s, which had participated in the National Party of Europe, along with Oswald Mosley's Union Movement, Otto Strasser and others. The French government estimated that neo-Nazi groups in France had 3,500 members.[59] In 2011 alone, 129 violent actions were recorded in France against the Jewish pupulation, with 60.5% of those cases occurring in the Île-de-France region. The CNCDH notes that in 19 cases, these violent actions could be imputed to persons of ‘Arab origin or Muslim confession’, with 15 others relating to neo-Nazi ideology, mainly consisting of displaying swastikas. In relation to these violent actions 36 persons were arrested, 28 of whom were minors. Of the 129 violent actions recorded, 50.4% were for degradations, 44.2% for violence and assault and battery, and the remaining 5.4% for arson. In France in 2011, 260 threats were recorded, with 53% of those (138 cases) occurring in the Île-de-France region. Of these threats, 15% related to neo-Nazi ideology, with another 14% imputable to persons of ‘Arab origin or Muslim confession’. Thirty-two persons were arrested in relation to these threats, nine of whom were minors. Of the 260 threats, 44% consisted of speech acts and threatening gestures and insults, 38% of graffiti and the remaining 18% of pamphlets and emails.[60]
Germany[edit]
Main article: Far right in Germany
See also: Category:Neo-Nazism in Germany.



 Anti-Nazi demonstration in Dresden, Germany, February 13, 2012
In Germany, immediately after World War II, Allied forces and the new German government attempted to prevent the creation of the new Nazi movement through a process known as denazification. However, with the onset of the Cold War it had lost interest in prosecuting anyone.[61] Many of the more than 90,000 Nazi war criminals recorded in German files were serving in positions of prominence under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.[62][63] Not until 1964 and 1965 were the former SS members from Treblinka brought to trial by West Germany.[64] The government had passed laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs. Displaying the swastika became an offense punishable by up to one year imprisonment. Nevertheless, some former National Socialists retained their political beliefs and passed them down to new generations who formed the extreme-right National Democratic Party.[65]
After German reunification in the 1990s, post-National Socialist groups gained more followers, mostly among the younger generation in the former East Germany.[65] They have expressed an aversion to people from Slavic countries (especially Poland) and people of other national backgrounds who moved from the former West Germany into the former East Germany after Germany was reunited.[66] According to the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (Verfassungsschutz) for 2012, at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6,000 neo-Nazis.[67] The Neo-Nazi organizations are not outlawed in Germany,[65] although Holocaust denial is, according to the German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch § 86a) and § 130 (public incitement).
Greece[edit]
The far right political party Golden Dawn (Chrysi Avyi) is generally labelled neo-Nazi, although the group rejects this label. A few Golden Dawn members participated in the Bosnian War in the Greek Volunteer Guard (GVG) and were present in Srebrenica during the Srebrenica massacre.[68][69] Another Greek neo-Nazi group is the Strasserist "Mavros Krinos" (Μαύρος Κρίνος – Black Lily).
In the elections of 6 May 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.97% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament for the first time with 21 representatives. Due to no coalition amongst the elected parties so as to form a Greek Government, new elections were proclaimed.
In the elections of 17 June 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.92% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament with 18 representatives.
Hungary[edit]
Further information: History of the Jews in Hungary
Today, Neo-Nazism in Hungary takes the form of hatred towards Judaism and Israel, it can be observed from many prominent Hungarian politicians. The most famous example is the MIÉP-Jobbik Third Way Alliance of Parties. Antisemitism in Hungary is manifested mainly in far right publications and demonstrations. Hungarian Justice and Life Party supporters continued their tradition of shouting antisemitic slogans and tearing the US flag to shreds at their annual rallies in Budapest in March 2003 and 2004, commemorating the 1848–49 revolution. Further, during the demonstrations held to celebrate the anniversary of the 1956 uprising, a post-Communist tradition celebrated by the left and right of the political spectrum, antisemitic and anti-Israel slogans were heard from the right wing. The center-right traditionally keeps its distance from the right-wing Csurka-led and other far-right demonstrations.[70]
Netherlands[edit]
The Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism reports that on 17 May 2011 in Leek, Groningen, antisemitic graffiti was found at a Jewish school. The graffiti consisted of a swastika and the text "C18", or Combat 18, a neo-Nazi organisation active throughout Europe. The number 18 refers to the initials of Adolf Hitler, A and H being the first and eighth letters of the alphabet, respectively.[71]
Poland[edit]
Although several small far-right and anti-semitic organisations exist, most notably NOP and ONR, they frequently adhere to Polish nationalism and National Democracy, in which nazism is generally considered to be against ultra-nationalist principles, and therefore although classed as white nationalist and fascist movements, they are at the same time considered anti-nazi. Some elements may resemble neo-nazi features, but the groups frequently dissociate themselves from Nazi elements, claiming such acts as unpatriotic and arguing that Nazism misappropriated or slightly altered several pre-existing symbols and features, such as distinguishing the Roman salute from the Nazi salute.[72]
Russia[edit]
Main articles: Racism in Russia and Radical nationalism in Russia



 Neo-Nazism in Russia: The photograph was taken at an anti-homosexual demonstration in Moscow in October 2010
Many Russian neo-Nazis openly admire Adolf Hitler and use the swastika as their symbol. Russian neo-Nazis are characterized by racism, antisemitism, homophobia, Islamophobia and extreme xenophobia towards people from Asia.[73] Their ideology centers on defending Russian national identity against what they perceive as a takeover by minority groups such as Jews, Caucasians, homosexuals, Central Asians, East Asians, Roma people, and Muslims.
Russian neo-Nazis have made it an explicit goal to take over the country by force, and have put serious effort into preparing for this. Paramilitary organizations operating under the guise of sports clubs have trained their members in squad tactics, hand to hand combat and weapons handling. They have stockpiled and used weapons, often illegally.
Some observers have noted a subjective irony of Russians embracing Nazism, because one of Hitler's ambitions at the start of World War II was the Generalplan Ost (Master Plan East) which allegedly envisaged to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs from central and eastern Europe (i.e., Russians, Ukrainians, Poles etc.).[74] Russian neo-Nazis deny the authenticity of this plan.[74] At the end of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, over 25 million Soviet citizens had died.[75] In a 2007 news story, ABC News reported, "In a country that lost more people defeating the Nazis than any other country, there are now an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 neo-Nazis, half of the world's total."[76]
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused great economic and social problems, including widespread unemployment and poverty. Several far right paramilitary organizations were able to tap into popular discontent, particularly among marginalized, lesser educated and unemployed youths. Of the three major age groups — youths, adults, and the elderly — youths may have been hit the hardest. The elderly suffered due to inadequate (or unpaid) pensions, but they found effective political representation in the Communist Party, and generally had their concerns addressed through better budget allocations. Adults, although often suffering financially and psychologically due to job losses, were generally able to find new sources of income.
Russian National Unity (RNE), founded in 1990 and led by Alexander Barkashov, has claimed to have members in 250 cities. RNE adopted the swastika as its symbol, and sees itself as the avant-garde of a coming national revolution. It is critical of other major far right organizations, such as the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR). Historian Walter Laqueur calls RNE far closer to the Nazi model than the LDPR. RNE publishes several news sheets; one of them, Russky poryadok, claims to have a circulation of 150,000. Full members of RNE are called Soratnik (comrades in arms), receive combat training at locations near Moscow, and many of them work as security officers or armed guards.[77]
On August 15, 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black swastika flag.[78] Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine ... There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally."[79] A Russian neo-Nazi group called the Russian National Socialist Party claimed responsibility for the murders.
Serbia[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in Serbia
Neo-Nazism in Serbia is mostly based on national and religious factors. Nacionalni stroj (National Alignment), a neo-Nazi organization[80][81] from the Vojvodina region, orchestrated several incidents. Charges were laid against 18 of the leading members.[82]
Sweden[edit]
Neo-Nazi activities in Sweden have previously been limited to white supremacist groups, none of which has more than a few hundred members.[83] The main neo-Nazi organizations as of 2014 are the Party of the Swedes and the Swedish Resistance Movement.
Switzerland[edit]
See also: Far right in Switzerland
The neo-Nazi and white power skinhead scene in Switzerland has seen significant growth in the 1990s and 2000s.[citation needed] It is reflected in the foundation of the Partei National Orientierter Schweizer in 2000, which resulted in an improved organizational structure of the neo-Nazi and white supremacist scene.
Turkey[edit]
See also: Turkish nationalism
Apart from neo-fascist[84][85][86][87][88][89][90] Grey Wolves and the Turkish ultranationalist[91][92][93][94][95][96] Nationalist Movement Party there are some Neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey like the Turkish Nazi Party[97] or the National Socialist Party of Turkey,[98] mainly based on the internet.[99][100][101]
Ukraine[edit]



 Fans of the FC Karpaty Lviv football club honoring the Waffen-SS Galizien division, in Lviv, Ukraine, 2013
In 1991 Svoboda (political party) was founded as the 'Social-National Party of Ukraine'.[102] The party combined radical nationalism and neo-Nazi features.[103] It was renamed and rebranded 13 years later as 'All-Ukrainian Association Svoboda' in 2004 under Oleh Tyahnybok. By 2005 an important step toward heroization of Ukrainian nationalism was Victor Yushchenko's appointment of Svoboda member Volodymyr Viatrovych as head of the Ukrainian security service (SBU) archives. This allowed Viatrovych not only to sanitize ultra nationalist history, but also officially promote its dissemination along with OUN(b) ideology based on 'ethnic purity' coupled with anti-Russian, anti-Polish and anti-semitic rhetoric; denial of UPA war crimes, and the paradoxical glorification of Nazi history with concomitant denial of wartime collaboration wrote Professor Per Anders Rudling.[104]:229–230 The extreme right wing now capitalize on 'Yushchenkoist' propaganda initiatives.[104]:235 This includes Iuryi Mykahl’chyshyn, an ideologue who proudly confesses himself part of the fascist tradition.[104] The autonomous nationalists focus on recruiting younger people, participates in violent actions, quoting "anti-bourgeoism, anti-capitalism, anti-globalism, anti-democratism, anti-liberalism, anti-bureaucratism, anti-dogmatism". In 2009 Svoboda fetched 34% of votes in one region of the state. Svoboda is part of a right wing Alliance of European National Movements.[104] Per Anders Rulig has suggested that "Viktor Yanukovych has indirectly aided Svoboda" by "granting Svoboda representatives disproportionate attention in the media".[104]:247
After Yanokovych's ouster in February 2014, the interim Yatsenyuk Government placed 4 Svoboda members in leading positions: Oleksandr Sych as Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine, Ihor Tenyukh as Minister of Defense, lawyer Ihor Shvaika as Minister of Agrarian Policy and Food and Andriy Mokhnyk as Minister of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine.[105] However, the U.S. State Department has stated in a March 5, 2014 fact sheet that "Far-right wing ultranationalist groups, some of which were involved in open clashes with security forces during the EuroMaidan protests, are not represented in the Rada."[106]
Ukraine's National Security and Defence Council chief Andriy Parubiy, one of the founders of Social-National Party of Ukraine,[107] oversees the "anti–terrorist" operation against pro-Russian separatists in eastern Ukraine.[108] Andriy Biletsky, the head of the ultra-nationalist and neo-Nazi political groups Social-National Assembly and Patriots of Ukraine,[109] is commander of the Azov Battalion,[110] a pro-Ukrainian volunteer paramilitary group fighting pro-Russian separatists in Donbas region.[111][112]
United Kingdom[edit]
See also: Far-right politics in the United Kingdom, Racism in the United Kingdom and List of British fascist parties
Asia[edit]
Israel[edit]
Neo-Nazi activity is not common or widespread in Israel, and the few activities reported have all been the work of extremists, who were punished severely. One notable case is that of Patrol 36, a cell in Petah Tikva made up of eight teenage immigrants from the former Soviet Union who had been attacking foreign workers and homosexuals, and vandalizing synagogues with Nazi images.[113][114] These neo-Nazis were reported to have operated in cities across Israel, and have been described as being influenced by the rise of neo-Nazism in Europe;[113][114][115] mostly influenced by similar movements in Russia and Ukraine, as the rise of the phenomenon is widely credited to immigrants from those two states, the largest sources of emigration to Israel.[116] Widely publicized arrests have led to a call to reform the Law of Return to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship for – and the subsequent deportation of – neo-Nazis.[114]
Mongolia[edit]



 Flag of the Dayar Mongol, a neo-Nazi party in Mongolia
Neo-Nazism is a growing political force in Mongolia. From 2008, Mongolian Neo-Nazi groups have defaced buildings in Ulan Bator, smashed Chinese shopkeepers' windows, and killed pro-Chinese Mongols. The Neo-Nazi Mongols' targets for violence are Chinese, Koreans,[117] Mongol women who sleep with Chinese men, and LGBT people.[118] They wear Nazi uniforms and revere the Mongol Empire and Genghis Khan. During World War II, the invading Nazi Germans also recruited Mongol Kalmyks to fight for them against the Soviet Union. Though Tsagaan Khass leaders say they do not support violence, they are self-proclaimed Nazis. "Adolf Hitler was someone we respect. He taught us how to preserve national identity," said the 41-year-old co-founder, who calls himself Big Brother. "We don't agree with his extremism and starting the Second World War. We are against all those killings, but we support his ideology. We support nationalism rather than fascism." Some have ascribed it to poor historical education.[117]
Myanmar[edit]
The Straits Times writes that the 969 Movement, which it says "is described as Myanmar's 'neo-Nazi group'", is facing scrutiny for "its role in spreading anti-Muslim sentiment".[119]
Taiwan[edit]
Main article: National Socialism Association
The National Socialism Association (NSA) is a neo-Nazi political organisation founded in Taiwan in September 2006 by Hsu Na-chi (Chinese: 許娜琦), at that time a 22-year-old female political science graduate of Soochow University. The NSA has an explicit stated goal of obtaining the power to govern the state. The NSA views Adolf Hitler as its leader and often proclaims "Long live Hitler" (Heil Hitler) as one of its slogans. The Simon Wiesenthal Centre condemned the National Socialism Association on March 13, 2007 for championing the former Nazi dictator and blaming democracy for Taiwan's "social unrest."[6]
The Americas[edit]
Brazil[edit]
Further information: Racism in Brazil
Several Brazilian neo-Nazi gangs appeared in the 1990s in Southern and Southeastern Brazil, regions with mostly white people, with their acts gaining more media coverage and public notoriety in the 2000s.[120][121][122][123][124][125][126] Some members of Brazilian neo-Nazi groups have been associated with football hooliganism.[127]
Their targets have included African, South American and Asian immigrants; Jews; Afro-Brazilians and internal migrants with origins in the northern regions of Brazil (who are mostly brown-skinned or Afro-Brazilian);[125][128] homeless people, prostitutes; recreational drug users; feminists and—more frequently reported in the media—homosexuals, bisexuals, the third-gendered and the transgendered.[124][129][130] News of their attacks has played a role in debates about anti-discrimination laws in Brazil (including to some extent hate speech laws) and the issues of sexual orientation and gender identity.[131][132][133]
Canada[edit]
Neo-Nazism in Canada began with the formation of the Canadian Nazi Party in 1965. In the 1970s and 1980s, neo-Nazism continued to spread in the country as organizations including the Western Guard and Church of the Creator (later renamed as Creativity) promoted white supremacist ideals.[134] Founded in the United States in 1973, Creativity calls for white people to wage racial holy war (Rahowa) against Jews and other perceived enemies.[135]
Don Andrews founded the Nationalist Party of Canada in 1977. The purported goals of the unregsistered party are "the promotion and maintenance of European Heritage and Culture in Canada," but the party is known for anti-Semitism and racism. Many influential neo-Nazi Leaders, such as Wolfgang Droege, were affiliated with the party, but many of its members left to join the Heritage Front, which was founded in 1989.[136]
Droege founded the Heritage Front in in Toronto at a time when leaders of the white supremacist movement were "disgruntled about the state of the radical right" and wanted to unite unorganized groups of white supremacists into an influential and efficient group with common objectives.[136] Plans for the organization began in September 1989, and the formation of the Heritage Front was formally announced a couple of months later in November. In the 1990s, George Burdi of Resistance Records and the band Rahowa popularized the Creativity movement and the white power music scene.[137]
Controversy and dissention has left many Canadian neo-Nazi organizations dissolved or weakened.[136]
Chile[edit]
Main article: Nazism in Chile
After the dissolution of the National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNSCH) in 1938, notable former members of MNSCH migrated into Partido Agrario Laborista (PAL), obtaining high positions.[138] Not all former MNSCH members joined the PAL; some continued to form parties that followed the MNSCH model until 1952.[138] A new old-school Nazi party was formed in 1964 by school teacher Franz Pfeiffer.[138] Among the activities of this group were the organization of a Miss Nazi beauty contest and the formation of a Chilean branch of the Ku Klux Klan.[138] The party disbanded in 1970. Pfeiffer attempted to restart it in 1983 in the wake of a wave of protests against the Augusto Pinochet regime.[138]
Nicolás Palacios considered the "Chilean race" to be a mix of two bellicose master races: the Visigoths of Spain and the Mapuche (Araucanians) of Chile.[139] Palacios traces the origins of the Spanish component of the "Chilean race" to the coast of the Baltic Sea, specifically to Götaland in Sweden,[139] one of the supposed homelands of the Goths. Palacios claimed that both the blonde-haired and the bronze-coloured Chilean Mestizo share a "moral physonomy" and a masculine psychology.[140] He opposed immigration from Southern Europe, and argued that Mestizos who are derived from south Europeans lack "cerebral control" and are a social burden.[141]
Costa Rica[edit]
Several neo-Nazi groups exist in Costa Rica, and the first to be in the spotlight was the Costa Rican National Socialist Party, which is now disbanded.[142] Others include Costa Rican National Socialist Youth, Costa Rican National Socialist Alliance, New Social Order, Costa Rican National Socialist Resistance (which is Costa Rica's member of the World Union of National Socialists)[143] and the Hiperborean Spear Society. The groups normally target Jewish-Costa Ricans, Afro-Costa Ricans, Communists, homosexuals and especially Nicaraguan and Colombian immigrants. The media has discovered the existence of an underground neo-Nazi group inside the police.[144]
United States[edit]



 The NSM rally on the West lawn of the US Capitol, Washington DC, 2008
There are several neo-Nazi groups in the United States. The National Socialist Movement (NSM), with about 400 members in 32 states,[145] is currently the largest neo-Nazi organization in the United States.[146] After World War II, new organizations formed with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles. The National States' Rights Party, founded in 1958 by Edward Reed Fields and J. B. Stoner countered racial integration in the Southern United States with Nazi-inspired publications and iconography. The American Nazi Party, founded by George Lincoln Rockwell in 1959, achieved high-profile coverage in the press through its public demonstrations.[147]
The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, which allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, and anti-Semitic views. A First Amendment landmark case was National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie, in which neo-Nazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neo-Nazis to stage a series of demonstrations in Chicago.
The Institute for Historical Review, formed in 1978, is a Holocaust denial body associated with neo-Nazism.
Organizations which report upon American neo-Nazi activities include the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. While a small minority of American neo-Nazis draw public attention, most operate underground, so they can recruit, organize and raise funds without interference or harassment. American neo-Nazis are known to attack, torment, and harass Jews, African Americans, Slavic Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, Asian Americans, Arab Americans, American Gypsies, homosexuals, "race traitors" and people with different political or religious opinions.[148] American neo-Nazi groups often operate websites, occasionally stage public demonstrations, and maintain ties to groups in Europe and elsewhere.[149]
See also[edit]
##Alex Linder
##American History X
##Aryan race
##The Believer
##Craig Cobb
##Documentation Centre of Austrian Resistance
##Esoteric Nazism
##Far-right politics
##Fascism
##Fourth Reich
##Holocaust denial
##List of neo-Nazi bands
##List of neo-Nazi organizations
##List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
##List of white nationalist organizations
##National Socialist black metal
##Nazi chic
##Nazi punk
##Nazism
##Neo-fascism
##Neo-Stalinism
##Rock Against Communism
##Romper Stomper
##Stormfront (website)
##Tom Metzger
##White nationalism
##White power skinhead
Notes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Lee McGowan (2002). The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present. Pearson Education. pp. 9, 178. ISBN 0-582-29193-3. OCLC 49785551.
2.Jump up ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda; Wolfgang Neugebauer. "Right-Wing Extremism in Austria: History, Organisations, Ideology". "Right-wing extremism can be equated neither with Nazism nor with neo-Fascism or neo-Nazism. Neo-Nazism, a legal term, is understood as the attempt to propagate, in direct defiance of the law (Verbotsgesetz), Nazi ideology or measures such as the denial, playing-down, approval or justification of Nazi mass murder, especially the Holocaust."
3.Jump up ^ Martin Frost. "Neo Nazism". "The term neo-Nazism refers to any social or political movement seeking to revive National Socialism, and which postdates the Second World War. Often, especially internationally, those who are part of such movements do not use the term to describe themselves."
4.Jump up ^ Lee, Martin A. 1997. The Beast Reawakens. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, pp. 85–118, 214–234, 277–281, 287–330, 333–378. On Volk concept," and a discussion of ethnonationalist integralism, see pp. 215–218
5.Jump up ^ Peter Vogelsang & Brian B. M. Larsen (2002). "Neo-Nazism". The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism is the name for a modern offshoot of Nazism. It is a radically right-wing ideology, whose main characteristics are extreme nationalism and violent xenophobia. Neo-Nazism is, as the word suggests, a modern version of Nazism. In general, it is an incoherent right-extremist ideology, which is characterised by ‘borrowing’ many of the elements that constituted traditional Nazism."
6.Jump up ^ Ondřej Cakl & Klára Kalibová (2002). "Neo-Nazism". Faculty of Humanities at Charles University in Prague, Department of Civil Society Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism: An ideology which draws upon the legacy of the Nazi Third Reich, the main pillars of which are an admiration for Adolf Hitler, aggressive nationalism ("nothing but the nation"), and hatred of Jews, foreigners, ethnic minorities, homosexuals and everyone who is different in some way."
7.Jump up ^ Werner Bergmann; Rainer Erb (1997). Anti-Semitism in Germany: The Post-Nazi Epoch Since 1945. Transaction Publishers. p. 91. ISBN 1-56000-270-0. OCLC 35318351. "In contrast to today, in which rigid authoritarianism and neo-Nazism are characteristic of marginal groups, open or latent leanings toward Nazi ideology in the 1940s and 1950s"
8.Jump up ^ Martin Polley (200). A-Z of Modern Europe Since 1789. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 0-415-18597-1. OCLC 49569961. "Neo-Nazism, drawing heavily both on the ideology and aesthetics of the NSDAP, emerged in many parts of Europe and elsewhere in the economic crises of the 1970s, and has continued to influence a number of small political groups."
9.Jump up ^ "Neo-Nazism". ApologeticsIndex. "The term Neo-Nazism refers to any social, political and/or (quasi) religious movement seeking to revive Nazism. Neo-Nazi groups are racist hate groups that pattern themselves after Hitler’s philosophies. Examples include: Aryan Nations, National Alliance"
10.Jump up ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda (1997). "'Revisionism' in Germany and Austria: The Evolution of a Doctrine". In Hermann Kurthen, Werner Bergmann, & Rainer Erb. Antisemitism and Xenophobia in Germany After Unification. Oxford University Press. p. 188. ISBN 0-19-510485-4.
11.Jump up ^ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, pp. 80, 116, 117
12.Jump up ^ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 117-118
13.Jump up ^ "World Lectures | BBC World Service". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
14.Jump up ^ "Austria's Haider dies in accident". BBC News. 2008-10-11. Retrieved 2010-05-20.
15.Jump up ^ "Austria spooked by Nazi past in election". BBC News. 2010-04-23. Retrieved 2010-05-20.
16.Jump up ^ "Reich mother on the march in Hitler's homeland". The Independent (London). 2010-04-24. Retrieved 2010-05-20.
17.Jump up ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda/Wolfgang Neugebauer. (1996). 'Incorrigibly Right – Right-Wing Extremists, "Revisionists" and Anti-Semites in Austrian Politics Today'. Vienna-New York.
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25.Jump up ^ La Belgique démantèle un groupe néonazi préparant des attentats, Le Monde, 7 septembre 2006 (French)
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123.Jump up ^ "Brazil: Lethal infighting among neo-Nazis leads to Police raids, exposing megalomaniacal plans for "Neuland"". Fighthatred.com. 2010-03-22. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
124.^ Jump up to: a b "neo-Nazis arrested over gay pride bombing in São Paulo". Abc.net.au. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
125.^ Jump up to: a b The Skinhead International: Brazil
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129.Jump up ^ "Homophobia is not just a neo-Nazi problem in Latin America". Americasouthandnorth.wordpress.com. 2012-04-03. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
130.Jump up ^ Kristian Jebsen (2012-04-08). "Brazil's surge in violence against gays is just getting worse". Thedailybeast.com. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
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146.Jump up ^ "The National Socialist Movement". The Anti-Defamation League.
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148.Jump up ^ "American Swastika: Inside the White Power Movement's Hidden Spaces of Hate" By Pete Simi, Robert Futrell
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Bibliography[edit]
Primary sources[edit]
##Imperium by Francis Parker Yockey (using the pen name Ulick Varange, 1947, ISBN 0-911038-10-8)
##The Lightning and the Sun by Savitri Devi, (1958 (written 1948–56); ISBN 0-937944-14-9)
##White Power by George Lincoln Rockwell (1967; John McLaughlin, 1996, ISBN 0-9656492-8-8)
##This Time The World by George Lincoln Rockwell (1961; Liberty Bell Publications, 2004, ISBN 1-59364-014-5)
##National Socialism: Vanguard of the Future, Selected Writings of Colin Jordan (ISBN 87-87063-40-9)
##Merrie England– 2000 by Colin Jordan
##The Turner Diaries by William Pierce (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (1978, ISBN 1-56980-086-3) .
##Siege: The Collected Writings of James Mason edited and introduced by Michael M. Jenkins (Storm Books, 1992) or introduced by Ryan Schuster (Black Sun Publications, ISBN 0-9724408-0-1)
##Hunter by William Pierce (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1984, ISBN 0-937944-09-2)
##Faith of the Future by Matt Koehl (New Order; Rev edition, 1995, ISBN 0-9648533-0-2)
##Serpent's Walk by Randolph D. Calverhall (pseudonym), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1991, ISBN 0-937944-05-X)
##The Nexus periodical edited by Kerry Bolton
##Deceived, Damned & Defiant– The Revolutionary Writings of David Lane by David Lane, foreword by Ron McVan, preface by Katja Lane (Fourteen Word Press, 1999, ISBN 0-9678123-2-1)
##Resistance Magazine published by National Vanguard Books
Academic surveys[edit]
##The Beast Reawakens by Martin A. Lee, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997, ISBN 0-316-51959-6)
##Fascism (Oxford Readers) by Roger Griffin (1995, ISBN 0-19-289249-5)
##Beyond Eagle and Swastika: German nationalism since 1945 by Kurt P. Tauber (Wesleyan University Press; [1st ed.] edition, 1967)
##Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890 edited by Philip Rees, (1991, ISBN 0-13-089301-3)
##Hitler's Priestess: Savitri Devi, the Hindu-Aryan Myth, and Neo-Nazism by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (1998, ISBN 0-8147-3111-2 and ISBN 0-8147-3110-4)
##Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International by Kevin Coogan, (Autonomedia, Brooklyn, NY 1998, ISBN 1-57027-039-2)
##Hate: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by William H. Schmaltz (Potomac Books, 2000, ISBN 1-57488-262-7)
##American Fuehrer: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by Frederick J. Simonelli (University of Illinois Press, 1999, ISBN 0-252-02285-8)
##Fascism in Britain: A History, 1918–1985 by Richard C. Thurlow (Olympic Marketing Corp, 1987, ISBN 0-631-13618-5)
##Fascism Today: A World Survey by Angelo Del Boca and Mario Giovana (Pantheon Books, 1st American edition, 1969)
##Swastika and the Eagle: Neo-Naziism in America Today by Clifford L Linedecker (A & W Pub, 1982, ISBN 0-89479-100-1)
##The Silent Brotherhood: Inside America's Racist Underground by Kevin Flynn and Gary Gerhardt (Signet Book; Reprint edition, 1995, ISBN 0-451-16786-4)
##"White Power, White Pride!": The White Separatist Movement in the United States by Betty A. Dobratz with Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile (hardcover, Twayne Publishers, 1997, ISBN 0-8057-3865-7); a.k.a. The White Separatist Movement in the United States: White Power White Pride (paperback, Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9)
##Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right by Jeffrey Kaplan (Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, 2000, ISBN 0-7425-0340-2)
##Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads, and the Rise of a New White Culture by James Ridgeway (Thunder's Mouth Press; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 1-56025-100-X)
##A Hundred Little Hitlers: The Death of a Black Man, the Trial of a White Racist, and the Rise of the Neo-Nazi Movement in America by Elinor Langer (Metropolitan Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8050-5098-1)
##The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen by Raphael S. Ezekiel (Penguin (Non-Classics); Reprint edition, 1996, ISBN 0-14-023449-7)
##Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (2001, ISBN 0-8147-3155-4)
##Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe by Paul Hockenos (Routledge; Reprint edition, 1994, ISBN 0-415-91058-7)
##The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today by Geoff Harris, (Edinburgh University Press; New edition, 1994, ISBN 0-7486-0466-9)
##The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe by Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (Longman Publishing Group; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 0-582-23881-1)
##The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis by Herbert Kitschelt (University of Michigan Press; Reprint edition, 1997, ISBN 0-472-08441-0)
##Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe edited by Martin Schain, Aristide Zolberg, and Patrick Hossay (Palgrave Macmillan; 1st edition, 2002, ISBN 0-312-29593-6)
##The Fame of a Dead Man's Deeds: An Up-Close Portrait of White Nationalist William Pierce by Robert S. Griffin (Authorhouse, 2001, ISBN 0-7596-0933-0)
##Nation and Race: The Developing Euro-American Racist Subculture by Jeffrey Kaplan, Tore Bjorgo (Northeastern University Press, 1998, ISBN 1-55553-331-0)
##Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism by Mattias Gardell (Duke University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8223-3071-7)
##The Nazi conception of law (Oxford pamphlets on world affairs) by J. Walter Jones, Clarendon (1939)
##Hearst, Ernest, Chip Berlet, and Jack Porter. "Neo-Nazism." Encyclopaedia Judaica. Eds. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 15. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. 74–82. 22 vols. Thomson Gale.
##Goodrick-Clark, Nicholas (2002). Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-3155-4. OCLC 47665567.
##Blee, Kathleen (2002). Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement. Berkeley, California; London: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24055-3. OCLC 52566455.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neo-Nazism.
##Mainstreaming Neo-Nazism
##Rjabchikov, S.V., 2014. The Nazi Orders in the So-called "Donetsk People's Republic". The paper was read on the scientific session of the Sergei Rjabchikov Foundation – Research Centre for Studies of Ancient Civilisations and Cultures, September 29, 2014, Krasnodar, Russia
##Antisemitism And Racism in the Baltic Republics
##The history of modern fascism
##The Hate Directory a collection of monitored neo-Nazi web sites
##The Neo-Nazi Movement, Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC)


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Southern Poverty Law Center

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Southern Poverty Law Center
SPLC Logo.jpg
Founded
1971
Founder
Morris Dees
 Joseph R. Levin, Jr.
Type
Public-interest law firm
 Civil rights advocacy organization

Tax ID no.
 63-0598743 (EIN)
Focus
Hate groups
Racism
Civil rights
Location
Montgomery, Alabama, U.S.


Area served
 United States
Product
Legal representation
 Public education

Key people
 J. Richard Cohen, President

Revenue
 $40,418,368 (2012 FY)[1]
Endowment
$281.1 million

Employees
 254[1]

Volunteers
 14
Website
www.splcenter.org
The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) is an American nonprofit legal advocacy organization specializing in civil rights and public interest litigation. It is noted for its legal victories against white supremacist groups, its legal representation for victims of hate groups, its classification of militias and extremist organizations, and its educational programs that promote tolerance.[2][3][4] The SPLC also classifies and lists hate groups—organizations that in its opinion "attack or malign an entire class of people, typically for their immutable characteristics."[5] The SPLC's hate group list has been the source of some controversy.[6][7]
In 1971, Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin Jr. founded the SPLC as a civil rights law firm based in Montgomery, Alabama.[8] Civil rights leader Julian Bond joined Dees and Levin and served as president of the board between 1971 and 1979.[9] The SPLC's litigating strategy involves filing civil suits for damages on behalf of the victims of hate group harassment, threats, and violence with the goal of financially depleting the responsible groups and individuals. While it originally focused on damages done by the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups, throughout the years the SPLC has become involved in other civil rights causes, among them, cases concerned with institutional racial segregation and discrimination, discrimination based on sexual orientation, the mistreatment of aliens, and the separation of church and state. Along with civil rights organizations such as the Anti-Defamation League, the SPLC has provided information about hate groups to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).[10] The SPLC has been criticized by conservative politicians and media, and by organizations that have been listed as hate groups in their reports.[11][12][13][14]
The SPLC does not accept government funds, nor does it charge its clients legal fees or share in their court-awarded judgments. Most of its funds come from direct mail campaigns[15] which have helped it to build substantial monetary reserves. Its fundraising appeals and accumulation of reserves have been the subject of some criticism.[16]


Contents  [hide]
1 History
2 Litigation 2.1 Young Men's Christian Association in Montgomery, Alabama
2.2 Vietnamese fishermen
2.3 White Patriot Party
2.4 United Klans of America
2.5 White Aryan Resistance
2.6 Church of the Creator
2.7 Christian Knights of the KKK
2.8 Aryan Nations
2.9 Ten Commandments monument
2.10 Ranch rescue
2.11 Billy Ray Johnson
2.12 Imperial Klans of America
3 Advocacy 3.1 Opposition to Arizona illegal immigration measure
4 Education 4.1 Tolerance.org
4.2 Documentaries
4.3 Law enforcement training
5 Tracking of hate groups and extremists 5.1 Hate group listings
5.2 Anti-government patriot groups
5.3 Nativist extremist groups
5.4 Intelligence Report
5.5 Year in Hate and Extremism
5.6 Academic assessment
6 Controversy
7 Finances
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
History[edit]



 The SPLC headquarters in Montgomery, Alabama.
The Southern Poverty Law Center was founded by civil rights lawyers Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin Jr. in 1971 as a law firm designed to handle anti-discrimination cases in the United States. SPLC's first president was Julian Bond, who served as president until 1979 and remains on its board of directors. In 1979, the SPLC brought the first of its many cases against the Ku Klux Klan and similar organizations. In 1981, the Center began its Klanwatch project to monitor the activities of the KKK. That project, now called Hatewatch, has been expanded to include seven other types of hate organizations.[17]
In July 1983, the center's office was firebombed, destroying the building and records.[18] In February 1985 Klan members and a Klan sympathizer pleaded guilty to federal and state charges related to the fire.[19] At the trial Klansmen Joe M. Garner and Roy T. Downs Jr. along with Charles Bailey pleaded guilty to conspiring to intimidate, oppress and threaten members of black organizations represented by SPLC.[19] According to Dees over 30 people have been jailed in connection with plots to kill him or blow up the center.[20]
In 1984, Dees became an assassination target of The Order, a revolutionary white supremacist group.[21] Another target, radio host Alan Berg, was killed by the group outside his Colorado home.[22]
In 1987, SPLC won a case against the United Klans of America for the lynching of Michael Donald, a black teenager in Mobile, Alabama.[23] The SPLC used an unprecedented legal strategy of holding an organization responsible for the crimes of individual members to help produce a $7 million judgment for the victim's mother.[23] The verdict forced United Klans of America into bankruptcy. Its national headquarters was sold for approximately $52,000 to help satisfy the judgment.[24] In 1987, five members of a Klan offshoot, the White Patriot Party, were indicted for stealing military weaponry and plotting to kill Dees.[25]



 The Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery
In 1989, the Center unveiled its Civil Rights Memorial, which was designed by Maya Lin.[26]
In October 1990, the SPLC won $12.5 million in damages against Tom Metzger and his White Aryan Resistance when a Portland, Oregon, jury held the neo-Nazi group liable in the beating death of an Ethiopian immigrant.[27] While Metzger lost his home and ability to publish material, the full amount of the multi-million dollar reward was not recovered.[28] In 1995, a group of four white males were indicted for planning to blow up the SPLC.[29] The Center's "Teaching Tolerance" project was initiated in 1991, and its "Klanwatch" program has gradually expanded to include other anti-hate monitoring projects and a list of reported hate groups in the United States.
In May 1998, three white supremacists were arrested for allegedly planning a nationwide campaign of assassinations and bombings targeting "Morris Dees, an undisclosed federal judge in Illinois, a black radio-show host in Missouri, Dees's Southern Poverty Law Center in Alabama, the Simon Wiesenthal Center in Los Angeles, and the Anti-Defamation League in New York."[30]
In 1999[31] the SPLC broke ground on their new headquarters building. It was completed in 2001.[32]
The SPLC has been criticized for using hyperbole and overstating the prevalence of hate groups to raise large amounts of money. In a 2000 Harper's Magazine article, Ken Silverstein said that Dees has kept the SPLC focused on fighting anti-minority groups like the KKK, whose membership has declined to just 2,000, instead of on issues like homelessness, mostly because the former issue makes for more lucrative fundraising. The article also claimed that the SPLC "spends twice as much on fund-raising--$5.76 million last year--as it does on legal services for victims of civil rights abuses."[33] Harper's also pointed out that more than 95% of hate crimes are committed by lone wolves without any connection to militia groups the SPLC speaks of.[33]
In July 2007, the SPLC filed suit against the Imperial Klans of America (IKA) in Meade County, where in July 2006 five Klansmen allegedly beat Jordan Gruver, a 16-year-old boy of Panamanian descent, at a Kentucky county fair.[20] After filing the suit, the SPLC received nearly a dozen threats.[20] During the November 2008 civil trial, a former member of the IKA said that the Klan head told him to kill Dees.[34]
In 2008, the SPLC and Dees were featured on National Geographic‍ '​s Inside American Terror exploring their litigation against several branches of the Ku Klux Klan.[35]
Litigation[edit]
The Southern Poverty Law Center has won multiple civil cases resulting in monetary awards for the plaintiffs. The SPLC has said it does not accept any portion of monetary judgments.[36][37] Dees and the SPLC "have been credited with devising innovative legal ways to cripple hate groups, including seizing their assets."[38]
Young Men's Christian Association in Montgomery, Alabama[edit]
In 1969, prior to founding the SPLC, Dees sued the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in Montgomery, Alabama at the request of civil rights activist Mary Louise Smith, whose son Vincent and nephew Edward[39] the YMCA had refused to allow to attend its summer camp.[40] The YMCA was, of course, a private organization and therefore presumptively not bound by the provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,[41] which would have forbidden them to discriminate against children on the basis of race.[42] However, Dees discovered that, in order to avoid desegregating its recreational facilities,[40] the city of Montgomery had instead signed a secret agreement with the YMCA to operate them as private facilities but on the city's behalf.[42] This fact led the trial court to rule that the YMCA had a "municipal charter" and was therefore bound by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution to desegregate its facilities.[43] According to historian Timothy Minchin, Dees was "emboldened by this victory" when he founded the SPLC in 1971.[42] The United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit(α) later affirmed the trial judge's finding, reversing only his order that the YMCA use affirmative action to racially integrate its board of directors.[44]
Vietnamese fishermen[edit]
In 1981, the SPLC took Ku Klux Klan leader Louis Beam's Klan-associated militia, the Texas Emergency Reserve (TER),[45] to court to stop racial harassment and intimidation of Vietnamese shrimpers in and around Galveston Bay.[46] The Klan actions against the approximately 100 Vietnamese shrimpers in the area included a cross burning,[47] sniper fire aimed at them, and arsonists burning their boats.[48] In May 1981 U.S. District Court judge Gabrielle McDonald[49] issued a preliminary injunction against the Klan, requiring them to cease intimidating, threatening, or harassing the Vietnamese.[50] McDonald eventually found the TER and Beam guilty of tortious interference, violations of the Sherman Antitrust Act, and of various civil rights statutes and thus permanently enjoined them against violence, threatening behavior, and other harassment of the Vietnamese Shrimpers.[49] The SPLC also uncovered an "obscure" Texas law "that forbade private armies in that state."[51] McDonald found that Beam's organization violated it and hence ordered the TER to close its military training camp.[51]
White Patriot Party[edit]
In 1982 armed members of the Carolina Knights of the Ku Klux Klan terrorized Bobby Person, a black prison guard and members of his family. They harassed and threatened others, including a white woman who had befriended blacks. In 1984 Person became the lead plaintiff in Person v. Carolina Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, a lawsuit brought by the SPLC in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina. The harassment and threats continued during litigation and the court issued an order prohibiting any person from interfering with others inside the courthouse.[52]
In January 1985, the court issued a consent order that prohibited the group's "Grand Dragon," Glenn Miller, and his followers from operating a paramilitary organization, holding parades in black neighborhoods, and from harassing, threatening or harming any black person or white persons who associated with black persons. Subsequently, the court dismissed the plaintiff's claim for damages.[52]
Within a year the court found Miller and his followers, now calling themselves the White Patriot Party, in criminal contempt for violating the consent order. Miller was sentenced to six months in prison followed by a three-year probationary period, during which he was banned from associating with members of any racist group such as the White Patriot Party. Miller refused to obey the terms of his probation. He made underground "declarations of war" against Jews and the federal government before being arrested again. Found guilty of weapons violations, he went to federal prison for three years.[53][54]
United Klans of America[edit]
In 1987, the SPLC successfully brought a civil case against the United Klans of America (UKA) for the 1981 lynching of Michael Donald in Mobile, Alabama by two of the UKA's members.[55] Unable to come up with the $7 million awarded by the jury, the UKA was forced to turn over its national headquarters to Donald's mother, who then sold it for $51,875 and used the money to purchase her first house.[56][57]
White Aryan Resistance[edit]
On November 13, 1988, in Portland, Oregon, three white supremacist members of East Side White Pride and White Aryan Resistance (WAR) beat Mulugeta Seraw to death. Seraw was an Ethiopian man who came to the United States to attend college.[58] In October 1990, the SPLC won a civil case on behalf of Seraw's family against WAR's operator Tom Metzger and his son, John Metzger, for a total of $12.5 million.[59][60] The Metzgers declared bankruptcy, and WAR went out of business. The cost of work for the trial was absorbed by the Anti-Defamation League as well as the SPLC.[61] Metzger still makes payments to Seraw's family.[62]
Church of the Creator[edit]
In May 1991, Harold Mansfield Jr, a black war veteran in the United States Navy, was murdered by a member of the neo-Nazi "Church of the Creator" (now called the Creativity Movement). SPLC represented the victim's family in a civil case and won a judgement of $1 million from the church in March 1994.[63] The church transferred ownership to William Pierce, head of the National Alliance, to avoid paying money to Mansfield's heirs. The SPLC filed suit against Pierce for his role in the fraudulent scheme and won an $85,000 judgment against him in 1995.[64] The amount was upheld on appeal and the money was collected prior to Pierce's death in 2002.[64]
Christian Knights of the KKK[edit]
The SPLC won a $37.8 million verdict on behalf of Macedonia Baptist Church, a 100-year-old black church in Manning, South Carolina, against two Ku Klux Klan chapters and five Klansmen (Christian Knights of the Ku Klux Klan and Invisible Empire, Inc.) in July 1998.[65] The money was awarded stemming from arson convictions in which the Klan burned down the historic black church in 1995.[66] Morris Dees told the press, "If we put the Christian Knights out of business, what's that worth? We don't look at what we can collect. It's what the jury thinks this egregious conduct is worth that matters, along with the message it sends."[67] According to The Washington Post the amount is the "largest-ever civil award for damages in a hate crime case."[67]
Aryan Nations[edit]
In September 2000, the SPLC won a $6.3 million judgment against the Aryan Nations from an Idaho jury who awarded punitive and compensatory damages to a woman and her son who were attacked by Aryan Nations guards.[8] The lawsuit stemmed from the July 1998 attack when security guards at the Aryan Nations compound near Hayden Lake, in northern Idaho. The guards shot at Victoria Keenan and her son.[68] Bullets struck their car several times, causing the car to crash. An Aryan Nations member then held the Keenans at gunpoint.[68] As a result of the judgement, Richard Butler turned over the 20-acre (81,000 m2) compound to the Keenans, who then sold the property to a philanthropist who subsequently donated it to North Idaho College, which designated the land as a "peace park."[69] Because of the lawsuit, members of the AN drew up a plan to kill Dees, which was disrupted by the FBI.[70]
Ten Commandments monument[edit]
See also: Roy Moore § Ten Commandments monument controversy
In 2002, the SPLC and the American Civil Liberties Union filed suit against Alabama Supreme Court Chief Justice Roy Moore for placing a two-ton display of the Ten Commandments in the rotunda of the Alabama Judicial Building.[71] Moore, who had final authority over what decorations were to be placed in the Alabama State Judicial Building's Rotunda, had installed a 5,280 pound (2400 kg) granite block, three feet wide by three feet deep by four feet tall, of the Ten Commandments late at night without the knowledge of any other court justice.[72] After defying several court rulings, Moore was eventually removed from the court, and the monument was removed as well.
Ranch rescue[edit]
On March 18, 2003, two illegal aliens from El Salvador, Edwin Alfredo Mancía Gonzáles and Fátima del Socorro Leiva Medina, were trespassing through a Texas ranch owned by Joseph Sutton. They were accosted by vigilantes known as Ranch Rescue who were recruited by Sutton to patrol the U.S.-Mexico border region nearby.[53]
According to the SPLC, Gonzáles and Medina were held at gunpoint, and Gonzáles was struck on the back of the head with a handgun, and a rottweiler was allowed to attack him. The SPLC said Gonzáles and Medina were threatened with death and otherwise terrorized before being released.[53] The El Salvadorans stated that the ranchers gave them water, cookies and a blanket before letting them go after about an hour. Ranch Rescuer Casey James Nethercott denied hitting either of the trespassers with a gun, and none of the vigilantes were convicted of pistol-whipping.[73]
In 2003, SPLC, the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund, and local attorneys filed a civil suit, Leiva v. Ranch Rescue, in Jim Hogg County, Texas, against Ranch Rescue and several of its associates, seeking damages for assault and illegal detention. In April 2005, SPLC obtained judgments totaling $1 million against Nethercott and Torre John Foote, Ranch Rescue's leader. Those awards came six months after a $350,000 judgment in the same case and coincided with a $100,000 out-of-court settlement with Sutton. Nethercott’s 70-acre (280,000 m2) Arizona property, which was Ranch Rescue's headquarters, was seized to pay the judgment. Nethercott, previously convicted of assault in California, was sentenced to five years in prison for being a felon in possession of a firearm. SPLC staff worked closely with Texas prosecutors to obtain that conviction.[53][74]
Billy Ray Johnson[edit]
Billy Ray Johnson, a black, mentally disabled man, was taken by four white males to a party where he was knocked unconscious then dropped on his head, referred to as a "nigger", and left in a ditch bleeding.[75][76] Due to the event, "Johnson, 46, who suffered serious, permanent brain injuries from the attack, will require care for the rest of his life."[77][78] At a criminal trial the four men received sentences of 30 to 60 days in county jail.[75][79] On April 20, 2007, Billy Ray Johnson was awarded $9 million in damages by a civil jury in Linden, Texas.[76][78][80] The jury hoped that the verdict would improve race relations in the community stemming from a United States Department of Education investigation and other controversial verdicts. During the trial one of the defendants, Cory Hicks, referred to Johnson as "it".[75]
Imperial Klans of America[edit]
In November 2008, the SPLC's case against the Imperial Klans of America (IKA), the nation's second largest Klan organization, began in Meade County, Kentucky.[81] The SPLC filed suit in July 2007 on behalf of Jordan Gruver and his mother against the IKA in Kentucky where in July 2006, five Klansmen savagely beat Gruver at a Kentucky county fair.[82] According to the lawsuit, five Klan members went to the Meade County Fairgrounds in Brandenburg, Kentucky, "to hand out business cards and flyers advertising a 'white-only' IKA function."[82] Two members of the Klan started calling the 16-year-old boy of Panamanian descent a "spic".[82] Subsequently the boy, (5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) and weighing 150 pounds (68 kg)) was beaten and kicked by the Klansmen (one of whom was 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m) and 300 pounds (140 kg)). As a result, the victim received "two cracked ribs, a broken left forearm, multiple cuts and bruises and jaw injuries requiring extensive dental repair."[82]
In a related criminal case in February 2007, Jarred Hensley and Andrew Watkins had been sentenced to three years in prison for beating Gruver.[81] On November 14, 2008, an all-white jury of seven men and seven women awarded $1.5 million in compensatory damages and $1 million in punitive damages to the plaintiff against Ron Edwards, Imperial Wizard of the group, and Jarred Hensley, who participated in the attack.[83] The two other defendants, Andrew Watkins and Joshua Cowles, previously agreed to confidential settlements and were dropped from the suit.[84]
Advocacy[edit]
Opposition to Arizona illegal immigration measure[edit]
Main article: Arizona SB 1070
The SPLC has spoken against Arizona SB 1070, the anti-illegal immigration measure passed by the state of Arizona in 2010, calling it "brazenly unconstitutional" and "a civil rights disaster". In June 2012, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on the case, Arizona v. United States, upholding the provision requiring immigration status checks during law enforcement stops but striking down three other provisions as violations of the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution.
Education[edit]
Tolerance.org[edit]



 Closeup of the Civil Rights Memorial
The SPLC's initiatives include the website Tolerance.org, past winner of the international Webby Award.[85] The site provides daily news on tolerance issues, educational games for children, guidebooks for activists, and resources for parents and teachers.[86][87]
The site's Teaching Tolerance initiative is aimed at two different age groups of students with separate materials for teachers and parents. One portion of the project targets elementary school children, providing material on the history of the civil rights movement.[88] The center's material for elementary school children includes a publication entitled "A fresh look at multicultural 'American English'" which explores the cultural history of common words. A project website includes an interactive program addressing such topics as Native American school mascots, displays of the Confederate flag, and the themes of popular music and entertainment, encouraging pupils to consider racial, gender, and sexual orientation sensitivities.
A similar program aimed at middle and high school pupils includes a "Mix it Up" project urging readers to participate in school activities involving interaction between different social groups.[89] Other features of this project includes political activism tips and reports highlighting student activism. The SPLC puts out a monthly publication typically focusing on a minority, feminist, or LGBT youth organization. Publications such as "Ways to fight hate on campus" suggest ideas for community activism and diversity education.
Teaching Tolerance also provides advice to parents, encouraging multiculturalism in the upbringing of their children.[85] A guide urges parents to "examine the 'diversity profile' of your children's friends," to move to "integrated and economically diverse neighborhoods," and to discourage children from playing with toys or adopting heroes that "promote violence."[this quote needs a citation] The publication also advises parents to use culturally sensitive language (such as the gender-neutral phrasing "Someone Special Day" instead of the traditional Mothers Day and Fathers Day) and to make sure that "cultural diversity (is) reflected in your home's artwork, music and literature."[this quote needs a citation]
Documentaries[edit]
The SPLC also produces documentary films. Two have won Academy Awards for documentary short subject: Mighty Times: The Children's March, in 2005, and A Time for Justice in 1995.[90] Another film was Wall of Tolerance, starring Jennifer Welker. Five others have been nominated for awards.
Law enforcement training[edit]
The SPLC offers training for local, state and federal law enforcement officers by request, focusing "on the history, background, leaders and activities of far-right extremists in the United States".[91][92][93][94][95][96]
Tracking of hate groups and extremists[edit]
Hate group listings[edit]
Main article: List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
The SPLC maintains a list of hate groups defined as groups that "...have beliefs or practices that attack or malign an entire class of people, typically for their immutable characteristics." It says that hate group activities may include speeches, marches, rallies, meetings, publishing, leafleting, and criminal acts such as violence. It says not all groups so listed by the SPLC engage in criminal activity.[5] The FBI has partnered with the SPLC and many other local and national organizations "to establish rapport, share information, address concerns, and cooperate in solving problems".[97]



 Number of SPLC hate groups per million, as of 2013
The SPLC reported that 784 hate groups were active in the United States in 2014, down from 939 in 2013[5] and 1,007 in 2012.[98] These included:
##186 separate Ku Klux Klan (KKK) groups with 52 websites
##196 neo-Nazi groups with 89 websites
##111 White nationalist groups with 190 websites
##98 White power skinhead groups with 25 websites
##39 Christian Identity groups with 37 websites
##93 neo-Confederate groups with 25 websites
##113 black separatist groups with 40 websites
##90 additional groups divided by the SPLC into categories such as anti-gay, Holocaust denial, white power music, radical traditionalist Catholic, among other categories for designated hate groups,[99][100] which maintained another 172 websites.[101] Only organizations active in 2013 were counted, excluding those that appear to exist only on the Internet.[5]
J.M. Berger, writing for Foreign Policy, disputed the 2012 numbers and said that after merging separate groups of similar names "the list of 1,007 becomes a list of 358".[102]
Anti-government patriot groups[edit]
The SPLC's Intelligence Project states that it "identified 1,360 anti-government 'Patriot' groups that were active in 2012" The SPLC describes these groups as parts of an extremist Patriot Movement characterized by anti-government doctrines, conspiracy theories or opposition to the New World Order. The SPLC states that its listing of groups does not imply that such groups "engage in violence or other criminal activities, or are racist".[98][103]
Nativist extremist groups[edit]
The SPLC identified 38 groups which it lists as nativist extremist groups active in 2012. These groups (ordered by the number of groups) were based in 13 states: Maryland (14), California (5), Arizona (3), Texas (3), Florida (2), Missouri (2), New Jersey (2), North Carolina (2), Oregon (1), Rhode Island (1), Pennsylvania (1), Minnesota (1), Georgia (1).[98][104]
Intelligence Report[edit]
Since 1981, the SPLC's Intelligence Project has published a quarterly Intelligence Report that monitors what the SPLC considers radical right hate groups and extremists in the United States.[105][106] The Intelligence Report provides information regarding organizational efforts and tactics of these groups, and has been cited by scholars as reliable and as the most comprehensive source on U.S. right-wing extremism and hate groups.[107][108][109][110] In addition to the Intelligence Report, the SPLC publishes HateWatch Weekly, a newsletter that follows racism and extremism, and the Hatewatch blog, whose subtitle is "Keeping an Eye on the Radical Right".[111]
Two articles published in Intelligence Report have won "Green Eyeshade Excellence in Journalism" awards from the Society of Professional Journalists. "Communing with the Council", written by Heidi Beirich and Bob Moser, took third place for Investigative Journalism in the Magazine Division in 2004,[112][113] and "Southern Gothic", by David Holthouse and Casey Sanchez, took second place for Feature Reporting in the Magazine Division in 2007.[114][115] On March 20, 2009, the Intelligence Project received a Distinguished Public Service Award from the American Immigration Law Foundation for its "outstanding work" covering the anti-immigration movement.[116]
Year in Hate and Extremism[edit]
Since 2001, the SPLC has released an annual issue of the Intelligence Project called Year in Hate later renamed Year in Hate and Extremism, in which they present statistics on the numbers of hate groups in America. The current format of the report covers racial hate groups, nativist hate groups, and other right-wing extremist groups such as groups within the Patriot Movement.
Academic assessment[edit]
In their study of the white separatist movement in the United States, sociologists Betty A. Dobratz and Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile referred to the SPLC's Klanwatch Intelligence Reports in saying "we relied on the SPLC and ADL for general information, but we have noted differences between the way events have been reported and what we saw at rallies. For instance, events were sometimes portrayed in Klanwatch Intelligence Reports as more militant and dangerous with higher turnouts than we observed."[117] Rory McVeigh, the chair of the University of Notre Dame Sociology Department, wrote that "its outstanding reputation is well established, and the SPLC has been an excellent source of information for social scientists who study racist organizations."[107]
Controversy[edit]
In 2010 "22 Republican lawmakers, among them Speaker Boehner and Representative Bachmann, three governors, and a number of conservative organizations took out full-page ads in two Washington papers castigating the SPLC for 'character assassination' by listing the conservative Family Research Council as a hate group."[6][118][119] Critics including journalist Ken Silverstein and political fringe movements researcher Laird Wilcox have accused the SPLC of an incautious approach to assigning the label.[120][121][122] In the wake of an August 2012 shooting at the headquarters of the Family Research Council, some columnists criticized the SPLC's listing of the Family Research Council as an anti-gay hate group while others defended the categorization.[7][122][123] The SPLC defended its listing of anti-gay hate groups, stating that groups were selected not because of their stances on political issues such as gay marriage, but rather on their "propagation of known falsehoods about LGBT people ... that have been thoroughly discredited by scientific authorities".[124]
J.M. Berger of Foreign Policy disputes SPLC analysis in its Intelligence Report and Year in Hate and Extremism reports, and believes the SPLC carries a political slant. He also questions the methodologies used by the SPLC and suggests that it overstates the presence of extremists in the United States.[125] Jesse Walker, writing in the libertarian magazine Reason, charges the SPLC with discrimination and fear-mongering in its portrayal of Patriot groups.[126]
Finances[edit]
The SPLC's activities including litigation are supported by fundraising efforts, and it does not accept any fees or share in legal judgments awarded to clients it represents in court.[127] Starting in 1974, the SPLC set aside money for its endowment because it was "convinced that the day (would) come when nonprofit groups (would) no longer be able to rely on support through mail because of posting and printing costs."[127] The SPLC has received criticism for perceived disproportionate endowment reserves and misleading fundraising practices. In 1994 the Montgomery Advertiser ran a series reporting that the SPLC was financially mismanaged and employed misleading fundraising practices.[16][128] In response co-founder Joe Levin stated: "The Advertiser's lack of interest in the center's programs and its obsessive interest in the center's financial affairs and Mr. Dees' personal life makes it obvious to me that the Advertiser simply wants to smear the center and Mr. Dees."[129] The series was a finalist for but did not win a 1995 Pulitzer Prize in Explanatory Journalism.[130] In 1996 USA Today called the SPLC "the nation's richest civil rights organization", with $68 million in assets at the time.[131][132] Commentators Alexander Cockburn writing in The Nation and Ken Silverstein writing in Harper's Magazine have been sharply critical of the SPLC's fundraising appeals and finances.[133][134][135]
The SPLC stated that during 2008 it spent about 69% of total expenses on program services, and that at the end of 2008 the endowment stood at $156.2 million.[136] According to Charity Navigator, SPLC's 2009 outlays fell into the following categories: program expenses of 67.5%, administrative expenses of 13.4%, and fundraising expenses of 18.9%.[137] In October 2013 the SPLC reported its endowment at $281.1 million.[138]
See also[edit]


Flag of Alabama.svgAlabama portal
 Disclogo1.svgDiscrimination portal
 Scale of justice 2 new.jpegLaw portal
 

Notes[edit]
^α At the time of the case Alabama was under the jurisdiction of the Fifth Circuit. In 1981 the circuit was split and Alabama was added to the newly created Eleventh Circuit
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b "2012 Form 990 U.S. Federal Tax Return" (PDF). Foundation Center. Retrieved April 22, 2014.
2.Jump up ^ "With Justice For All". The Times-Picayune. November 5, 2006. Archived from the original on April 17, 2008.
3.Jump up ^ "Southern Poverty Law Center". The Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties.
4.Jump up ^ "Southern Poverty Law Center". Free Legal Dictionary.
5.^ Jump up to: a b c d "Hate Map". SPLC. Retrieved April 3, 2015.
6.^ Jump up to: a b Jonsson, Patrik (February 23, 2011). "Annual report cites rise in hate groups, but some ask: What is hate?". Christian Science Monitor.
7.^ Jump up to: a b Signorile, Michelangelo (August 22, 2012). "Dana Milbank, Washington Post Writer, Slams LGBT Activists, SPLC For FRC's 'Hate Group' Label". HuffPost Gay Voices. Huffington Post. Retrieved 2014-03-28.
8.^ Jump up to: a b "Attorney Morris Dees pioneer in using 'damage litigation' to fight hate groups". CNN. September 8, 2000. Archived from the original on June 18, 2006. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
9.Jump up ^ Dees, Morris, and Steve Fiffer. 1991. A Season For Justice. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 132-133.
10.Jump up ^ Michael, George (2012). Lone Wolf Terror and the Rise of Leaderless Resistance. Vanderbilt University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0826518559.
11.Jump up ^ http://www.huffingtonpost.com/carol-m-swain/mission-creep-and-the-sou_b_255029.html
12.Jump up ^ http://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/politics/item/17741-anti-christian-hate-group-splc-becoming-increasingly-discredited
13.Jump up ^ http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2010/nov/26/splc-the-wolf-who-cried-hate/?page=all
14.Jump up ^ http://www.americanthinker.com/2012/08/southern_poverty_law_centers_lucrative_hate_group_label.html
15.Jump up ^ "Ask The Globe". Boston Globe. October 18, 1984.
16.^ Jump up to: a b "Attacking a Home-Town Icon" Jim Tharpe, Nieman Watchdog 1995.
17.Jump up ^ "Active U.S. Hate Groups in 2006". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
18.Jump up ^ "Fire Damages Alabama Center that Battles the Klan". The New York Times. July 31, 1983. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
19.^ Jump up to: a b "2 Klan Members Plead Guilty To Arson". The New York Times. February 21, 1985.
20.^ Jump up to: a b c Klass, Kym (August 17, 2007). "Southern Poverty Law Center beefs up security". Montgomery Advertiser. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
21.Jump up ^ "Death List Names Given to US Jury". The New York Times. September 17, 1985.
22.Jump up ^ "Jury Told of Plan to Kill Radio Host". The New York Times. November 8, 1987.
23.^ Jump up to: a b "The Nation Klan Must Pay $7 Million". Los Angeles Times. February 13, 1987. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
24.Jump up ^ "Klan Member Put to Death In Race Death". The New York Times. 1997-06-06.
25.Jump up ^ "Five Tied to Klan Indicted on Arms Charges". The New York Times. January 9, 1987. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
26.Jump up ^ Tauber, Peter (February 24, 1991). "Monument Maker". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
27.Jump up ^ "Metzger Leaves Former Home A Mess, but its Undamaged". The Oregonian. September 19, 1991.
28.Jump up ^ "Metzger Home Worth Only A Tiny Fraction of $12.5 Million Sum". The Oregonian. August 28, 1991.
29.Jump up ^ "4 Are Accused in Oklahoma of Bomb Plot". The New York Times. November 14, 1995. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
30.Jump up ^ "Group is accused of plotting assassinations, bombings. Two others will plead guilty Thursday." St Louis Post-Dispatch (MO) (May 13, 1998): pB1.
31.Jump up ^ "Law Center Begins Project". Montgomery Advertiser. February 16, 1999.
32.Jump up ^ "Southern Poverty Law Center's New Home". Montgomery Advertiser. March 29, 2001.
33.^ Jump up to: a b The church of Morris Dees: How the Southern Poverty Law Center profits from intolerance, Ken Silverstein, Harper's Magazine, November 2000
34.Jump up ^ Barrouquere, Brett (November 13, 2008). "Former member: Ky. Klan plotted to kill attorney". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-02-08.
35.Jump up ^ "Micheal McDonald clip on KKK: Inside American Terror". National Geographic. 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-18.[dead link]
36.Jump up ^ "Bringing the Klan to Court". Newsweek 103. 21. May 28, 1984. p. 1. ISSN 0028-9604. Retrieved 2012-09-13.
37.Jump up ^ Applebome, Peter (November 21, 1989). "Two Sides of the Contemporary South: Racial Incidents and Black Progress". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
38.Jump up ^ Sack, Kevin (May 12, 1996). "Conversations/Morris Dees; A Son of Alabama Takes On Americans Who Live to Hate". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
39.Jump up ^ Dees and Fiffer (1991) p.108
40.^ Jump up to: a b Robert Heinrich (2008). Montgomery: The Civil Rights Movement and Its Legacies. Ph.D. dissertation. Brandeis University. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-549-69927-9.
41.Jump up ^ YMCA desegregation ruling turns 40 The Louisiana Weekly, July 26, 2010. Accessed December 9, 2010; URL replaced with version archived December 20, 2010
42.^ Jump up to: a b c Timothy Minchin (25 March 2011). After the Dream: Black and White Southerners since 1965. University Press of Kentucky. p. 68. ISBN 0-8131-2988-5.
43.Jump up ^ Paul Finkelman (10 October 2006). Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties. Taylor & Francis. p. 4836. ISBN 978-1-135-94704-0.
44.Jump up ^ Dees and Fiffer (1991) p.125
45.Jump up ^ Kushner, Harvey W. (1998). The Future of Terrorism: Violence in the New Millennium. SAGE Publications. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-7619-0869-2.
46.Jump up ^ Stevens, William K. (May 2, 1981). "Klan Official is Accused of Intimidation". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
47.Jump up ^ Stevens, William K. (April 25, 1981). "Klan Inflames Gulf Fishing Fight Between Whites and Vietnamese". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
48.Jump up ^ Gay, Kathlyn (2012). American Dissidents: An Encyclopedia of Activists, Subversives, and Prisoners of Conscience. ABC-CLIO. p. 183. ISBN 978-1-59884-764-2.
49.^ Jump up to: a b Greenhaw, Wayne (1 January 2011). Fighting the Devil in Dixie: How Civil Rights Activists Took on the Ku Klux Klan in Alabama. Chicago Review Press. p. 234. ISBN 978-1-56976-825-9.
50.Jump up ^ Stevens, William K. (May 15, 1981). "Judge Issues Ban on Klan Threat to Vietnamese". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
51.^ Jump up to: a b Gitlin, Marty (2009). The Ku Klux Klan: A Guide to an American Subculture. ABC-CLIO. pp. 41–2. ISBN 978-0-313-36576-8.
52.^ Jump up to: a b "Person v. Carolina Knights of the Ku Klux Klan". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
53.^ Jump up to: a b c d “Fighting hate in the courtroom.” SPLC Report. Special Issue, vol. 38, no.4. Winter 2008. p. 4.
54.Jump up ^ "Supremacist Glenn Miller gets five years in prison". Star-News. 5 January 1988. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
55.Jump up ^ "Donald v. United Klans of America". Southern Poverty Law Center. 1988. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
56.Jump up ^ "Paying Damages For a Lynching". The New York Times. February 21, 1988. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
57.Jump up ^ [1]
58.Jump up ^ "Lawyer makes racists pay". USA Today. October 24, 1990. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
59.Jump up ^ The jury divided the judgment against the defendants as follows: Kyle Brewster, $500,000; Ken Mieske, $500,000;, John Metzger, $1 million; WAR, $3 million; Tom Metzger, $5 million; in addition, the jury awarded $2.5 million for Mulugeta's unrealized future earnings and pain and suffering.
60.Jump up ^ London, Robb (October 26, 1990). "Sending a $12.5 Million Message to a Hate Group". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
61.Jump up ^ Dees & Fiffer 1993, p. 277
62.Jump up ^ "Hate-crime case award will be hard to collect, experts say". The Press-Enterprise. August 24, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-25.[dead link]
63.Jump up ^ "Mansfield v. Church of the Creator". Southern Poverty Law Center. 03/07/1994. Retrieved 2007-08-17. Check date values in: |date= (help)
64.^ Jump up to: a b "Mansfield v. Pierce". Southern Poverty Law Center. 03/07/1994. Retrieved 2007-08-17. Check date values in: |date= (help)
65.Jump up ^ "Klan Must Pay $37 Million for Inciting Church Fire". The New York Times. July 25, 1998. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
66.Jump up ^ "Macedonia v. Christian Knights of the Ku Klux Klan". Southern Poverty Law Center. June 7, 1996. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
67.^ Jump up to: a b "Klan Chapters Held Liable in Church Fire; Jury Awards $37.8 Million in Damages", The Washington Post July 25, 1998
68.^ Jump up to: a b "Keenan v. Aryan Nations". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2000. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
69.Jump up ^ Wakin, Daniel J. (September 9, 2004). "Richard G. Butler, 86, Dies; Founder of the Aryan Nations". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-08-22.
70.Jump up ^ Dees2008, p. 194[broken citation]
71.Jump up ^ "Ten Commandments judge removed from office". CNN. November 14, 2003. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
72.Jump up ^ Glassroth v. Moore (PDF) (M.D. Ala. 2002).
73.Jump up ^ Pollack, Andrew (2005-08-19). "2 Illegal Immigrants Win Arizona Ranch in Court". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-01-01.
74.Jump up ^ "Leiva v. Ranch Rescue". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
75.^ Jump up to: a b c Parker, Laura (April 26, 2007). "A jury's stand against racism reflects hope". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
76.^ Jump up to: a b "The Beating of Billy Ray Johnson". Texas Monthly. February 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
77.Jump up ^ "Johnson v. Amox et al". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005-09-19. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
78.^ Jump up to: a b $9 million award in beating case Chicago Tribune April 21, 2007. Accessed December 10, 2010
79.Jump up ^ "Ex-jailer denies part in assault cover-up". Texarkana Gazette. April 19, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
80.Jump up ^ "Center Wins Justice for Billy Ray Johnson". Southern Poverty Law Center. April 20, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
81.^ Jump up to: a b "No. 2 Klan group on trial in Ky. teen's beating - Southern Poverty Law Center hopes case will bankrupt hate group". Associated Press via MSNBC. November 11, 2008. Retrieved 2012-09-12.
82.^ Jump up to: a b c d "Jordan Gruver and Cynthia Gruver vs. Imperial Klans of America". Southern Poverty Law Center. July 25, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
83.Jump up ^ "Jury awards $2.5 million to teen beaten by Klan members". CNN. November 14, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-18.
84.Jump up ^ Kenning, Chris. 2008. “$2.5 million awarded in Klan beating,” The Courier-Journal (Louisville, Kentucky), November 15, 2008, p. 1.
85.^ Jump up to: a b "Tolerance.org: About us". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
86.Jump up ^ "Teaching Tolerance". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005. Retrieved 2007-08-17.[dead link]
87.Jump up ^ "About Teaching Tolerance". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005. Retrieved 2007-08-17.[dead link]
88.Jump up ^ "Planet Tolerance". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005. Retrieved 2007-08-17.[dead link][dead link]
89.Jump up ^ "Mix it up:Our Story". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
90.Jump up ^ "Mighty Times: The Children’s March"[dead link], 77th Academy Awards
 ^ "Time for Justice, A (VHS)", directcinema.com[dead link]
91.Jump up ^ "Law Enforcement Training | Southern Poverty Law Center". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved 2012-09-13.
92.Jump up ^ Ariosto, David (August 17, 2012). "SPLC draws conservative ire". CNN. p. 2. Retrieved 2012-09-13.
93.Jump up ^ Gerstenfeld, Phyllis B. (2010). Hate Crimes: Causes, Controls, and Controversies (2 ed.). SAGE. p. 70. ISBN 1412980259.
94.Jump up ^ Finley, Laura (2011). Encyclopedia of School Crime and Violence. ABC-CLIO. p. 452. ISBN 0313362386.
95.Jump up ^ Conser, James A.; Paynich, Rebecca; Gingerich, Terry E. (2011). Law Enforcement in the United States (3 ed.). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 410. ISBN 0763799386.
96.Jump up ^ Hate Crime Statistics: A Resource Book. DIANE Publishing. 1993. p. 103. ISBN 0788105361.
97.Jump up ^ "Hate Crime—Overview". FBI. Retrieved 28 March 2014.
98.^ Jump up to: a b c "The Year in Hate and Extremism". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Spring 2013, Issue 149. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
99.Jump up ^ "Hate Group Numbers Up By 54% Since 2000". Southern Poverty Law Center. February 26, 2009. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
100.Jump up ^ "Active U.S. Hate Groups". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
101.Jump up ^ "Hate websites active in 2008". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Spring 2009, pp. 59-65.
102.Jump up ^ Berger, J.M. (March 12, 2013). "The Hate List: Is America really being overrun by right-wing militants?". Foreign Policy. Retrieved March 28, 2014.
103.Jump up ^ "Active 'Patriot' Groups in the United States in 2012". "The Year in Hate and Extremism". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Spring 2013, Issue 149. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
104.Jump up ^ "Nativist Extremist' Groups 2012". "The Year in Hate and Extremism". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Spring 2013, Issue 149. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
105.Jump up ^ Intelligence Report Get Informed web page Accessed December 18, 2010.
106.Jump up ^ "Intelligence Report". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
107.^ Jump up to: a b McVeigh, Rory (March 2004). "Structured Ignorance and Organized Racism in the United States". Social Forces (University of North Carolina Press) 82 (3): 913. doi:10.1353/sof.2004.0047. JSTOR 3598361.
108.Jump up ^ Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement. David Mark Chalmers. p. 188
109.Jump up ^ Untangling the web of hate: are online "hate sites" deserving of First Amendment Protection?. Brett A. Barnett
110.Jump up ^ "Illinois Association for Cultural Diversity reading list". Western Illinois University. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
111.Jump up ^ "Hatewatch Weekly". Southern Poverty Law Center. Archived from the original on August 21, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
112.Jump up ^ Beirich, Heidi; Bob Moser (2004). "Communing with the Council". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
113.Jump up ^ "Green Eyeshade Awards 2004". Society of Professional Journalists. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
114.Jump up ^ Holthouse, David; Casey Sanchez (2007). "Southern Gothic". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
115.Jump up ^ "Green Eyeshade Awards 2007". Society of Professional Journalists. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
116.Jump up ^ "Intelligence Project Given Award", SPLC Report, Summer 2009, p. 5.
117.Jump up ^ Betty A. Dobratz, Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile, The White Separatist Movement in the United States: "White Power, White Pride!", The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000, 1-3.
118.Jump up ^ Watkins, Tom (August 17, 2012). "After D.C. shooting, fingers point over blame". CNN. Retrieved October 15, 2013.
119.Jump up ^ Yager, Jordy (August 15, 2012). "Shooting spurs heated debate on gay rights, 'hate group' label". The Hill. Retrieved October 15, 2013.
120.Jump up ^ "'Hate', Immigration, and the Southern Poverty Law Center". Harper's Magazine.
121.Jump up ^ Wilcox, Laird, The Watchdogs, self-published through Editorial Research Service, (ISBN 0-933592-89-2)
122.^ Jump up to: a b Allen, Charlotte (April 15, 2013). "King of Fearmongers: Morris Dees and the Southern Poverty Law Center, scaring donors since 1971". Weekly Standard. Retrieved March 28, 2014.
123.Jump up ^ Milbank, Dana (August 6, 2012). "Hateful speech on hate groups". The Washington Post. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
124.Jump up ^ SPLC's Anti-Gay Hate List Compiled With Diligence and Clear Standards
125.Jump up ^ Brennan, Patrick (March 15, 2013). "The SPLC and Slant". National Review Online. Retrieved March 28, 2014.
126.Jump up ^ Jesse Walker (March 3, 2010). "Fearmongering at the SPLC". Reason.
127.^ Jump up to: a b "Endowment Supports Center's Future Work". Southern Poverty Law Center. June 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
128.Jump up ^ Morse, Dan (February 14, 1994), "A complex man: Opportunist or crusader?", Montgomery Advertiser
129.Jump up ^ Morse, Dan & Jaffe, Greg (February 14, 1994), "Critics question $52 million reserve, tactics of wealthiest civil rights group", Montgomery Advertiser
130.Jump up ^ "1995 Finalists: Explanatory Journalism". Pulitzer Prize. 1995. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
131.Jump up ^ Andrea Stone, "Morris Dees: At the Center of the Racial Storm," USA Today, August 3, 1996, A-7
132.Jump up ^ Silverstein, Ken (March 22, 2010). "'Hate', Immigration, and the Southern Poverty Law Center". Harper's Magazine. Retrieved June 12, 2011.
133.Jump up ^ Cockburn, Alexander (November 9, 1998), "The Conscience Industry", The Nation, "Morris Dees has raised an endowment of close to $100 million, with which he's done little, by frightening elderly liberals that the heirs of Adolf Hitler are about to march down Main Street, lynching blacks and putting Jews into ovens. The fund raising of Dees and the richly rewarded efforts of terror mongers like Leonard Zeskind offer a dreadfully distorted view of American political realities."
134.Jump up ^ Silverstein, Ken (November 1, 2000), "The Church of Morris Dees: How the Southern Poverty Law Center profits from intolerance", Harper's Magazine, p. 54
135.Jump up ^ Silverstein, Ken (March 2, 2007), "This Week in Babylon: Southern Poverty: richer than Tonga"[dead link], Harper's Magazine
136.Jump up ^ SPLC Financial Information
137.Jump up ^ "Southern Poverty Law Center", Charity Navigator, retrieved June 12, 2011
138.Jump up ^ [2]. Retrieved May 26, 2014.
Bibliography##Dees, Morris, and Steve Fiffer. 1991. A Season for Justice: The Life and Times of Civil Rights Lawyer Morris Dees. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-19189-X
##Dees, Morris, and Steve Fiffer. 1993. Hate on Trial: The Case Against America's Most Dangerous Neo-Nazi. New York: Villard Books. ISBN 0-679-40614-X.
##Fleming, Maria, ed. 2001. A Place At The Table: Struggles for Equality in America. New York: Oxford University Press in association with the Southern Poverty Law Center. ASIN B008TCFV46. ISBN 978-0195150360.
##Hall, Dave, Tym Burkey and Katherine M. Ramsland. 2008. Into the Devil’s Den. New York: Ballantine. ISBN 978-0-345-49694-2.
##Day, Katie (January 21, 2010) "Southern Poverty Law Center". Encyclopedia of Alabama online
External links[edit]
##Official website
##Official Tecahing Tolerance website
##Voices on Antisemitism Interview with Mark Potok from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
##Smith v. Young Men's Christian Association of Montgomery Inc. (462 F. 2d 634), United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit decision in the SPLC's case against the Montgomery, Alabama YMCA. Open Jurist. Accessed April 22, 2014


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Southern Poverty Law Center

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Southern Poverty Law Center
SPLC Logo.jpg
Founded
1971
Founder
Morris Dees
 Joseph R. Levin, Jr.
Type
Public-interest law firm
 Civil rights advocacy organization

Tax ID no.
 63-0598743 (EIN)
Focus
Hate groups
Racism
Civil rights
Location
Montgomery, Alabama, U.S.


Area served
 United States
Product
Legal representation
 Public education

Key people
 J. Richard Cohen, President

Revenue
 $40,418,368 (2012 FY)[1]
Endowment
$281.1 million

Employees
 254[1]

Volunteers
 14
Website
www.splcenter.org
The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) is an American nonprofit legal advocacy organization specializing in civil rights and public interest litigation. It is noted for its legal victories against white supremacist groups, its legal representation for victims of hate groups, its classification of militias and extremist organizations, and its educational programs that promote tolerance.[2][3][4] The SPLC also classifies and lists hate groups—organizations that in its opinion "attack or malign an entire class of people, typically for their immutable characteristics."[5] The SPLC's hate group list has been the source of some controversy.[6][7]
In 1971, Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin Jr. founded the SPLC as a civil rights law firm based in Montgomery, Alabama.[8] Civil rights leader Julian Bond joined Dees and Levin and served as president of the board between 1971 and 1979.[9] The SPLC's litigating strategy involves filing civil suits for damages on behalf of the victims of hate group harassment, threats, and violence with the goal of financially depleting the responsible groups and individuals. While it originally focused on damages done by the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups, throughout the years the SPLC has become involved in other civil rights causes, among them, cases concerned with institutional racial segregation and discrimination, discrimination based on sexual orientation, the mistreatment of aliens, and the separation of church and state. Along with civil rights organizations such as the Anti-Defamation League, the SPLC has provided information about hate groups to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).[10] The SPLC has been criticized by conservative politicians and media, and by organizations that have been listed as hate groups in their reports.[11][12][13][14]
The SPLC does not accept government funds, nor does it charge its clients legal fees or share in their court-awarded judgments. Most of its funds come from direct mail campaigns[15] which have helped it to build substantial monetary reserves. Its fundraising appeals and accumulation of reserves have been the subject of some criticism.[16]


Contents  [hide]
1 History
2 Litigation 2.1 Young Men's Christian Association in Montgomery, Alabama
2.2 Vietnamese fishermen
2.3 White Patriot Party
2.4 United Klans of America
2.5 White Aryan Resistance
2.6 Church of the Creator
2.7 Christian Knights of the KKK
2.8 Aryan Nations
2.9 Ten Commandments monument
2.10 Ranch rescue
2.11 Billy Ray Johnson
2.12 Imperial Klans of America
3 Advocacy 3.1 Opposition to Arizona illegal immigration measure
4 Education 4.1 Tolerance.org
4.2 Documentaries
4.3 Law enforcement training
5 Tracking of hate groups and extremists 5.1 Hate group listings
5.2 Anti-government patriot groups
5.3 Nativist extremist groups
5.4 Intelligence Report
5.5 Year in Hate and Extremism
5.6 Academic assessment
6 Controversy
7 Finances
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
History[edit]



 The SPLC headquarters in Montgomery, Alabama.
The Southern Poverty Law Center was founded by civil rights lawyers Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin Jr. in 1971 as a law firm designed to handle anti-discrimination cases in the United States. SPLC's first president was Julian Bond, who served as president until 1979 and remains on its board of directors. In 1979, the SPLC brought the first of its many cases against the Ku Klux Klan and similar organizations. In 1981, the Center began its Klanwatch project to monitor the activities of the KKK. That project, now called Hatewatch, has been expanded to include seven other types of hate organizations.[17]
In July 1983, the center's office was firebombed, destroying the building and records.[18] In February 1985 Klan members and a Klan sympathizer pleaded guilty to federal and state charges related to the fire.[19] At the trial Klansmen Joe M. Garner and Roy T. Downs Jr. along with Charles Bailey pleaded guilty to conspiring to intimidate, oppress and threaten members of black organizations represented by SPLC.[19] According to Dees over 30 people have been jailed in connection with plots to kill him or blow up the center.[20]
In 1984, Dees became an assassination target of The Order, a revolutionary white supremacist group.[21] Another target, radio host Alan Berg, was killed by the group outside his Colorado home.[22]
In 1987, SPLC won a case against the United Klans of America for the lynching of Michael Donald, a black teenager in Mobile, Alabama.[23] The SPLC used an unprecedented legal strategy of holding an organization responsible for the crimes of individual members to help produce a $7 million judgment for the victim's mother.[23] The verdict forced United Klans of America into bankruptcy. Its national headquarters was sold for approximately $52,000 to help satisfy the judgment.[24] In 1987, five members of a Klan offshoot, the White Patriot Party, were indicted for stealing military weaponry and plotting to kill Dees.[25]



 The Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery
In 1989, the Center unveiled its Civil Rights Memorial, which was designed by Maya Lin.[26]
In October 1990, the SPLC won $12.5 million in damages against Tom Metzger and his White Aryan Resistance when a Portland, Oregon, jury held the neo-Nazi group liable in the beating death of an Ethiopian immigrant.[27] While Metzger lost his home and ability to publish material, the full amount of the multi-million dollar reward was not recovered.[28] In 1995, a group of four white males were indicted for planning to blow up the SPLC.[29] The Center's "Teaching Tolerance" project was initiated in 1991, and its "Klanwatch" program has gradually expanded to include other anti-hate monitoring projects and a list of reported hate groups in the United States.
In May 1998, three white supremacists were arrested for allegedly planning a nationwide campaign of assassinations and bombings targeting "Morris Dees, an undisclosed federal judge in Illinois, a black radio-show host in Missouri, Dees's Southern Poverty Law Center in Alabama, the Simon Wiesenthal Center in Los Angeles, and the Anti-Defamation League in New York."[30]
In 1999[31] the SPLC broke ground on their new headquarters building. It was completed in 2001.[32]
The SPLC has been criticized for using hyperbole and overstating the prevalence of hate groups to raise large amounts of money. In a 2000 Harper's Magazine article, Ken Silverstein said that Dees has kept the SPLC focused on fighting anti-minority groups like the KKK, whose membership has declined to just 2,000, instead of on issues like homelessness, mostly because the former issue makes for more lucrative fundraising. The article also claimed that the SPLC "spends twice as much on fund-raising--$5.76 million last year--as it does on legal services for victims of civil rights abuses."[33] Harper's also pointed out that more than 95% of hate crimes are committed by lone wolves without any connection to militia groups the SPLC speaks of.[33]
In July 2007, the SPLC filed suit against the Imperial Klans of America (IKA) in Meade County, where in July 2006 five Klansmen allegedly beat Jordan Gruver, a 16-year-old boy of Panamanian descent, at a Kentucky county fair.[20] After filing the suit, the SPLC received nearly a dozen threats.[20] During the November 2008 civil trial, a former member of the IKA said that the Klan head told him to kill Dees.[34]
In 2008, the SPLC and Dees were featured on National Geographic‍ '​s Inside American Terror exploring their litigation against several branches of the Ku Klux Klan.[35]
Litigation[edit]
The Southern Poverty Law Center has won multiple civil cases resulting in monetary awards for the plaintiffs. The SPLC has said it does not accept any portion of monetary judgments.[36][37] Dees and the SPLC "have been credited with devising innovative legal ways to cripple hate groups, including seizing their assets."[38]
Young Men's Christian Association in Montgomery, Alabama[edit]
In 1969, prior to founding the SPLC, Dees sued the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in Montgomery, Alabama at the request of civil rights activist Mary Louise Smith, whose son Vincent and nephew Edward[39] the YMCA had refused to allow to attend its summer camp.[40] The YMCA was, of course, a private organization and therefore presumptively not bound by the provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,[41] which would have forbidden them to discriminate against children on the basis of race.[42] However, Dees discovered that, in order to avoid desegregating its recreational facilities,[40] the city of Montgomery had instead signed a secret agreement with the YMCA to operate them as private facilities but on the city's behalf.[42] This fact led the trial court to rule that the YMCA had a "municipal charter" and was therefore bound by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution to desegregate its facilities.[43] According to historian Timothy Minchin, Dees was "emboldened by this victory" when he founded the SPLC in 1971.[42] The United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit(α) later affirmed the trial judge's finding, reversing only his order that the YMCA use affirmative action to racially integrate its board of directors.[44]
Vietnamese fishermen[edit]
In 1981, the SPLC took Ku Klux Klan leader Louis Beam's Klan-associated militia, the Texas Emergency Reserve (TER),[45] to court to stop racial harassment and intimidation of Vietnamese shrimpers in and around Galveston Bay.[46] The Klan actions against the approximately 100 Vietnamese shrimpers in the area included a cross burning,[47] sniper fire aimed at them, and arsonists burning their boats.[48] In May 1981 U.S. District Court judge Gabrielle McDonald[49] issued a preliminary injunction against the Klan, requiring them to cease intimidating, threatening, or harassing the Vietnamese.[50] McDonald eventually found the TER and Beam guilty of tortious interference, violations of the Sherman Antitrust Act, and of various civil rights statutes and thus permanently enjoined them against violence, threatening behavior, and other harassment of the Vietnamese Shrimpers.[49] The SPLC also uncovered an "obscure" Texas law "that forbade private armies in that state."[51] McDonald found that Beam's organization violated it and hence ordered the TER to close its military training camp.[51]
White Patriot Party[edit]
In 1982 armed members of the Carolina Knights of the Ku Klux Klan terrorized Bobby Person, a black prison guard and members of his family. They harassed and threatened others, including a white woman who had befriended blacks. In 1984 Person became the lead plaintiff in Person v. Carolina Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, a lawsuit brought by the SPLC in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina. The harassment and threats continued during litigation and the court issued an order prohibiting any person from interfering with others inside the courthouse.[52]
In January 1985, the court issued a consent order that prohibited the group's "Grand Dragon," Glenn Miller, and his followers from operating a paramilitary organization, holding parades in black neighborhoods, and from harassing, threatening or harming any black person or white persons who associated with black persons. Subsequently, the court dismissed the plaintiff's claim for damages.[52]
Within a year the court found Miller and his followers, now calling themselves the White Patriot Party, in criminal contempt for violating the consent order. Miller was sentenced to six months in prison followed by a three-year probationary period, during which he was banned from associating with members of any racist group such as the White Patriot Party. Miller refused to obey the terms of his probation. He made underground "declarations of war" against Jews and the federal government before being arrested again. Found guilty of weapons violations, he went to federal prison for three years.[53][54]
United Klans of America[edit]
In 1987, the SPLC successfully brought a civil case against the United Klans of America (UKA) for the 1981 lynching of Michael Donald in Mobile, Alabama by two of the UKA's members.[55] Unable to come up with the $7 million awarded by the jury, the UKA was forced to turn over its national headquarters to Donald's mother, who then sold it for $51,875 and used the money to purchase her first house.[56][57]
White Aryan Resistance[edit]
On November 13, 1988, in Portland, Oregon, three white supremacist members of East Side White Pride and White Aryan Resistance (WAR) beat Mulugeta Seraw to death. Seraw was an Ethiopian man who came to the United States to attend college.[58] In October 1990, the SPLC won a civil case on behalf of Seraw's family against WAR's operator Tom Metzger and his son, John Metzger, for a total of $12.5 million.[59][60] The Metzgers declared bankruptcy, and WAR went out of business. The cost of work for the trial was absorbed by the Anti-Defamation League as well as the SPLC.[61] Metzger still makes payments to Seraw's family.[62]
Church of the Creator[edit]
In May 1991, Harold Mansfield Jr, a black war veteran in the United States Navy, was murdered by a member of the neo-Nazi "Church of the Creator" (now called the Creativity Movement). SPLC represented the victim's family in a civil case and won a judgement of $1 million from the church in March 1994.[63] The church transferred ownership to William Pierce, head of the National Alliance, to avoid paying money to Mansfield's heirs. The SPLC filed suit against Pierce for his role in the fraudulent scheme and won an $85,000 judgment against him in 1995.[64] The amount was upheld on appeal and the money was collected prior to Pierce's death in 2002.[64]
Christian Knights of the KKK[edit]
The SPLC won a $37.8 million verdict on behalf of Macedonia Baptist Church, a 100-year-old black church in Manning, South Carolina, against two Ku Klux Klan chapters and five Klansmen (Christian Knights of the Ku Klux Klan and Invisible Empire, Inc.) in July 1998.[65] The money was awarded stemming from arson convictions in which the Klan burned down the historic black church in 1995.[66] Morris Dees told the press, "If we put the Christian Knights out of business, what's that worth? We don't look at what we can collect. It's what the jury thinks this egregious conduct is worth that matters, along with the message it sends."[67] According to The Washington Post the amount is the "largest-ever civil award for damages in a hate crime case."[67]
Aryan Nations[edit]
In September 2000, the SPLC won a $6.3 million judgment against the Aryan Nations from an Idaho jury who awarded punitive and compensatory damages to a woman and her son who were attacked by Aryan Nations guards.[8] The lawsuit stemmed from the July 1998 attack when security guards at the Aryan Nations compound near Hayden Lake, in northern Idaho. The guards shot at Victoria Keenan and her son.[68] Bullets struck their car several times, causing the car to crash. An Aryan Nations member then held the Keenans at gunpoint.[68] As a result of the judgement, Richard Butler turned over the 20-acre (81,000 m2) compound to the Keenans, who then sold the property to a philanthropist who subsequently donated it to North Idaho College, which designated the land as a "peace park."[69] Because of the lawsuit, members of the AN drew up a plan to kill Dees, which was disrupted by the FBI.[70]
Ten Commandments monument[edit]
See also: Roy Moore § Ten Commandments monument controversy
In 2002, the SPLC and the American Civil Liberties Union filed suit against Alabama Supreme Court Chief Justice Roy Moore for placing a two-ton display of the Ten Commandments in the rotunda of the Alabama Judicial Building.[71] Moore, who had final authority over what decorations were to be placed in the Alabama State Judicial Building's Rotunda, had installed a 5,280 pound (2400 kg) granite block, three feet wide by three feet deep by four feet tall, of the Ten Commandments late at night without the knowledge of any other court justice.[72] After defying several court rulings, Moore was eventually removed from the court, and the monument was removed as well.
Ranch rescue[edit]
On March 18, 2003, two illegal aliens from El Salvador, Edwin Alfredo Mancía Gonzáles and Fátima del Socorro Leiva Medina, were trespassing through a Texas ranch owned by Joseph Sutton. They were accosted by vigilantes known as Ranch Rescue who were recruited by Sutton to patrol the U.S.-Mexico border region nearby.[53]
According to the SPLC, Gonzáles and Medina were held at gunpoint, and Gonzáles was struck on the back of the head with a handgun, and a rottweiler was allowed to attack him. The SPLC said Gonzáles and Medina were threatened with death and otherwise terrorized before being released.[53] The El Salvadorans stated that the ranchers gave them water, cookies and a blanket before letting them go after about an hour. Ranch Rescuer Casey James Nethercott denied hitting either of the trespassers with a gun, and none of the vigilantes were convicted of pistol-whipping.[73]
In 2003, SPLC, the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund, and local attorneys filed a civil suit, Leiva v. Ranch Rescue, in Jim Hogg County, Texas, against Ranch Rescue and several of its associates, seeking damages for assault and illegal detention. In April 2005, SPLC obtained judgments totaling $1 million against Nethercott and Torre John Foote, Ranch Rescue's leader. Those awards came six months after a $350,000 judgment in the same case and coincided with a $100,000 out-of-court settlement with Sutton. Nethercott’s 70-acre (280,000 m2) Arizona property, which was Ranch Rescue's headquarters, was seized to pay the judgment. Nethercott, previously convicted of assault in California, was sentenced to five years in prison for being a felon in possession of a firearm. SPLC staff worked closely with Texas prosecutors to obtain that conviction.[53][74]
Billy Ray Johnson[edit]
Billy Ray Johnson, a black, mentally disabled man, was taken by four white males to a party where he was knocked unconscious then dropped on his head, referred to as a "nigger", and left in a ditch bleeding.[75][76] Due to the event, "Johnson, 46, who suffered serious, permanent brain injuries from the attack, will require care for the rest of his life."[77][78] At a criminal trial the four men received sentences of 30 to 60 days in county jail.[75][79] On April 20, 2007, Billy Ray Johnson was awarded $9 million in damages by a civil jury in Linden, Texas.[76][78][80] The jury hoped that the verdict would improve race relations in the community stemming from a United States Department of Education investigation and other controversial verdicts. During the trial one of the defendants, Cory Hicks, referred to Johnson as "it".[75]
Imperial Klans of America[edit]
In November 2008, the SPLC's case against the Imperial Klans of America (IKA), the nation's second largest Klan organization, began in Meade County, Kentucky.[81] The SPLC filed suit in July 2007 on behalf of Jordan Gruver and his mother against the IKA in Kentucky where in July 2006, five Klansmen savagely beat Gruver at a Kentucky county fair.[82] According to the lawsuit, five Klan members went to the Meade County Fairgrounds in Brandenburg, Kentucky, "to hand out business cards and flyers advertising a 'white-only' IKA function."[82] Two members of the Klan started calling the 16-year-old boy of Panamanian descent a "spic".[82] Subsequently the boy, (5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) and weighing 150 pounds (68 kg)) was beaten and kicked by the Klansmen (one of whom was 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m) and 300 pounds (140 kg)). As a result, the victim received "two cracked ribs, a broken left forearm, multiple cuts and bruises and jaw injuries requiring extensive dental repair."[82]
In a related criminal case in February 2007, Jarred Hensley and Andrew Watkins had been sentenced to three years in prison for beating Gruver.[81] On November 14, 2008, an all-white jury of seven men and seven women awarded $1.5 million in compensatory damages and $1 million in punitive damages to the plaintiff against Ron Edwards, Imperial Wizard of the group, and Jarred Hensley, who participated in the attack.[83] The two other defendants, Andrew Watkins and Joshua Cowles, previously agreed to confidential settlements and were dropped from the suit.[84]
Advocacy[edit]
Opposition to Arizona illegal immigration measure[edit]
Main article: Arizona SB 1070
The SPLC has spoken against Arizona SB 1070, the anti-illegal immigration measure passed by the state of Arizona in 2010, calling it "brazenly unconstitutional" and "a civil rights disaster". In June 2012, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on the case, Arizona v. United States, upholding the provision requiring immigration status checks during law enforcement stops but striking down three other provisions as violations of the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution.
Education[edit]
Tolerance.org[edit]



 Closeup of the Civil Rights Memorial
The SPLC's initiatives include the website Tolerance.org, past winner of the international Webby Award.[85] The site provides daily news on tolerance issues, educational games for children, guidebooks for activists, and resources for parents and teachers.[86][87]
The site's Teaching Tolerance initiative is aimed at two different age groups of students with separate materials for teachers and parents. One portion of the project targets elementary school children, providing material on the history of the civil rights movement.[88] The center's material for elementary school children includes a publication entitled "A fresh look at multicultural 'American English'" which explores the cultural history of common words. A project website includes an interactive program addressing such topics as Native American school mascots, displays of the Confederate flag, and the themes of popular music and entertainment, encouraging pupils to consider racial, gender, and sexual orientation sensitivities.
A similar program aimed at middle and high school pupils includes a "Mix it Up" project urging readers to participate in school activities involving interaction between different social groups.[89] Other features of this project includes political activism tips and reports highlighting student activism. The SPLC puts out a monthly publication typically focusing on a minority, feminist, or LGBT youth organization. Publications such as "Ways to fight hate on campus" suggest ideas for community activism and diversity education.
Teaching Tolerance also provides advice to parents, encouraging multiculturalism in the upbringing of their children.[85] A guide urges parents to "examine the 'diversity profile' of your children's friends," to move to "integrated and economically diverse neighborhoods," and to discourage children from playing with toys or adopting heroes that "promote violence."[this quote needs a citation] The publication also advises parents to use culturally sensitive language (such as the gender-neutral phrasing "Someone Special Day" instead of the traditional Mothers Day and Fathers Day) and to make sure that "cultural diversity (is) reflected in your home's artwork, music and literature."[this quote needs a citation]
Documentaries[edit]
The SPLC also produces documentary films. Two have won Academy Awards for documentary short subject: Mighty Times: The Children's March, in 2005, and A Time for Justice in 1995.[90] Another film was Wall of Tolerance, starring Jennifer Welker. Five others have been nominated for awards.
Law enforcement training[edit]
The SPLC offers training for local, state and federal law enforcement officers by request, focusing "on the history, background, leaders and activities of far-right extremists in the United States".[91][92][93][94][95][96]
Tracking of hate groups and extremists[edit]
Hate group listings[edit]
Main article: List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
The SPLC maintains a list of hate groups defined as groups that "...have beliefs or practices that attack or malign an entire class of people, typically for their immutable characteristics." It says that hate group activities may include speeches, marches, rallies, meetings, publishing, leafleting, and criminal acts such as violence. It says not all groups so listed by the SPLC engage in criminal activity.[5] The FBI has partnered with the SPLC and many other local and national organizations "to establish rapport, share information, address concerns, and cooperate in solving problems".[97]



 Number of SPLC hate groups per million, as of 2013
The SPLC reported that 784 hate groups were active in the United States in 2014, down from 939 in 2013[5] and 1,007 in 2012.[98] These included:
##186 separate Ku Klux Klan (KKK) groups with 52 websites
##196 neo-Nazi groups with 89 websites
##111 White nationalist groups with 190 websites
##98 White power skinhead groups with 25 websites
##39 Christian Identity groups with 37 websites
##93 neo-Confederate groups with 25 websites
##113 black separatist groups with 40 websites
##90 additional groups divided by the SPLC into categories such as anti-gay, Holocaust denial, white power music, radical traditionalist Catholic, among other categories for designated hate groups,[99][100] which maintained another 172 websites.[101] Only organizations active in 2013 were counted, excluding those that appear to exist only on the Internet.[5]
J.M. Berger, writing for Foreign Policy, disputed the 2012 numbers and said that after merging separate groups of similar names "the list of 1,007 becomes a list of 358".[102]
Anti-government patriot groups[edit]
The SPLC's Intelligence Project states that it "identified 1,360 anti-government 'Patriot' groups that were active in 2012" The SPLC describes these groups as parts of an extremist Patriot Movement characterized by anti-government doctrines, conspiracy theories or opposition to the New World Order. The SPLC states that its listing of groups does not imply that such groups "engage in violence or other criminal activities, or are racist".[98][103]
Nativist extremist groups[edit]
The SPLC identified 38 groups which it lists as nativist extremist groups active in 2012. These groups (ordered by the number of groups) were based in 13 states: Maryland (14), California (5), Arizona (3), Texas (3), Florida (2), Missouri (2), New Jersey (2), North Carolina (2), Oregon (1), Rhode Island (1), Pennsylvania (1), Minnesota (1), Georgia (1).[98][104]
Intelligence Report[edit]
Since 1981, the SPLC's Intelligence Project has published a quarterly Intelligence Report that monitors what the SPLC considers radical right hate groups and extremists in the United States.[105][106] The Intelligence Report provides information regarding organizational efforts and tactics of these groups, and has been cited by scholars as reliable and as the most comprehensive source on U.S. right-wing extremism and hate groups.[107][108][109][110] In addition to the Intelligence Report, the SPLC publishes HateWatch Weekly, a newsletter that follows racism and extremism, and the Hatewatch blog, whose subtitle is "Keeping an Eye on the Radical Right".[111]
Two articles published in Intelligence Report have won "Green Eyeshade Excellence in Journalism" awards from the Society of Professional Journalists. "Communing with the Council", written by Heidi Beirich and Bob Moser, took third place for Investigative Journalism in the Magazine Division in 2004,[112][113] and "Southern Gothic", by David Holthouse and Casey Sanchez, took second place for Feature Reporting in the Magazine Division in 2007.[114][115] On March 20, 2009, the Intelligence Project received a Distinguished Public Service Award from the American Immigration Law Foundation for its "outstanding work" covering the anti-immigration movement.[116]
Year in Hate and Extremism[edit]
Since 2001, the SPLC has released an annual issue of the Intelligence Project called Year in Hate later renamed Year in Hate and Extremism, in which they present statistics on the numbers of hate groups in America. The current format of the report covers racial hate groups, nativist hate groups, and other right-wing extremist groups such as groups within the Patriot Movement.
Academic assessment[edit]
In their study of the white separatist movement in the United States, sociologists Betty A. Dobratz and Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile referred to the SPLC's Klanwatch Intelligence Reports in saying "we relied on the SPLC and ADL for general information, but we have noted differences between the way events have been reported and what we saw at rallies. For instance, events were sometimes portrayed in Klanwatch Intelligence Reports as more militant and dangerous with higher turnouts than we observed."[117] Rory McVeigh, the chair of the University of Notre Dame Sociology Department, wrote that "its outstanding reputation is well established, and the SPLC has been an excellent source of information for social scientists who study racist organizations."[107]
Controversy[edit]
In 2010 "22 Republican lawmakers, among them Speaker Boehner and Representative Bachmann, three governors, and a number of conservative organizations took out full-page ads in two Washington papers castigating the SPLC for 'character assassination' by listing the conservative Family Research Council as a hate group."[6][118][119] Critics including journalist Ken Silverstein and political fringe movements researcher Laird Wilcox have accused the SPLC of an incautious approach to assigning the label.[120][121][122] In the wake of an August 2012 shooting at the headquarters of the Family Research Council, some columnists criticized the SPLC's listing of the Family Research Council as an anti-gay hate group while others defended the categorization.[7][122][123] The SPLC defended its listing of anti-gay hate groups, stating that groups were selected not because of their stances on political issues such as gay marriage, but rather on their "propagation of known falsehoods about LGBT people ... that have been thoroughly discredited by scientific authorities".[124]
J.M. Berger of Foreign Policy disputes SPLC analysis in its Intelligence Report and Year in Hate and Extremism reports, and believes the SPLC carries a political slant. He also questions the methodologies used by the SPLC and suggests that it overstates the presence of extremists in the United States.[125] Jesse Walker, writing in the libertarian magazine Reason, charges the SPLC with discrimination and fear-mongering in its portrayal of Patriot groups.[126]
Finances[edit]
The SPLC's activities including litigation are supported by fundraising efforts, and it does not accept any fees or share in legal judgments awarded to clients it represents in court.[127] Starting in 1974, the SPLC set aside money for its endowment because it was "convinced that the day (would) come when nonprofit groups (would) no longer be able to rely on support through mail because of posting and printing costs."[127] The SPLC has received criticism for perceived disproportionate endowment reserves and misleading fundraising practices. In 1994 the Montgomery Advertiser ran a series reporting that the SPLC was financially mismanaged and employed misleading fundraising practices.[16][128] In response co-founder Joe Levin stated: "The Advertiser's lack of interest in the center's programs and its obsessive interest in the center's financial affairs and Mr. Dees' personal life makes it obvious to me that the Advertiser simply wants to smear the center and Mr. Dees."[129] The series was a finalist for but did not win a 1995 Pulitzer Prize in Explanatory Journalism.[130] In 1996 USA Today called the SPLC "the nation's richest civil rights organization", with $68 million in assets at the time.[131][132] Commentators Alexander Cockburn writing in The Nation and Ken Silverstein writing in Harper's Magazine have been sharply critical of the SPLC's fundraising appeals and finances.[133][134][135]
The SPLC stated that during 2008 it spent about 69% of total expenses on program services, and that at the end of 2008 the endowment stood at $156.2 million.[136] According to Charity Navigator, SPLC's 2009 outlays fell into the following categories: program expenses of 67.5%, administrative expenses of 13.4%, and fundraising expenses of 18.9%.[137] In October 2013 the SPLC reported its endowment at $281.1 million.[138]
See also[edit]


Flag of Alabama.svgAlabama portal
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Notes[edit]
^α At the time of the case Alabama was under the jurisdiction of the Fifth Circuit. In 1981 the circuit was split and Alabama was added to the newly created Eleventh Circuit
References[edit]
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50.Jump up ^ Stevens, William K. (May 15, 1981). "Judge Issues Ban on Klan Threat to Vietnamese". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
51.^ Jump up to: a b Gitlin, Marty (2009). The Ku Klux Klan: A Guide to an American Subculture. ABC-CLIO. pp. 41–2. ISBN 978-0-313-36576-8.
52.^ Jump up to: a b "Person v. Carolina Knights of the Ku Klux Klan". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
53.^ Jump up to: a b c d “Fighting hate in the courtroom.” SPLC Report. Special Issue, vol. 38, no.4. Winter 2008. p. 4.
54.Jump up ^ "Supremacist Glenn Miller gets five years in prison". Star-News. 5 January 1988. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
55.Jump up ^ "Donald v. United Klans of America". Southern Poverty Law Center. 1988. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
56.Jump up ^ "Paying Damages For a Lynching". The New York Times. February 21, 1988. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
57.Jump up ^ [1]
58.Jump up ^ "Lawyer makes racists pay". USA Today. October 24, 1990. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
59.Jump up ^ The jury divided the judgment against the defendants as follows: Kyle Brewster, $500,000; Ken Mieske, $500,000;, John Metzger, $1 million; WAR, $3 million; Tom Metzger, $5 million; in addition, the jury awarded $2.5 million for Mulugeta's unrealized future earnings and pain and suffering.
60.Jump up ^ London, Robb (October 26, 1990). "Sending a $12.5 Million Message to a Hate Group". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
61.Jump up ^ Dees & Fiffer 1993, p. 277
62.Jump up ^ "Hate-crime case award will be hard to collect, experts say". The Press-Enterprise. August 24, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-25.[dead link]
63.Jump up ^ "Mansfield v. Church of the Creator". Southern Poverty Law Center. 03/07/1994. Retrieved 2007-08-17. Check date values in: |date= (help)
64.^ Jump up to: a b "Mansfield v. Pierce". Southern Poverty Law Center. 03/07/1994. Retrieved 2007-08-17. Check date values in: |date= (help)
65.Jump up ^ "Klan Must Pay $37 Million for Inciting Church Fire". The New York Times. July 25, 1998. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
66.Jump up ^ "Macedonia v. Christian Knights of the Ku Klux Klan". Southern Poverty Law Center. June 7, 1996. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
67.^ Jump up to: a b "Klan Chapters Held Liable in Church Fire; Jury Awards $37.8 Million in Damages", The Washington Post July 25, 1998
68.^ Jump up to: a b "Keenan v. Aryan Nations". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2000. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
69.Jump up ^ Wakin, Daniel J. (September 9, 2004). "Richard G. Butler, 86, Dies; Founder of the Aryan Nations". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-08-22.
70.Jump up ^ Dees2008, p. 194[broken citation]
71.Jump up ^ "Ten Commandments judge removed from office". CNN. November 14, 2003. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
72.Jump up ^ Glassroth v. Moore (PDF) (M.D. Ala. 2002).
73.Jump up ^ Pollack, Andrew (2005-08-19). "2 Illegal Immigrants Win Arizona Ranch in Court". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-01-01.
74.Jump up ^ "Leiva v. Ranch Rescue". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
75.^ Jump up to: a b c Parker, Laura (April 26, 2007). "A jury's stand against racism reflects hope". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
76.^ Jump up to: a b "The Beating of Billy Ray Johnson". Texas Monthly. February 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
77.Jump up ^ "Johnson v. Amox et al". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005-09-19. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
78.^ Jump up to: a b $9 million award in beating case Chicago Tribune April 21, 2007. Accessed December 10, 2010
79.Jump up ^ "Ex-jailer denies part in assault cover-up". Texarkana Gazette. April 19, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
80.Jump up ^ "Center Wins Justice for Billy Ray Johnson". Southern Poverty Law Center. April 20, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
81.^ Jump up to: a b "No. 2 Klan group on trial in Ky. teen's beating - Southern Poverty Law Center hopes case will bankrupt hate group". Associated Press via MSNBC. November 11, 2008. Retrieved 2012-09-12.
82.^ Jump up to: a b c d "Jordan Gruver and Cynthia Gruver vs. Imperial Klans of America". Southern Poverty Law Center. July 25, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
83.Jump up ^ "Jury awards $2.5 million to teen beaten by Klan members". CNN. November 14, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-18.
84.Jump up ^ Kenning, Chris. 2008. “$2.5 million awarded in Klan beating,” The Courier-Journal (Louisville, Kentucky), November 15, 2008, p. 1.
85.^ Jump up to: a b "Tolerance.org: About us". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
86.Jump up ^ "Teaching Tolerance". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005. Retrieved 2007-08-17.[dead link]
87.Jump up ^ "About Teaching Tolerance". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005. Retrieved 2007-08-17.[dead link]
88.Jump up ^ "Planet Tolerance". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005. Retrieved 2007-08-17.[dead link][dead link]
89.Jump up ^ "Mix it up:Our Story". Southern Poverty Law Center. 2005. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
90.Jump up ^ "Mighty Times: The Children’s March"[dead link], 77th Academy Awards
 ^ "Time for Justice, A (VHS)", directcinema.com[dead link]
91.Jump up ^ "Law Enforcement Training | Southern Poverty Law Center". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved 2012-09-13.
92.Jump up ^ Ariosto, David (August 17, 2012). "SPLC draws conservative ire". CNN. p. 2. Retrieved 2012-09-13.
93.Jump up ^ Gerstenfeld, Phyllis B. (2010). Hate Crimes: Causes, Controls, and Controversies (2 ed.). SAGE. p. 70. ISBN 1412980259.
94.Jump up ^ Finley, Laura (2011). Encyclopedia of School Crime and Violence. ABC-CLIO. p. 452. ISBN 0313362386.
95.Jump up ^ Conser, James A.; Paynich, Rebecca; Gingerich, Terry E. (2011). Law Enforcement in the United States (3 ed.). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 410. ISBN 0763799386.
96.Jump up ^ Hate Crime Statistics: A Resource Book. DIANE Publishing. 1993. p. 103. ISBN 0788105361.
97.Jump up ^ "Hate Crime—Overview". FBI. Retrieved 28 March 2014.
98.^ Jump up to: a b c "The Year in Hate and Extremism". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Spring 2013, Issue 149. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
99.Jump up ^ "Hate Group Numbers Up By 54% Since 2000". Southern Poverty Law Center. February 26, 2009. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
100.Jump up ^ "Active U.S. Hate Groups". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
101.Jump up ^ "Hate websites active in 2008". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Spring 2009, pp. 59-65.
102.Jump up ^ Berger, J.M. (March 12, 2013). "The Hate List: Is America really being overrun by right-wing militants?". Foreign Policy. Retrieved March 28, 2014.
103.Jump up ^ "Active 'Patriot' Groups in the United States in 2012". "The Year in Hate and Extremism". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Spring 2013, Issue 149. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
104.Jump up ^ "Nativist Extremist' Groups 2012". "The Year in Hate and Extremism". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Spring 2013, Issue 149. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
105.Jump up ^ Intelligence Report Get Informed web page Accessed December 18, 2010.
106.Jump up ^ "Intelligence Report". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
107.^ Jump up to: a b McVeigh, Rory (March 2004). "Structured Ignorance and Organized Racism in the United States". Social Forces (University of North Carolina Press) 82 (3): 913. doi:10.1353/sof.2004.0047. JSTOR 3598361.
108.Jump up ^ Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement. David Mark Chalmers. p. 188
109.Jump up ^ Untangling the web of hate: are online "hate sites" deserving of First Amendment Protection?. Brett A. Barnett
110.Jump up ^ "Illinois Association for Cultural Diversity reading list". Western Illinois University. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
111.Jump up ^ "Hatewatch Weekly". Southern Poverty Law Center. Archived from the original on August 21, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
112.Jump up ^ Beirich, Heidi; Bob Moser (2004). "Communing with the Council". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
113.Jump up ^ "Green Eyeshade Awards 2004". Society of Professional Journalists. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
114.Jump up ^ Holthouse, David; Casey Sanchez (2007). "Southern Gothic". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
115.Jump up ^ "Green Eyeshade Awards 2007". Society of Professional Journalists. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
116.Jump up ^ "Intelligence Project Given Award", SPLC Report, Summer 2009, p. 5.
117.Jump up ^ Betty A. Dobratz, Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile, The White Separatist Movement in the United States: "White Power, White Pride!", The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000, 1-3.
118.Jump up ^ Watkins, Tom (August 17, 2012). "After D.C. shooting, fingers point over blame". CNN. Retrieved October 15, 2013.
119.Jump up ^ Yager, Jordy (August 15, 2012). "Shooting spurs heated debate on gay rights, 'hate group' label". The Hill. Retrieved October 15, 2013.
120.Jump up ^ "'Hate', Immigration, and the Southern Poverty Law Center". Harper's Magazine.
121.Jump up ^ Wilcox, Laird, The Watchdogs, self-published through Editorial Research Service, (ISBN 0-933592-89-2)
122.^ Jump up to: a b Allen, Charlotte (April 15, 2013). "King of Fearmongers: Morris Dees and the Southern Poverty Law Center, scaring donors since 1971". Weekly Standard. Retrieved March 28, 2014.
123.Jump up ^ Milbank, Dana (August 6, 2012). "Hateful speech on hate groups". The Washington Post. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
124.Jump up ^ SPLC's Anti-Gay Hate List Compiled With Diligence and Clear Standards
125.Jump up ^ Brennan, Patrick (March 15, 2013). "The SPLC and Slant". National Review Online. Retrieved March 28, 2014.
126.Jump up ^ Jesse Walker (March 3, 2010). "Fearmongering at the SPLC". Reason.
127.^ Jump up to: a b "Endowment Supports Center's Future Work". Southern Poverty Law Center. June 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
128.Jump up ^ Morse, Dan (February 14, 1994), "A complex man: Opportunist or crusader?", Montgomery Advertiser
129.Jump up ^ Morse, Dan & Jaffe, Greg (February 14, 1994), "Critics question $52 million reserve, tactics of wealthiest civil rights group", Montgomery Advertiser
130.Jump up ^ "1995 Finalists: Explanatory Journalism". Pulitzer Prize. 1995. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
131.Jump up ^ Andrea Stone, "Morris Dees: At the Center of the Racial Storm," USA Today, August 3, 1996, A-7
132.Jump up ^ Silverstein, Ken (March 22, 2010). "'Hate', Immigration, and the Southern Poverty Law Center". Harper's Magazine. Retrieved June 12, 2011.
133.Jump up ^ Cockburn, Alexander (November 9, 1998), "The Conscience Industry", The Nation, "Morris Dees has raised an endowment of close to $100 million, with which he's done little, by frightening elderly liberals that the heirs of Adolf Hitler are about to march down Main Street, lynching blacks and putting Jews into ovens. The fund raising of Dees and the richly rewarded efforts of terror mongers like Leonard Zeskind offer a dreadfully distorted view of American political realities."
134.Jump up ^ Silverstein, Ken (November 1, 2000), "The Church of Morris Dees: How the Southern Poverty Law Center profits from intolerance", Harper's Magazine, p. 54
135.Jump up ^ Silverstein, Ken (March 2, 2007), "This Week in Babylon: Southern Poverty: richer than Tonga"[dead link], Harper's Magazine
136.Jump up ^ SPLC Financial Information
137.Jump up ^ "Southern Poverty Law Center", Charity Navigator, retrieved June 12, 2011
138.Jump up ^ [2]. Retrieved May 26, 2014.
Bibliography##Dees, Morris, and Steve Fiffer. 1991. A Season for Justice: The Life and Times of Civil Rights Lawyer Morris Dees. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-19189-X
##Dees, Morris, and Steve Fiffer. 1993. Hate on Trial: The Case Against America's Most Dangerous Neo-Nazi. New York: Villard Books. ISBN 0-679-40614-X.
##Fleming, Maria, ed. 2001. A Place At The Table: Struggles for Equality in America. New York: Oxford University Press in association with the Southern Poverty Law Center. ASIN B008TCFV46. ISBN 978-0195150360.
##Hall, Dave, Tym Burkey and Katherine M. Ramsland. 2008. Into the Devil’s Den. New York: Ballantine. ISBN 978-0-345-49694-2.
##Day, Katie (January 21, 2010) "Southern Poverty Law Center". Encyclopedia of Alabama online
External links[edit]
##Official website
##Official Tecahing Tolerance website
##Voices on Antisemitism Interview with Mark Potok from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
##Smith v. Young Men's Christian Association of Montgomery Inc. (462 F. 2d 634), United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit decision in the SPLC's case against the Montgomery, Alabama YMCA. Open Jurist. Accessed April 22, 2014


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