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Oceanography

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For the scientific journal, see Oceanography (journal).
"Ocean science" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see Ocean Science (journal).



Thermohaline circulation
Oceanography (compound of the Greek words ὠκεανός meaning "ocean" and γράφω meaning "write"), also known as oceanology and marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within: astronomy, biology, chemistry, climatology, geography, geology, hydrology, meteorology and physics. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past.


Contents  [hide]
1 History 1.1 Early history
2 Modern oceanography
3 Ocean acidification
4 Ocean currents
5 Ocean heat content
6 Branches
7 Oceanographic institutions
8 Related disciplines
9 See also
10 References
11 External links

History[edit]



 Map of the Gulf Stream by Benjamin Franklin, 1769-1770. Courtesy of the NOAA Photo Library.
Early history[edit]
Humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were recorded by Aristotle and Strabo. Early exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken.
Although Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified the Gulf Stream, and the current was well-known to mariners, Benjamin Franklin made the first scientific study of it and gave it its name. Franklin measured water temperatures during several Atlantic crossings and correctly explained the Gulf Stream's cause. Franklin and Timothy Folger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769-1770.[1][2]



 1799 map of the currents in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, by James Rennell
Information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean was gathered by explorers of the late 18th century, including James Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville. James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks on oceanography, detailing the current flows of the Atlantic and Indian oceans. During a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1777, he mapped "the banks and currents at the Lagullas". He was also the first to understand the nature of the intermittent current near the Isles of Scilly, (now known as Rennell's Current).[3]
Sir James Clark Ross took the first modern sounding in deep sea in 1840, and Charles Darwin published a paper on reefs and the formation of atolls as a result of the Second voyage of HMS Beagle in 1831-6. Robert FitzRoy published a four-volume report of the Beagle's three voyages. In 1841–1842 Edward Forbes undertook dredging in the Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology.
The first superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory (1842–1861), Matthew Fontaine Maury devoted his time to the study of marine meteorology, navigation, and charting prevailing winds and currents. His 1855 textbook Physical Geography of the Sea was one of the first comprehensive oceanography studies. Many nations sent oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval Observatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated the information and distributed the results worldwide.[4]
Modern oceanography[edit]
Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans remained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water and a small amount of the bottom, mainly in shallow areas. Almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. The Royal Navy's efforts to chart all of the world's coastlines in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that most of the ocean was very deep, although little more was known. As exploration ignited both popular and scientific interest in the polar regions and Africa, so too did the mysteries of the unexplored oceans.



HMS Challenger undertook the first global marine research expedition in 1872.
The seminal event in the founding of the modern science of oceanography was the 1872-76 Challenger expedition. As the first true oceanographic cruise, this expedition laid the groundwork for an entire academic and research discipline.[5] In response to a recommendation from the Royal Society, The British Government announced in 1871 an expedition to explore world's oceans and conduct appropriate scientific investigation. Charles Wyville Thompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger expedition. The Challenger, leased from the Royal Navy, was modified for scientific work and equipped with separate laboratories for natural history and chemistry.[6] Under the scientific supervision of Thomson, Challenger travelled nearly 70,000 nautical miles (130,000 km) surveying and exploring. On her journey circumnavigating the globe,[6] 492 deep sea soundings, 133 bottom dredges, 151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken.[7] Around 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. The result was the Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-76. Murray, who supervised the publication, described the report as "the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries". He went on to found the academic discipline of oceanography at the University of Edinburgh, which remained the centre for oceanographic research well into the 20th century.[8] Murray was the first to study marine trenches and in particular the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and map the sedimentary deposits in the oceans. He tried to map out the world's ocean currents based on salinity and temperature observations, and was the first to correctly understand the nature of coral reef development.
In the late 19th century, other Western nations also sent out scientific expeditions (as did private individuals and institutions). The first purpose built oceanographic ship, the Albatros, was built in 1882. In 1893, Fridtjof Nansen allowed his ship, Fram, to be frozen in the Arctic ice. This enabled him to obtain oceanographic, meteorological and astronomical data at a stationary spot over an extended period.



Ocean currents (1911)
Between 1907 and 1911 Otto Krümmel published the Handbuch der Ozeanographie, which became influential in awakening public interest in oceanography.[9] The four-month 1910 North Atlantic expedition headed by John Murray and Johan Hjort was the most ambitious research oceanographic and marine zoological project ever mounted until then, and led to the classic 1912 book The Depths of the Ocean.
The first acoustic measurement of sea depth was made in 1914. Between 1925 and 1927 the "Meteor" expedition gathered 70,000 ocean depth measurements using an echo sounder, surveying the Mid-Atlantic ridge.
Sverdrup, Johnson and Fleming published The Oceans in 1942,[10] which was a major landmark. The Sea (in three volumes, covering physical oceanography, seawater and geology) edited by M.N. Hill was published in 1962, while Rhodes Fairbridge's Encyclopedia of Oceanography was published in 1966.
The Great Global Rift, running along the Mid Atlantic Ridge, was discovered by Maurice Ewing and Bruce Heezen in 1953; in 1954 a mountain range under the Arctic Ocean was found by the Arctic Institute of the USSR. The theory of seafloor spreading was developed in 1960 by Harry Hammond Hess. The Ocean Drilling Project started in 1966. Deep sea vents were discovered in 1977 by John Corlis and Robert Ballard in the submersible DSV Alvin.
In the 1950s, Auguste Piccard invented the bathyscaphe and used the Trieste to investigate the ocean's depths. The United States nuclear submarine Nautilus made the first journey under the ice to the North Pole in 1958. In 1962 the FLIP (Floating Instrument Platform), a 355 foot spar buoy, was first deployed.
From the 1970s, there has been much emphasis on the application of large scale computers to oceanography to allow numerical predictions of ocean conditions and as a part of overall environmental change prediction. An oceanographic buoy array was established in the Pacific to allow prediction of El Niño events.
1990 saw the start of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) which continued until 2002. Geosat seafloor mapping data became available in 1995.
In recent years studies advanced particular knowledge on ocean acidification, ocean heat content, ocean currents, the El Niño phenomenon, mapping of methane hydrate deposits, the carbon cycle, coastal erosion, weathering and climate feedbacks in regards to climate change interactions.
Study of the oceans is linked to understanding global climate changes, potential global warming and related biosphere concerns. The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of evaporation and precipitation as well as thermal flux (and solar insolation). Wind stress is a major driver of ocean currents while the ocean is a sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. All these factors relate to the ocean's biogeochemical setup.
Ocean acidification[edit]
Main article: Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification describes the decrease in ocean pH that is caused by anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the atmosphere.[11] Seawater is slightly alkaline and had a preindustrial pH of about 8.2. More recently, anthropogenic activities have steadily increased the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere; about 30–40% of the added CO2 is absorbed by the oceans, forming carbonic acid and lowering the pH (now below 8.1[12]) through ocean acidification.[13][14][15] The pH is expected to reach 7.7 by the year 2100.[16]
An important element for the skeletons of marine animals is calcium, but calcium carbonate becomes more soluble with pressure, so carbonate shells and skeletons dissolve below the carbonate compensation depth.[17] Calcium carbonate becomes more soluble at lower pH, so ocean acidification is likely to affect marine organisms with calcareous shells, such as oysters, clams, sea urchins and corals,[18][19] and the carbonate compensation depth will rise closer to the sea surface. Affected planktonic organisms will include pteropods, coccolithophorids and foraminifera, all important in the food chain. In tropical regions, corals are likely to be severely affected as they become less able to build their calcium carbonate skeletons,[20] in turn adversely impacting other reef dwellers.[16]
The current rate of ocean chemistry change seems to be unprecedented in Earth's geological history, making it unclear how well marine ecosystems will adapt to the shifting conditions of the near future.[21] Of particular concern is the manner in which the combination of acidification with the expected additional stressors of higher temperatures and lower oxygen levels will impact the seas.[22]
Ocean currents[edit]
Further information: Ocean current
Since the early ocean expeditions in oceanography, a major interest was the study of the ocean currents and temperature measurements. The tides, the Coriolis effect, changes in direction and strength of wind, salinity and temperature are the main factors determining ocean currents. The thermohaline circulation (THC) thermo- referring to temperature and -haline referring to salt content connects 4 of 5 ocean basins and is primarily dependent on the density of sea water. Ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream are wind-driven surface currents.
Ocean heat content[edit]


File:Oceans of Climate Change.ogv
Play media


Oceans of Climate Change NASA
Further information: Oceanic heat content
Oceanic heat content (OHC) refers to the heat stored in the ocean. The changes in the ocean heat play an important role in sea level rise, because of thermal expansion. Ocean warming accounts for 90% of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010.[23]
Branches[edit]



 Oceanographic frontal systems on the Southern Hemisphere
The study of oceanography is divided into branches:
Biological oceanography investigates the ecology of marine organisms in the context of the physical, chemical, and geological characteristics of their ocean environment. It is closely aligned with marine biology, though the latter has more emphasis on the biology of individual marine organisms.
Chemical oceanography, or marine (or ocean) chemistry, is the study of the chemistry of the ocean and its chemical interaction with the atmosphere.
Geological oceanography, or marine geology, is the study of the geology of the ocean floor including plate tectonics and paleoceanography.
Physical oceanography, or marine physics, studies the ocean's physical attributes including temperature-salinity structure, mixing, surface waves, internal waves, surface tides, internal tides, and currents.
Oceanographic Engineering or ocean(ic) engineering, the design, development, and operation of sensors, instruments and equipment for oceanographic science, as defined by organisations such as the Society for Underwater Technology, The IMarEST (Institute of Marine Engineering Science and Technology), or the IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society; as such a branch of Marine Engineering in its broadest sense.
These branches reflect the fact that many oceanographers are first trained in the exact sciences or mathematics and then focus on applying their interdisciplinary knowledge, skills and abilities to oceanography.[24]
Data derived from the work of Oceanographers is used in marine engineering, in the design and building of oil platforms, ships, harbours, and other structures that allow us to use the ocean safely.[25]
Oceanographic data management is the discipline ensuring that oceanographic data both past and present are available to researchers.
Oceanographic institutions[edit]



 Oceanographic Museum Monaco
See also: List of oceanographic institutions and programs
The first international organization of oceanography was created in 1902 as the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. In 1903 the Scripps Institution of Oceanography was founded, followed by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in 1930, Virginia Institute of Marine Science in 1938, and later the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University, and the School of Oceanography at University of Washington. In Britain, the National Oceanography Centre (part of Natural Environment Research Council) is the successor to the Institute of Oceanography. In Australia, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research (CMAR), is a leading centre. In 1921 the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB) was formed in Monaco.
Related disciplines[edit]
Biogeochemistry
Biogeography
Climatology
Coastal geography
Environmental science
Geophysics
Glaciology
Hydrography
Hydrology
Limnology
Meteorology
MetOcean
See also[edit]

Portal icon Underwater diving portal
Anoxic event – Anoxic sea water
Argo (oceanography)
Bathymetric chart
Ecological Forecasting
List of ocean circulation models
List of seas
List of submarine topographical features
Marine archaeology
Marine current power
Marine engineering
Ocean colonization
Ocean engineering
Oceans Act of 2000
Sea level
Sea level rise
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ 1785: Benjamin Franklin's 'Sundry Maritime Observations'
2.Jump up ^ Wilkinson, Jerry. History of the Gulf Stream 1 January 2008
3.Jump up ^  Lee, Sidney, ed. (1896). "Rennell, James". Dictionary of National Biography 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
4.Jump up ^ Williams, Frances L. Matthew Fontaine Maury, Scientist of the Sea. (1969) ISBN 0-8135-0433-3
5.Jump up ^ Then and Now: The HMS Challenger Expedition and the 'Mountains in the Sea' Expedition, Ocean Explorer website (NOAA), accessed 2 January 2012
6.^ Jump up to: a b Rice, A. L. (1999). "The Challenger Expedition". Understanding the Oceans: Marine Science in the Wake of HMS Challenger. Routledge. pp. 27–48. ISBN 978-1-85728-705-9.
7.Jump up ^ Oceanography: an introduction to the marine environment (Peter K. Weyl, 1970), p. 49
8.Jump up ^ "Sir John Murray (1841-1914) - Founder Of Modern Oceanography". Science and Engineering at The University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 7 November 2013.
9.Jump up ^ Otto Krümmel (1907). [Online Abstract "Handbuch der Ozeanographie"]. J. Engelhorn.
10.Jump up ^ Sverdrup, Harald Ulrik; Johnson, Martin Wiggo; Fleming, Richard H. (1942). The Oceans, Their Physics, Chemistry, and General Biology. New York: Prentice-Hall.
11.Jump up ^ Caldeira, K.; Wickett, M. E. (2003). "Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH" (PDF). Nature 425 (6956): 365–365. Bibcode:2001AGUFMOS11C0385C. doi:10.1038/425365a. PMID 14508477.
12.Jump up ^ "Ocean Acidity". U.S. EPA climate change web site. EPA. 13 September 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
13.Jump up ^ Feely, R. A. et al. (July 2004). "Impact of Anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 System in the Oceans". Science 305 (5682): 362–366. Bibcode:2004Sci...305..362F. doi:10.1126/science.1097329. PMID 15256664.
14.Jump up ^ Zeebe, R. E.; Zachos, J. C.; Caldeira, K.; Tyrrell, T. (4 July 2008). "OCEANS: Carbon Emissions and Acidification". Science 321 (5885): 51–52. doi:10.1126/science.1159124. PMID 18599765.
15.Jump up ^ Gattuso, J.-P.; Hansson, L. (15 September 2011). Ocean Acidification. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959109-1. OCLC 730413873.
16.^ Jump up to: a b "Ocean acidification". Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population & Communities: Australian Antarctic Division. 28 September 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
17.Jump up ^ Pinet, Paul R. (1996). Invitation to Oceanography. West Publishing Company. pp. 126, 134–135. ISBN 978-0-314-06339-7.
18.Jump up ^ "What is Ocean Acidification?". NOAA PMEL Carbon Program. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
19.Jump up ^ Orr, James C. et al. (2005). "Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms" (PDF). Nature 437 (7059): 681–686. Bibcode:2005Natur.437..681O. doi:10.1038/nature04095. PMID 16193043. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2008.
20.Jump up ^ Cohen, A.; Holcomb, M. (2009). "Why Corals Care About Ocean Acidification: Uncovering the Mechanism" (PDF). Oceanography 24 (4): 118–127. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2009.102.
21.Jump up ^ Hönisch, Bärbel; Ridgwell, Andy; Schmidt, Daniela N.; Thomas, E. et al. (2012). "The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification". Science 335 (6072): 1058–1063. Bibcode:2012Sci...335.1058H. doi:10.1126/science.1208277. PMID 22383840.
22.Jump up ^ Gruber, N. (18 April 2011). "Warming up, turning sour, losing breath: ocean biogeochemistry under global change". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369 (1943): 1980–96. Bibcode:2011RSPTA.369.1980G. doi:10.1098/rsta.2011.0003.
23.Jump up ^ IPCC AR5 WG1 (2013). PDF "Summary for policymakers" (PDF).
24.Jump up ^ Impact from the Deep; October 2006; Scientific American Magazine; by Peter D. Ward; p. 8
25.Jump up ^ Tom Garrison. "Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science" 5th edition. Thomson, 2005. p. 4
Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2005) Oceanographers and the Cold War: Disciples of Marine Science. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98482-7
Steele, J., K. Turekian and S. Thorpe. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences. San Diego: Academic Press. (6 vols.) ISBN 0-12-227430-X
Sverdrup, Keith A., Duxbury, Alyn C., Duxbury, Alison B. (2006). Fundamentals of Oceanography, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-282678-9
Lang, Michael A., Ian G. Macintyre, and Klaus Rützler, eds. Proceedings of the Smithsonian Marine Science Symposium. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, no. 38. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press (2009)
Boling Guo, Daiwen Huang. Infinite-Dimensional Dynamical Systems in Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, 2014, World Scientific Publishing, ISBN 978-981-4590-37-2. Sample Chapter
External links[edit]
 Wikisource has the text of the 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica article Oceanography.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oceanography.
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory - Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PO.DAAC). A data center responsible for archiving and distributing data about the physical state of the ocean.
Scripps Institution of Oceanography. One of the world's oldest, largest, and most important centers for ocean and Earth science research, education, and public service.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI). One of the world's largest private, non-profit ocean research, engineering and education organizations.
British Oceanographic Data Centre. A source of oceanographic data and information.
NOAA Ocean and Weather Data Navigator. Plot and download ocean data.
Freeview Video 'Voyage to the Bottom of the Deep Deep Sea' Oceanography Programme by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/Open University.
Atlas of Spanish Oceanography by InvestigAdHoc.
Glossary of Physical Oceanography and Related Disciplines by Steven K. Baum, Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University
Barcelona-Ocean.com Inspiring Education in Marine Sciences


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Oceanography

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For the scientific journal, see Oceanography (journal).
"Ocean science" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see Ocean Science (journal).



Thermohaline circulation
Oceanography (compound of the Greek words ὠκεανός meaning "ocean" and γράφω meaning "write"), also known as oceanology and marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within: astronomy, biology, chemistry, climatology, geography, geology, hydrology, meteorology and physics. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past.


Contents  [hide]
1 History 1.1 Early history
2 Modern oceanography
3 Ocean acidification
4 Ocean currents
5 Ocean heat content
6 Branches
7 Oceanographic institutions
8 Related disciplines
9 See also
10 References
11 External links

History[edit]



 Map of the Gulf Stream by Benjamin Franklin, 1769-1770. Courtesy of the NOAA Photo Library.
Early history[edit]
Humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were recorded by Aristotle and Strabo. Early exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken.
Although Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified the Gulf Stream, and the current was well-known to mariners, Benjamin Franklin made the first scientific study of it and gave it its name. Franklin measured water temperatures during several Atlantic crossings and correctly explained the Gulf Stream's cause. Franklin and Timothy Folger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769-1770.[1][2]



 1799 map of the currents in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, by James Rennell
Information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean was gathered by explorers of the late 18th century, including James Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville. James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks on oceanography, detailing the current flows of the Atlantic and Indian oceans. During a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1777, he mapped "the banks and currents at the Lagullas". He was also the first to understand the nature of the intermittent current near the Isles of Scilly, (now known as Rennell's Current).[3]
Sir James Clark Ross took the first modern sounding in deep sea in 1840, and Charles Darwin published a paper on reefs and the formation of atolls as a result of the Second voyage of HMS Beagle in 1831-6. Robert FitzRoy published a four-volume report of the Beagle's three voyages. In 1841–1842 Edward Forbes undertook dredging in the Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology.
The first superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory (1842–1861), Matthew Fontaine Maury devoted his time to the study of marine meteorology, navigation, and charting prevailing winds and currents. His 1855 textbook Physical Geography of the Sea was one of the first comprehensive oceanography studies. Many nations sent oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval Observatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated the information and distributed the results worldwide.[4]
Modern oceanography[edit]
Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans remained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water and a small amount of the bottom, mainly in shallow areas. Almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. The Royal Navy's efforts to chart all of the world's coastlines in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that most of the ocean was very deep, although little more was known. As exploration ignited both popular and scientific interest in the polar regions and Africa, so too did the mysteries of the unexplored oceans.



HMS Challenger undertook the first global marine research expedition in 1872.
The seminal event in the founding of the modern science of oceanography was the 1872-76 Challenger expedition. As the first true oceanographic cruise, this expedition laid the groundwork for an entire academic and research discipline.[5] In response to a recommendation from the Royal Society, The British Government announced in 1871 an expedition to explore world's oceans and conduct appropriate scientific investigation. Charles Wyville Thompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger expedition. The Challenger, leased from the Royal Navy, was modified for scientific work and equipped with separate laboratories for natural history and chemistry.[6] Under the scientific supervision of Thomson, Challenger travelled nearly 70,000 nautical miles (130,000 km) surveying and exploring. On her journey circumnavigating the globe,[6] 492 deep sea soundings, 133 bottom dredges, 151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken.[7] Around 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. The result was the Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-76. Murray, who supervised the publication, described the report as "the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries". He went on to found the academic discipline of oceanography at the University of Edinburgh, which remained the centre for oceanographic research well into the 20th century.[8] Murray was the first to study marine trenches and in particular the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and map the sedimentary deposits in the oceans. He tried to map out the world's ocean currents based on salinity and temperature observations, and was the first to correctly understand the nature of coral reef development.
In the late 19th century, other Western nations also sent out scientific expeditions (as did private individuals and institutions). The first purpose built oceanographic ship, the Albatros, was built in 1882. In 1893, Fridtjof Nansen allowed his ship, Fram, to be frozen in the Arctic ice. This enabled him to obtain oceanographic, meteorological and astronomical data at a stationary spot over an extended period.



Ocean currents (1911)
Between 1907 and 1911 Otto Krümmel published the Handbuch der Ozeanographie, which became influential in awakening public interest in oceanography.[9] The four-month 1910 North Atlantic expedition headed by John Murray and Johan Hjort was the most ambitious research oceanographic and marine zoological project ever mounted until then, and led to the classic 1912 book The Depths of the Ocean.
The first acoustic measurement of sea depth was made in 1914. Between 1925 and 1927 the "Meteor" expedition gathered 70,000 ocean depth measurements using an echo sounder, surveying the Mid-Atlantic ridge.
Sverdrup, Johnson and Fleming published The Oceans in 1942,[10] which was a major landmark. The Sea (in three volumes, covering physical oceanography, seawater and geology) edited by M.N. Hill was published in 1962, while Rhodes Fairbridge's Encyclopedia of Oceanography was published in 1966.
The Great Global Rift, running along the Mid Atlantic Ridge, was discovered by Maurice Ewing and Bruce Heezen in 1953; in 1954 a mountain range under the Arctic Ocean was found by the Arctic Institute of the USSR. The theory of seafloor spreading was developed in 1960 by Harry Hammond Hess. The Ocean Drilling Project started in 1966. Deep sea vents were discovered in 1977 by John Corlis and Robert Ballard in the submersible DSV Alvin.
In the 1950s, Auguste Piccard invented the bathyscaphe and used the Trieste to investigate the ocean's depths. The United States nuclear submarine Nautilus made the first journey under the ice to the North Pole in 1958. In 1962 the FLIP (Floating Instrument Platform), a 355 foot spar buoy, was first deployed.
From the 1970s, there has been much emphasis on the application of large scale computers to oceanography to allow numerical predictions of ocean conditions and as a part of overall environmental change prediction. An oceanographic buoy array was established in the Pacific to allow prediction of El Niño events.
1990 saw the start of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) which continued until 2002. Geosat seafloor mapping data became available in 1995.
In recent years studies advanced particular knowledge on ocean acidification, ocean heat content, ocean currents, the El Niño phenomenon, mapping of methane hydrate deposits, the carbon cycle, coastal erosion, weathering and climate feedbacks in regards to climate change interactions.
Study of the oceans is linked to understanding global climate changes, potential global warming and related biosphere concerns. The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of evaporation and precipitation as well as thermal flux (and solar insolation). Wind stress is a major driver of ocean currents while the ocean is a sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. All these factors relate to the ocean's biogeochemical setup.
Ocean acidification[edit]
Main article: Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification describes the decrease in ocean pH that is caused by anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the atmosphere.[11] Seawater is slightly alkaline and had a preindustrial pH of about 8.2. More recently, anthropogenic activities have steadily increased the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere; about 30–40% of the added CO2 is absorbed by the oceans, forming carbonic acid and lowering the pH (now below 8.1[12]) through ocean acidification.[13][14][15] The pH is expected to reach 7.7 by the year 2100.[16]
An important element for the skeletons of marine animals is calcium, but calcium carbonate becomes more soluble with pressure, so carbonate shells and skeletons dissolve below the carbonate compensation depth.[17] Calcium carbonate becomes more soluble at lower pH, so ocean acidification is likely to affect marine organisms with calcareous shells, such as oysters, clams, sea urchins and corals,[18][19] and the carbonate compensation depth will rise closer to the sea surface. Affected planktonic organisms will include pteropods, coccolithophorids and foraminifera, all important in the food chain. In tropical regions, corals are likely to be severely affected as they become less able to build their calcium carbonate skeletons,[20] in turn adversely impacting other reef dwellers.[16]
The current rate of ocean chemistry change seems to be unprecedented in Earth's geological history, making it unclear how well marine ecosystems will adapt to the shifting conditions of the near future.[21] Of particular concern is the manner in which the combination of acidification with the expected additional stressors of higher temperatures and lower oxygen levels will impact the seas.[22]
Ocean currents[edit]
Further information: Ocean current
Since the early ocean expeditions in oceanography, a major interest was the study of the ocean currents and temperature measurements. The tides, the Coriolis effect, changes in direction and strength of wind, salinity and temperature are the main factors determining ocean currents. The thermohaline circulation (THC) thermo- referring to temperature and -haline referring to salt content connects 4 of 5 ocean basins and is primarily dependent on the density of sea water. Ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream are wind-driven surface currents.
Ocean heat content[edit]


File:Oceans of Climate Change.ogv
Play media


Oceans of Climate Change NASA
Further information: Oceanic heat content
Oceanic heat content (OHC) refers to the heat stored in the ocean. The changes in the ocean heat play an important role in sea level rise, because of thermal expansion. Ocean warming accounts for 90% of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010.[23]
Branches[edit]



 Oceanographic frontal systems on the Southern Hemisphere
The study of oceanography is divided into branches:
Biological oceanography investigates the ecology of marine organisms in the context of the physical, chemical, and geological characteristics of their ocean environment. It is closely aligned with marine biology, though the latter has more emphasis on the biology of individual marine organisms.
Chemical oceanography, or marine (or ocean) chemistry, is the study of the chemistry of the ocean and its chemical interaction with the atmosphere.
Geological oceanography, or marine geology, is the study of the geology of the ocean floor including plate tectonics and paleoceanography.
Physical oceanography, or marine physics, studies the ocean's physical attributes including temperature-salinity structure, mixing, surface waves, internal waves, surface tides, internal tides, and currents.
Oceanographic Engineering or ocean(ic) engineering, the design, development, and operation of sensors, instruments and equipment for oceanographic science, as defined by organisations such as the Society for Underwater Technology, The IMarEST (Institute of Marine Engineering Science and Technology), or the IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society; as such a branch of Marine Engineering in its broadest sense.
These branches reflect the fact that many oceanographers are first trained in the exact sciences or mathematics and then focus on applying their interdisciplinary knowledge, skills and abilities to oceanography.[24]
Data derived from the work of Oceanographers is used in marine engineering, in the design and building of oil platforms, ships, harbours, and other structures that allow us to use the ocean safely.[25]
Oceanographic data management is the discipline ensuring that oceanographic data both past and present are available to researchers.
Oceanographic institutions[edit]



 Oceanographic Museum Monaco
See also: List of oceanographic institutions and programs
The first international organization of oceanography was created in 1902 as the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. In 1903 the Scripps Institution of Oceanography was founded, followed by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in 1930, Virginia Institute of Marine Science in 1938, and later the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University, and the School of Oceanography at University of Washington. In Britain, the National Oceanography Centre (part of Natural Environment Research Council) is the successor to the Institute of Oceanography. In Australia, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research (CMAR), is a leading centre. In 1921 the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB) was formed in Monaco.
Related disciplines[edit]
Biogeochemistry
Biogeography
Climatology
Coastal geography
Environmental science
Geophysics
Glaciology
Hydrography
Hydrology
Limnology
Meteorology
MetOcean
See also[edit]

Portal icon Underwater diving portal
Anoxic event – Anoxic sea water
Argo (oceanography)
Bathymetric chart
Ecological Forecasting
List of ocean circulation models
List of seas
List of submarine topographical features
Marine archaeology
Marine current power
Marine engineering
Ocean colonization
Ocean engineering
Oceans Act of 2000
Sea level
Sea level rise
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ 1785: Benjamin Franklin's 'Sundry Maritime Observations'
2.Jump up ^ Wilkinson, Jerry. History of the Gulf Stream 1 January 2008
3.Jump up ^  Lee, Sidney, ed. (1896). "Rennell, James". Dictionary of National Biography 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
4.Jump up ^ Williams, Frances L. Matthew Fontaine Maury, Scientist of the Sea. (1969) ISBN 0-8135-0433-3
5.Jump up ^ Then and Now: The HMS Challenger Expedition and the 'Mountains in the Sea' Expedition, Ocean Explorer website (NOAA), accessed 2 January 2012
6.^ Jump up to: a b Rice, A. L. (1999). "The Challenger Expedition". Understanding the Oceans: Marine Science in the Wake of HMS Challenger. Routledge. pp. 27–48. ISBN 978-1-85728-705-9.
7.Jump up ^ Oceanography: an introduction to the marine environment (Peter K. Weyl, 1970), p. 49
8.Jump up ^ "Sir John Murray (1841-1914) - Founder Of Modern Oceanography". Science and Engineering at The University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 7 November 2013.
9.Jump up ^ Otto Krümmel (1907). [Online Abstract "Handbuch der Ozeanographie"]. J. Engelhorn.
10.Jump up ^ Sverdrup, Harald Ulrik; Johnson, Martin Wiggo; Fleming, Richard H. (1942). The Oceans, Their Physics, Chemistry, and General Biology. New York: Prentice-Hall.
11.Jump up ^ Caldeira, K.; Wickett, M. E. (2003). "Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH" (PDF). Nature 425 (6956): 365–365. Bibcode:2001AGUFMOS11C0385C. doi:10.1038/425365a. PMID 14508477.
12.Jump up ^ "Ocean Acidity". U.S. EPA climate change web site. EPA. 13 September 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
13.Jump up ^ Feely, R. A. et al. (July 2004). "Impact of Anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 System in the Oceans". Science 305 (5682): 362–366. Bibcode:2004Sci...305..362F. doi:10.1126/science.1097329. PMID 15256664.
14.Jump up ^ Zeebe, R. E.; Zachos, J. C.; Caldeira, K.; Tyrrell, T. (4 July 2008). "OCEANS: Carbon Emissions and Acidification". Science 321 (5885): 51–52. doi:10.1126/science.1159124. PMID 18599765.
15.Jump up ^ Gattuso, J.-P.; Hansson, L. (15 September 2011). Ocean Acidification. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959109-1. OCLC 730413873.
16.^ Jump up to: a b "Ocean acidification". Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population & Communities: Australian Antarctic Division. 28 September 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
17.Jump up ^ Pinet, Paul R. (1996). Invitation to Oceanography. West Publishing Company. pp. 126, 134–135. ISBN 978-0-314-06339-7.
18.Jump up ^ "What is Ocean Acidification?". NOAA PMEL Carbon Program. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
19.Jump up ^ Orr, James C. et al. (2005). "Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms" (PDF). Nature 437 (7059): 681–686. Bibcode:2005Natur.437..681O. doi:10.1038/nature04095. PMID 16193043. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2008.
20.Jump up ^ Cohen, A.; Holcomb, M. (2009). "Why Corals Care About Ocean Acidification: Uncovering the Mechanism" (PDF). Oceanography 24 (4): 118–127. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2009.102.
21.Jump up ^ Hönisch, Bärbel; Ridgwell, Andy; Schmidt, Daniela N.; Thomas, E. et al. (2012). "The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification". Science 335 (6072): 1058–1063. Bibcode:2012Sci...335.1058H. doi:10.1126/science.1208277. PMID 22383840.
22.Jump up ^ Gruber, N. (18 April 2011). "Warming up, turning sour, losing breath: ocean biogeochemistry under global change". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369 (1943): 1980–96. Bibcode:2011RSPTA.369.1980G. doi:10.1098/rsta.2011.0003.
23.Jump up ^ IPCC AR5 WG1 (2013). PDF "Summary for policymakers" (PDF).
24.Jump up ^ Impact from the Deep; October 2006; Scientific American Magazine; by Peter D. Ward; p. 8
25.Jump up ^ Tom Garrison. "Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science" 5th edition. Thomson, 2005. p. 4
Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2005) Oceanographers and the Cold War: Disciples of Marine Science. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98482-7
Steele, J., K. Turekian and S. Thorpe. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences. San Diego: Academic Press. (6 vols.) ISBN 0-12-227430-X
Sverdrup, Keith A., Duxbury, Alyn C., Duxbury, Alison B. (2006). Fundamentals of Oceanography, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-282678-9
Lang, Michael A., Ian G. Macintyre, and Klaus Rützler, eds. Proceedings of the Smithsonian Marine Science Symposium. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, no. 38. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press (2009)
Boling Guo, Daiwen Huang. Infinite-Dimensional Dynamical Systems in Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, 2014, World Scientific Publishing, ISBN 978-981-4590-37-2. Sample Chapter
External links[edit]
 Wikisource has the text of the 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica article Oceanography.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oceanography.
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory - Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PO.DAAC). A data center responsible for archiving and distributing data about the physical state of the ocean.
Scripps Institution of Oceanography. One of the world's oldest, largest, and most important centers for ocean and Earth science research, education, and public service.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI). One of the world's largest private, non-profit ocean research, engineering and education organizations.
British Oceanographic Data Centre. A source of oceanographic data and information.
NOAA Ocean and Weather Data Navigator. Plot and download ocean data.
Freeview Video 'Voyage to the Bottom of the Deep Deep Sea' Oceanography Programme by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/Open University.
Atlas of Spanish Oceanography by InvestigAdHoc.
Glossary of Physical Oceanography and Related Disciplines by Steven K. Baum, Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University
Barcelona-Ocean.com Inspiring Education in Marine Sciences


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Marine biology

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For the scientific journal, see Marine Biology (journal).

Two views of the ocean from space

 Only 29 percent of the Earth's surface is land. The rest is ocean, home to marine life. The oceans average nearly four kilometres in depth and are fringed with coastlines that run for 360,000 kilometres.[1][2]
Marine biology is the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy. Marine biology differs from marine ecology as marine ecology is focused on how organisms interact with each other and the environment, while biology is the study of the organisms themselves.
A large proportion of all life on Earth exists in the ocean. Exactly how large the proportion is unknown, since many ocean species are still to be discovered. The ocean is a complex three-dimensional world[3] covering about 71% of the Earth's surface. The habitats studied in marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped in surface tension between the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of the oceanic trenches, sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean. Specific habitats include coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, the surrounds of seamounts and thermal vents, tidepools, muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (pelagic) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. The organisms studied range from microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton to huge cetaceans (whales) 30 meters (98 feet) in length.
Marine life is a vast resource, providing food, medicine, and raw materials, in addition to helping to support recreation and tourism all over the world. At a fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Marine organisms contribute significantly to the oxygen cycle, and are involved in the regulation of the Earth's climate.[4] Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms even help create new land.[5]
Many species are economically important to humans, including food fish (both finfish and shellfish). It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in very fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as the carbon cycle) and of air (such as Earth's respiration, and movement of energy through ecosystems including the ocean). Large areas beneath the ocean surface still remain effectively unexplored.


Contents  [hide]
1 History
2 Subfields 2.1 Related fields
3 Animals 3.1 Birds
3.2 Fish
3.3 Invertebrates
3.4 Mammals
3.5 Reptiles
4 Fungi
5 Plants and algae
6 Microscopic life
7 Marine habitats 7.1 Intertidal and shore
7.2 Reefs
7.3 Open ocean
7.4 Deep sea and trenches
8 Distribution factors
9 See also
10 Lists
11 References
12 Further references
13 External links

History[edit]




HMS Challenger during its pioneer expedition of 1872–76
Main article: History of marine biology
Early instances of the study of marine biology trace back to Aristotle (384–322 BC) who made several contributions which laid the foundation for many future discoveries and were the first big step in the early exploration period of the ocean and marine life.[6] In 1768, Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744–1774) published the Historia Fucorum, the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on marine biology to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.[7][8] The British naturalist Edward Forbes (1815–1854) is generally regarded as the founder of the science of marine biology.[9] The pace of oceanographic and marine biology studies quickly accelerated during the course of the 19th century.
The observations made in the first studies of marine biology fuelled the age of discovery and exploration that followed. During this time, a vast amount of knowledge was gained about the life that exists in the oceans of the world. Many voyages contributed significantly to this pool of knowledge. Among the most significant were the voyages of the HMS Beagle where Charles Darwin came up with his theories of evolution and on the formation of coral reefs.[10] Another important expedition was undertaken by HMS Challenger, where findings were made of unexpectedly high species diversity among fauna stimulating much theorizing by population ecologists on how such varieties of life could be maintained in what was thought to be such a hostile environment.[11] This era was important for the history of marine biology but naturalists were still limited in their studies because they lacked technology that would allow them to adequately examine species that lived in deep parts of the oceans.
The creation of marine laboratories was important because it allowed marine biologists to conduct research and process their specimens from expeditions. The oldest marine laboratory in the world, Station biologique de Roscoff, was established in France in 1872. In the United States, the Scripps Institution of Oceanography dates back to 1903, while the prominent Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute was founded in 1930.[12] The development of technology such as sound navigation ranging, scuba diving gear, submersibles and remotely operated vehicles allowed marine biologists to discover and explore life in deep oceans that was once thought to not exist.[13]
Subfields[edit]



Coral reefs form complex marine ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity.
The marine ecosystem is large, and thus there are many sub-fields of marine biology. Most involve studying specializations of particular animal groups, such as phycology, invertebrate zoology and ichthyology.
Other subfields study the physical effects of continual immersion in sea water and the ocean in general, adaptation to a salty environment, and the effects of changing various oceanic properties on marine life. A subfield of marine biology studies the relationships between oceans and ocean life, and global warming and environmental issues (such as carbon dioxide displacement).
Recent marine biotechnology has focused largely on marine biomolecules, especially proteins, that may have uses in medicine or engineering. Marine environments are the home to many exotic biological materials that may inspire biomimetic materials.
Related fields[edit]
Marine biology is a branch of biology and is closely linked to oceanography. It also encompasses many ideas from ecology. Fisheries science and marine conservation can be considered partial offshoots of marine biology (as well as environmental studies). Marine Chemistry, Physical oceanography and Atmospheric sciences are closely related to this field.
Animals[edit]
Birds[edit]
Main article: Seabird
Birds adapted to living in the marine environment are often called seabirds. Examples include albatross, penguins, gannets, and auks. Although they spend most of their lives in the ocean, species such as gulls can often be found thousands of miles inland.
Fish[edit]
Main article: Fish
See also: Diversity of fish
Fish anatomy includes a two-chambered heart, operculum, swim bladder, scales, fins, lips, eyes and secretory cells that produce mucous. Fish breathe by extracting oxygen from water through their gills. Fins propel and stabilize the fish in the water. Many fish fall under two major categories - Elasmobranchii and Teleostei.
A reported 32,700 species of fish have been described (as of December 2013),[14] more than the combined total of all other vertebrates. About 60% of fish species are saltwater fish.[15]



 A crown-of-thorns starfish.
Invertebrates[edit]
Main article: Marine invertebrates
As on land, invertebrates make up a huge portion of all life in the sea. Invertebrate sea life includes Cnidaria such as jellyfish and sea anemones; Ctenophora; sea worms including the phyla Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, Annelida, Sipuncula, Echiura, Chaetognatha, and Phoronida; Mollusca including shellfish, squid, octopus; Arthropoda including Chelicerata and Crustacea; Porifera; Bryozoa; Echinodermata including starfish; and Urochordata including sea squirts or tunicates.



Sea otters.
Mammals[edit]
Main article: Marine mammal
There are five main types of marine mammals.
Cetaceans include toothed whales (Suborder Odontoceti), such as the Sperm Whale, dolphins, and porpoises such as the Dall's porpoise. Cetaceans also include baleen whales (Suborder Mysticeti), such as the Gray Whale, Humpback Whale, and Blue Whale.
Sirenians include manatees, the Dugong, and the extinct Steller's Sea Cow.
Seals (Family Phocidae), sea lions (Family Otariidae - which also include the fur seals), and the Walrus (Family Odobenidae) are all considered pinnipeds.
The Sea Otter is a member of the Family Mustelidae, which includes weasels and badgers.
The Polar Bear (Family Ursidae) is sometimes considered a marine mammal because of its dependence on the sea.



Green turtle.
Reptiles[edit]
Main article: Marine reptile
Reptiles which inhabit or frequent the sea include sea turtles, sea snakes, terrapins, the marine iguana, and the saltwater crocodile. Most extant marine reptiles, except for some sea snakes, are oviparous and need to return to land to lay their eggs. Thus most species, excepting sea turtles, spend most of their lives on or near land rather than in the ocean. Despite their marine adaptations, most sea snakes prefer shallow waters nearby land, around islands, especially waters that are somewhat sheltered, as well as near estuaries.[16][17] Some extinct marine reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs, evolved to be viviparous and had no requirement to return to land.
Fungi[edit]
Main article: Marine fungi
Over 1500 species of fungi are known from marine environments.[18] These parasitize marine algae or animals, or are saprobes on algae, corals, protozoan cysts, sea grasses, wood and other substrata, and can also be found in sea foam.[19] Spores of many species have special appendages which facilitate attachment to the substratum.[20] A very diverse range of unusual secondary metabolites is produced by marine fungi.[21]
Plants and algae[edit]
Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding and foraging places for larval forms of larger fish and invertebrates.
Algal life is widespread and very diverse under the ocean. Microscopic photosynthetic algae contribute a larger proportion of the world's photosynthetic output than all the terrestrial forests combined. Most of the niche occupied by sub plants on land is actually occupied by macroscopic algae in the ocean, such as Sargassum and kelp, which are commonly known as seaweeds that creates kelp forests.
Plants that survive in the sea are often found in shallow waters, such as the seagrasses (examples of which are eelgrass, Zostera, and turtle grass, Thalassia). These plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean environment. The intertidal zone is also a good place to find plant life in the sea, where mangroves or cordgrass or beach grass might grow. Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding and foraging places for larval forms of larger fish and invertebrates.

Microscopic life[edit]



 A copepod.
Microscopic life undersea is incredibly diverse and still poorly understood. For example, the role of viruses in marine ecosystems is barely being explored even in the beginning of the 21st century.[22]
The role of phytoplankton is better understood due to their critical position as the most numerous primary producers on Earth. Phytoplankton are categorized into cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae/bacteria), various types of algae (red, green, brown, and yellow-green), diatoms, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, coccolithophorids, cryptomonads, chrysophytes, chlorophytes, prasinophytes, and silicoflagellates.
Zooplankton tend to be somewhat larger, and not all are microscopic. Many Protozoa are zooplankton, including dinoflagellates, zooflagellates, foraminiferans, and radiolarians. Some of these (such as dinoflagellates) are also phytoplankton; the distinction between plants and animals often breaks down in very small organisms. Other zooplankton include cnidarians, ctenophores, chaetognaths, molluscs, arthropods, urochordates, and annelids such as polychaetes. Many larger animals begin their life as zooplankton before they become large enough to take their familiar forms. Two examples are fish larvae and sea stars (also called starfish).

Marine habitats[edit]

Marine habitats
Callyspongia sp. (Tube sponge).jpg
Coral reefs provide marine habitats for tube sponges, which in turn become marine habitats for fish

Littoral zone
Intertidal zone
Estuaries
Kelp forests
Coral reefs
Ocean banks
Continental shelf
Neritic zone
Straits
Pelagic zone
Oceanic zone
Seamounts
Hydrothermal vents
Cold seeps
Demersal zone
Benthic zone

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Main article: Marine habitats
Marine habitats can be divided into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats are found in the area that extends from the shoreline to the edge of the continental shelf. Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though the shelf area occupies only seven percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf
Alternatively, marine habitats can be divided into pelagic and demersal habitats. Pelagic habitats are found near the surface or in the open water column, away from the bottom of the ocean. Demersal habitats are near or on the bottom of the ocean. An organism living in a pelagic habitat is said to be a pelagic organism, as in pelagic fish. Similarly, an organism living in a demersal habitat is said to be a demersal organism, as in demersal fish. Pelagic habitats are intrinsically shifting and ephemeral, depending on what ocean currents are doing.
Marine habitats can be modified by their inhabitants. Some marine organisms, like corals, kelp and seagrasses, are ecosystem engineers which reshape the marine environment to the point where they create further habitat for other organisms.
Intertidal and shore[edit]



 Tide pools with sea stars and sea anemone in Santa Cruz, California
Intertidal zones, those areas close to shore, are constantly being exposed and covered by the ocean's tides. A huge array of life lives within this zone.
Shore habitats span from the upper intertidal zones to the area where land vegetation takes prominence. It can be underwater anywhere from daily to very infrequently. Many species here are scavengers, living off of sea life that is washed up on the shore. Many land animals also make much use of the shore and intertidal habitats. A subgroup of organisms in this habitat bores and grinds exposed rock through the process of bioerosion.
Reefs[edit]
Main article: Coral reef
Reefs comprise some of the densest and most diverse habitats in the world. The best-known types of reefs are tropical coral reefs which exist in most tropical waters; however, reefs can also exist in cold water. Reefs are built up by corals and other calcium-depositing animals, usually on top of a rocky outcrop on the ocean floor. Reefs can also grow on other surfaces, which has made it possible to create artificial reefs. Coral reefs also support a huge community of life, including the corals themselves, their symbiotic zooxanthellae, tropical fish and many other organisms.
Much attention in marine biology is focused on coral reefs and the El Niño weather phenomenon. In 1998, coral reefs experienced the most severe mass bleaching events on record, when vast expanses of reefs across the world died because sea surface temperatures rose well above normal.[23][24] Some reefs are recovering, but scientists say that between 50% and 70% of the world's coral reefs are now endangered and predict that global warming could exacerbate this trend.[25][26][27][28]
Open ocean[edit]
Main article: Pelagic zone
The open ocean is relatively unproductive because of a lack of nutrients, yet because it is so vast, in total it produces the most primary productivity. Much of the aphotic zone's energy is supplied by the open ocean in the form of detritus.
Deep sea and trenches[edit]
The deepest recorded oceanic trench measured to date is the Mariana Trench, near the Philippines, in the Pacific Ocean at 10,924 m (35,840 ft). At such depths, water pressure is extreme and there is no sunlight, but some life still exists. A white flatfish, a shrimp and a jellyfish were seen by the American crew of the bathyscaphe Trieste when it dove to the bottom in 1960.[29]
Other notable oceanic trenches include Monterey Canyon, in the eastern Pacific, the Tonga Trench in the southwest at 10,882 m (35,702 ft), the Philippine Trench, the Puerto Rico Trench at 8,605 m (28,232 ft), the Romanche Trench at 7,760 m (25,460 ft), Fram Basin in the Arctic Ocean at 4,665 m (15,305 ft), the Java Trench at 7,450 m (24,440 ft), and the South Sandwich Trench at 7,235 m (23,737 ft).
In general, the deep sea is considered to start at the aphotic zone, the point where sunlight loses its power of transference through the water.[citation needed] Many life forms that live at these depths have the ability to create their own light known as bio-luminescence.
Marine life also flourishes around seamounts that rise from the depths, where fish and other sea life congregate to spawn and feed. Hydrothermal vents along the mid-ocean ridge spreading centers act as oases, as do their opposites, cold seeps. Such places support unique biomes and many new microbes and other lifeforms have been discovered at these locations .[citation needed]
Distribution factors[edit]
An active research topic in marine biology is to discover and map the life cycles of various species and where they spend their time. Technologies that aid in this discovery include pop-up satellite archival tags, acoustic tags, and a variety of other data loggers. Marine biologists study how the ocean currents, tides and many other oceanic factors affect ocean life forms, including their growth, distribution and well-being. This has only recently become technically feasible with advances in GPS and newer underwater visual devices.[citation needed]
Most ocean life breeds in specific places, nests or not in others, spends time as juveniles in still others, and in maturity in yet others. Scientists know little about where many species spend different parts of their life cycles especially in the infant and juvenile years. For example, it is still largely unknown where juvenile sea turtles and some year-1 sharks travel. Recent advances in underwater tracking devices are illuminating what we know about marine organisms that live at great Ocean depths.[30] The information that pop-up satellite archival tags give aids in certain time of the year fishing closures and development of a marine protected area. This data is important to both scientists and fishermen because they are discovering that by restricting commercial fishing in one small area they can have a large impact in maintaining a healthy fish population in a much larger area.
See also[edit]

Portal icon Environment portal
Portal icon Ecology portal
Portal icon Earth sciences portal
Portal icon Marine life portal
Portal icon Water portal
Portal icon Underwater diving portal
Acoustic ecology
Aquaculture
Bathymetry
Freshwater biology
Modular ocean model
Oceanic basin
Oceanic climate
Phycology
World Ocean Atlas
Lists[edit]
Glossary of ecology
Index of biology articles
Large marine ecosystem
List of ecologists
List of marine biologists
List of marine ecoregions (WWF)
Outline of biology
Outline of ecology
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Charette, Matthew; Smith, Walter H. F. (2010). "The volume of Earth's ocean". Oceanography 23 (2): 112–114. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2010.nbjhbhҪ51. Retrieved 13 January 2014.
2.Jump up ^ World The World Factbook, CIA. Retrieved 13 January 2014.
3.Jump up ^ Oceanographic and Bathymetric Features Marine Conservation Institute. Uploaded 18 September 2013.
4.Jump up ^ Foley, Jonathan A.; Karl E. Taylor, Steven J. Ghan (1991). "Planktonic dimethylsulfide and cloud albedo: An estimate of the feedback response". Climatic Change 18 (1): 1. doi:10.1007/BF00142502.
5.Jump up ^ Sousa, Wayne P (1986) [1985]. "7, Disturbance and Patch Dynamics on Rocky Intertidal Shores". The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics. eds. Steward T. A. Pickett & P. S. White. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-554521-5.
6.Jump up ^ "History of the Study of Marine Biology - MarineBio.org". MarineBio Conservation Society. Web. Monday, March 31, 2014. <http://marinebio.org/oceans/history-of-marine-biology.asp>
7.Jump up ^ Gmelin S G (1768) Historia Fucorum Ex typographia Academiae scientiarum, St. Petersburg.
8.Jump up ^ Silva PC, Basson PW and Moe RL (1996) Catalogue of the Benthic Marine Algae of the Indian Ocean page 2, University of California Press. ISBN 9780520915817.
9.Jump up ^ "A Brief History of Marine Biology and Oceanography". Retrieved 31 March 2014.
10.Jump up ^ Ward, Ritchie R. Into the ocean world; the biology of the sea. 1st ed. New York: Knopf; [distributed by Random House], 1974: 161
11.Jump up ^ Gage, John D., and Paul A. Tyler. Deep-sea biology: a natural history of organisms at the deep-sea floor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991: 1
12.Jump up ^ Maienschein, Jane. 100 years exploring life, 1888-1988: the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 1989: 189-192
13.Jump up ^ Anderson, Genny. "Beginnings: History of Marine Science".
14.Jump up ^ http://www.fishbase.org
15.Jump up ^ http://www.worldwatch.org/node/784
16.Jump up ^ Stidworthy J. 1974. Snakes of the World. Grosset & Dunlap Inc. 160 pp. ISBN 0-448-11856-4.
17.Jump up ^ Sea snakes at Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Accessed 7 August 2007.
18.Jump up ^ Hyde, K.D.; E.B.J. Jones, E. Leaño, S.B. Pointing, A.D. Poonyth, L.L.P. Vrijmoed (1998). "Role of fungi in marine ecosystems". Biodiversity and Conservation 7 (9): 1147–1161. doi:10.1023/A:1008823515157.
19.Jump up ^ Kirk, P.M., Cannon, P.F., Minter, D.W. and Stalpers, J. "Dictionary of the Fungi". Edn 10. CABI, 2008
20.Jump up ^ Hyde, K.D.; E.B.J. Jones (1989). "Spore attachment in marine fungi". Botanica Marina 32: 205–218. doi:10.1515/botm.1989.32.3.205.
21.Jump up ^ San-Martín, A.; S. Orejanera, C. Gallardo, M. Silva, J. Becerra, R. Reinoso, M.C. Chamy, K. Vergara, J. Rovirosa (2008). "Steroids from the marine fungus Geotrichum sp". Journal of the Chilean Chemical Society 53 (1): 1377–1378.
22.Jump up ^ Suttle, C.A. (2005). "Viruses in the Sea". Nature 437 (9): 356–361. doi:10.1038/nature04160. PMID 16163346.
23.Jump up ^ NOAA (1998) Record-breaking coral bleaching occurred in tropics this year. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Press release (October 23, 1998).
24.Jump up ^ ICRS (1998) Statement on Global Coral Bleaching in 1997-1998. International Coral Reef Society, October 15, 1998.
25.Jump up ^ Bryant, D., Burke, L., McManus, J., et al. (1998) "Reefs at risk: a map-based indicator of threats to the world's coral reefs". World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
26.Jump up ^ Goreau, T. J. (1992). "Bleaching and Reef Commumity Change in Jamaica: 1951 - 1991". Amer. Zool. 32: 683–695. doi:10.1093/icb/32.6.683.
27.Jump up ^ Sebens, K. P. (1994). "Biodiversity of Coral Reefs: What are We Losing and Why?". Amer Zool 34: 115–133. doi:10.1093/icb/34.1.115.
28.Jump up ^ Wilkinson, C. R., and Buddemeier, R. W. (1994) "Global Climate Change and Coral Reefs:Implications for People and Reefs". Report of the UNEP-IOC-ASPEI-IUCN Global Task Team on the Implications of Climate Change on Coral Reefs. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
29.Jump up ^ Seven Miles Down: The Story of The Bathyscaph Trieste., Rolex Deep Sea Special, January 2006.
30.Jump up ^ http://us7.campaign-archive2.com/?u=82eb97f4b587306a3537ecf16&id=e398851e6b&e=%5BUNIQID%5D
Further references[edit]
Morrissey J and Sumich J (2011) Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 9780763781606.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marine biology.
Smithsonian Ocean Portal
Marine Conservation Society
Marine biology at DMOZ
Marine Ecology - an evolutionary perspective
Free special issue: Marine Biology in Time and Space
Creatures of the deep ocean – National Geographic documentary, 2010.
Exploris. [1]
Freshwater and Marine Image Bank - From the University of Washington Library


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Marine biology

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For the scientific journal, see Marine Biology (journal).

Two views of the ocean from space

 Only 29 percent of the Earth's surface is land. The rest is ocean, home to marine life. The oceans average nearly four kilometres in depth and are fringed with coastlines that run for 360,000 kilometres.[1][2]
Marine biology is the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy. Marine biology differs from marine ecology as marine ecology is focused on how organisms interact with each other and the environment, while biology is the study of the organisms themselves.
A large proportion of all life on Earth exists in the ocean. Exactly how large the proportion is unknown, since many ocean species are still to be discovered. The ocean is a complex three-dimensional world[3] covering about 71% of the Earth's surface. The habitats studied in marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped in surface tension between the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of the oceanic trenches, sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean. Specific habitats include coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, the surrounds of seamounts and thermal vents, tidepools, muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (pelagic) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. The organisms studied range from microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton to huge cetaceans (whales) 30 meters (98 feet) in length.
Marine life is a vast resource, providing food, medicine, and raw materials, in addition to helping to support recreation and tourism all over the world. At a fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Marine organisms contribute significantly to the oxygen cycle, and are involved in the regulation of the Earth's climate.[4] Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms even help create new land.[5]
Many species are economically important to humans, including food fish (both finfish and shellfish). It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in very fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as the carbon cycle) and of air (such as Earth's respiration, and movement of energy through ecosystems including the ocean). Large areas beneath the ocean surface still remain effectively unexplored.


Contents  [hide]
1 History
2 Subfields 2.1 Related fields
3 Animals 3.1 Birds
3.2 Fish
3.3 Invertebrates
3.4 Mammals
3.5 Reptiles
4 Fungi
5 Plants and algae
6 Microscopic life
7 Marine habitats 7.1 Intertidal and shore
7.2 Reefs
7.3 Open ocean
7.4 Deep sea and trenches
8 Distribution factors
9 See also
10 Lists
11 References
12 Further references
13 External links

History[edit]




HMS Challenger during its pioneer expedition of 1872–76
Main article: History of marine biology
Early instances of the study of marine biology trace back to Aristotle (384–322 BC) who made several contributions which laid the foundation for many future discoveries and were the first big step in the early exploration period of the ocean and marine life.[6] In 1768, Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744–1774) published the Historia Fucorum, the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on marine biology to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.[7][8] The British naturalist Edward Forbes (1815–1854) is generally regarded as the founder of the science of marine biology.[9] The pace of oceanographic and marine biology studies quickly accelerated during the course of the 19th century.
The observations made in the first studies of marine biology fuelled the age of discovery and exploration that followed. During this time, a vast amount of knowledge was gained about the life that exists in the oceans of the world. Many voyages contributed significantly to this pool of knowledge. Among the most significant were the voyages of the HMS Beagle where Charles Darwin came up with his theories of evolution and on the formation of coral reefs.[10] Another important expedition was undertaken by HMS Challenger, where findings were made of unexpectedly high species diversity among fauna stimulating much theorizing by population ecologists on how such varieties of life could be maintained in what was thought to be such a hostile environment.[11] This era was important for the history of marine biology but naturalists were still limited in their studies because they lacked technology that would allow them to adequately examine species that lived in deep parts of the oceans.
The creation of marine laboratories was important because it allowed marine biologists to conduct research and process their specimens from expeditions. The oldest marine laboratory in the world, Station biologique de Roscoff, was established in France in 1872. In the United States, the Scripps Institution of Oceanography dates back to 1903, while the prominent Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute was founded in 1930.[12] The development of technology such as sound navigation ranging, scuba diving gear, submersibles and remotely operated vehicles allowed marine biologists to discover and explore life in deep oceans that was once thought to not exist.[13]
Subfields[edit]



Coral reefs form complex marine ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity.
The marine ecosystem is large, and thus there are many sub-fields of marine biology. Most involve studying specializations of particular animal groups, such as phycology, invertebrate zoology and ichthyology.
Other subfields study the physical effects of continual immersion in sea water and the ocean in general, adaptation to a salty environment, and the effects of changing various oceanic properties on marine life. A subfield of marine biology studies the relationships between oceans and ocean life, and global warming and environmental issues (such as carbon dioxide displacement).
Recent marine biotechnology has focused largely on marine biomolecules, especially proteins, that may have uses in medicine or engineering. Marine environments are the home to many exotic biological materials that may inspire biomimetic materials.
Related fields[edit]
Marine biology is a branch of biology and is closely linked to oceanography. It also encompasses many ideas from ecology. Fisheries science and marine conservation can be considered partial offshoots of marine biology (as well as environmental studies). Marine Chemistry, Physical oceanography and Atmospheric sciences are closely related to this field.
Animals[edit]
Birds[edit]
Main article: Seabird
Birds adapted to living in the marine environment are often called seabirds. Examples include albatross, penguins, gannets, and auks. Although they spend most of their lives in the ocean, species such as gulls can often be found thousands of miles inland.
Fish[edit]
Main article: Fish
See also: Diversity of fish
Fish anatomy includes a two-chambered heart, operculum, swim bladder, scales, fins, lips, eyes and secretory cells that produce mucous. Fish breathe by extracting oxygen from water through their gills. Fins propel and stabilize the fish in the water. Many fish fall under two major categories - Elasmobranchii and Teleostei.
A reported 32,700 species of fish have been described (as of December 2013),[14] more than the combined total of all other vertebrates. About 60% of fish species are saltwater fish.[15]



 A crown-of-thorns starfish.
Invertebrates[edit]
Main article: Marine invertebrates
As on land, invertebrates make up a huge portion of all life in the sea. Invertebrate sea life includes Cnidaria such as jellyfish and sea anemones; Ctenophora; sea worms including the phyla Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, Annelida, Sipuncula, Echiura, Chaetognatha, and Phoronida; Mollusca including shellfish, squid, octopus; Arthropoda including Chelicerata and Crustacea; Porifera; Bryozoa; Echinodermata including starfish; and Urochordata including sea squirts or tunicates.



Sea otters.
Mammals[edit]
Main article: Marine mammal
There are five main types of marine mammals.
Cetaceans include toothed whales (Suborder Odontoceti), such as the Sperm Whale, dolphins, and porpoises such as the Dall's porpoise. Cetaceans also include baleen whales (Suborder Mysticeti), such as the Gray Whale, Humpback Whale, and Blue Whale.
Sirenians include manatees, the Dugong, and the extinct Steller's Sea Cow.
Seals (Family Phocidae), sea lions (Family Otariidae - which also include the fur seals), and the Walrus (Family Odobenidae) are all considered pinnipeds.
The Sea Otter is a member of the Family Mustelidae, which includes weasels and badgers.
The Polar Bear (Family Ursidae) is sometimes considered a marine mammal because of its dependence on the sea.



Green turtle.
Reptiles[edit]
Main article: Marine reptile
Reptiles which inhabit or frequent the sea include sea turtles, sea snakes, terrapins, the marine iguana, and the saltwater crocodile. Most extant marine reptiles, except for some sea snakes, are oviparous and need to return to land to lay their eggs. Thus most species, excepting sea turtles, spend most of their lives on or near land rather than in the ocean. Despite their marine adaptations, most sea snakes prefer shallow waters nearby land, around islands, especially waters that are somewhat sheltered, as well as near estuaries.[16][17] Some extinct marine reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs, evolved to be viviparous and had no requirement to return to land.
Fungi[edit]
Main article: Marine fungi
Over 1500 species of fungi are known from marine environments.[18] These parasitize marine algae or animals, or are saprobes on algae, corals, protozoan cysts, sea grasses, wood and other substrata, and can also be found in sea foam.[19] Spores of many species have special appendages which facilitate attachment to the substratum.[20] A very diverse range of unusual secondary metabolites is produced by marine fungi.[21]
Plants and algae[edit]
Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding and foraging places for larval forms of larger fish and invertebrates.
Algal life is widespread and very diverse under the ocean. Microscopic photosynthetic algae contribute a larger proportion of the world's photosynthetic output than all the terrestrial forests combined. Most of the niche occupied by sub plants on land is actually occupied by macroscopic algae in the ocean, such as Sargassum and kelp, which are commonly known as seaweeds that creates kelp forests.
Plants that survive in the sea are often found in shallow waters, such as the seagrasses (examples of which are eelgrass, Zostera, and turtle grass, Thalassia). These plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean environment. The intertidal zone is also a good place to find plant life in the sea, where mangroves or cordgrass or beach grass might grow. Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding and foraging places for larval forms of larger fish and invertebrates.

Microscopic life[edit]



 A copepod.
Microscopic life undersea is incredibly diverse and still poorly understood. For example, the role of viruses in marine ecosystems is barely being explored even in the beginning of the 21st century.[22]
The role of phytoplankton is better understood due to their critical position as the most numerous primary producers on Earth. Phytoplankton are categorized into cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae/bacteria), various types of algae (red, green, brown, and yellow-green), diatoms, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, coccolithophorids, cryptomonads, chrysophytes, chlorophytes, prasinophytes, and silicoflagellates.
Zooplankton tend to be somewhat larger, and not all are microscopic. Many Protozoa are zooplankton, including dinoflagellates, zooflagellates, foraminiferans, and radiolarians. Some of these (such as dinoflagellates) are also phytoplankton; the distinction between plants and animals often breaks down in very small organisms. Other zooplankton include cnidarians, ctenophores, chaetognaths, molluscs, arthropods, urochordates, and annelids such as polychaetes. Many larger animals begin their life as zooplankton before they become large enough to take their familiar forms. Two examples are fish larvae and sea stars (also called starfish).

Marine habitats[edit]

Marine habitats
Callyspongia sp. (Tube sponge).jpg
Coral reefs provide marine habitats for tube sponges, which in turn become marine habitats for fish

Littoral zone
Intertidal zone
Estuaries
Kelp forests
Coral reefs
Ocean banks
Continental shelf
Neritic zone
Straits
Pelagic zone
Oceanic zone
Seamounts
Hydrothermal vents
Cold seeps
Demersal zone
Benthic zone

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Main article: Marine habitats
Marine habitats can be divided into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats are found in the area that extends from the shoreline to the edge of the continental shelf. Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though the shelf area occupies only seven percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf
Alternatively, marine habitats can be divided into pelagic and demersal habitats. Pelagic habitats are found near the surface or in the open water column, away from the bottom of the ocean. Demersal habitats are near or on the bottom of the ocean. An organism living in a pelagic habitat is said to be a pelagic organism, as in pelagic fish. Similarly, an organism living in a demersal habitat is said to be a demersal organism, as in demersal fish. Pelagic habitats are intrinsically shifting and ephemeral, depending on what ocean currents are doing.
Marine habitats can be modified by their inhabitants. Some marine organisms, like corals, kelp and seagrasses, are ecosystem engineers which reshape the marine environment to the point where they create further habitat for other organisms.
Intertidal and shore[edit]



 Tide pools with sea stars and sea anemone in Santa Cruz, California
Intertidal zones, those areas close to shore, are constantly being exposed and covered by the ocean's tides. A huge array of life lives within this zone.
Shore habitats span from the upper intertidal zones to the area where land vegetation takes prominence. It can be underwater anywhere from daily to very infrequently. Many species here are scavengers, living off of sea life that is washed up on the shore. Many land animals also make much use of the shore and intertidal habitats. A subgroup of organisms in this habitat bores and grinds exposed rock through the process of bioerosion.
Reefs[edit]
Main article: Coral reef
Reefs comprise some of the densest and most diverse habitats in the world. The best-known types of reefs are tropical coral reefs which exist in most tropical waters; however, reefs can also exist in cold water. Reefs are built up by corals and other calcium-depositing animals, usually on top of a rocky outcrop on the ocean floor. Reefs can also grow on other surfaces, which has made it possible to create artificial reefs. Coral reefs also support a huge community of life, including the corals themselves, their symbiotic zooxanthellae, tropical fish and many other organisms.
Much attention in marine biology is focused on coral reefs and the El Niño weather phenomenon. In 1998, coral reefs experienced the most severe mass bleaching events on record, when vast expanses of reefs across the world died because sea surface temperatures rose well above normal.[23][24] Some reefs are recovering, but scientists say that between 50% and 70% of the world's coral reefs are now endangered and predict that global warming could exacerbate this trend.[25][26][27][28]
Open ocean[edit]
Main article: Pelagic zone
The open ocean is relatively unproductive because of a lack of nutrients, yet because it is so vast, in total it produces the most primary productivity. Much of the aphotic zone's energy is supplied by the open ocean in the form of detritus.
Deep sea and trenches[edit]
The deepest recorded oceanic trench measured to date is the Mariana Trench, near the Philippines, in the Pacific Ocean at 10,924 m (35,840 ft). At such depths, water pressure is extreme and there is no sunlight, but some life still exists. A white flatfish, a shrimp and a jellyfish were seen by the American crew of the bathyscaphe Trieste when it dove to the bottom in 1960.[29]
Other notable oceanic trenches include Monterey Canyon, in the eastern Pacific, the Tonga Trench in the southwest at 10,882 m (35,702 ft), the Philippine Trench, the Puerto Rico Trench at 8,605 m (28,232 ft), the Romanche Trench at 7,760 m (25,460 ft), Fram Basin in the Arctic Ocean at 4,665 m (15,305 ft), the Java Trench at 7,450 m (24,440 ft), and the South Sandwich Trench at 7,235 m (23,737 ft).
In general, the deep sea is considered to start at the aphotic zone, the point where sunlight loses its power of transference through the water.[citation needed] Many life forms that live at these depths have the ability to create their own light known as bio-luminescence.
Marine life also flourishes around seamounts that rise from the depths, where fish and other sea life congregate to spawn and feed. Hydrothermal vents along the mid-ocean ridge spreading centers act as oases, as do their opposites, cold seeps. Such places support unique biomes and many new microbes and other lifeforms have been discovered at these locations .[citation needed]
Distribution factors[edit]
An active research topic in marine biology is to discover and map the life cycles of various species and where they spend their time. Technologies that aid in this discovery include pop-up satellite archival tags, acoustic tags, and a variety of other data loggers. Marine biologists study how the ocean currents, tides and many other oceanic factors affect ocean life forms, including their growth, distribution and well-being. This has only recently become technically feasible with advances in GPS and newer underwater visual devices.[citation needed]
Most ocean life breeds in specific places, nests or not in others, spends time as juveniles in still others, and in maturity in yet others. Scientists know little about where many species spend different parts of their life cycles especially in the infant and juvenile years. For example, it is still largely unknown where juvenile sea turtles and some year-1 sharks travel. Recent advances in underwater tracking devices are illuminating what we know about marine organisms that live at great Ocean depths.[30] The information that pop-up satellite archival tags give aids in certain time of the year fishing closures and development of a marine protected area. This data is important to both scientists and fishermen because they are discovering that by restricting commercial fishing in one small area they can have a large impact in maintaining a healthy fish population in a much larger area.
See also[edit]

Portal icon Environment portal
Portal icon Ecology portal
Portal icon Earth sciences portal
Portal icon Marine life portal
Portal icon Water portal
Portal icon Underwater diving portal
Acoustic ecology
Aquaculture
Bathymetry
Freshwater biology
Modular ocean model
Oceanic basin
Oceanic climate
Phycology
World Ocean Atlas
Lists[edit]
Glossary of ecology
Index of biology articles
Large marine ecosystem
List of ecologists
List of marine biologists
List of marine ecoregions (WWF)
Outline of biology
Outline of ecology
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Charette, Matthew; Smith, Walter H. F. (2010). "The volume of Earth's ocean". Oceanography 23 (2): 112–114. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2010.nbjhbhҪ51. Retrieved 13 January 2014.
2.Jump up ^ World The World Factbook, CIA. Retrieved 13 January 2014.
3.Jump up ^ Oceanographic and Bathymetric Features Marine Conservation Institute. Uploaded 18 September 2013.
4.Jump up ^ Foley, Jonathan A.; Karl E. Taylor, Steven J. Ghan (1991). "Planktonic dimethylsulfide and cloud albedo: An estimate of the feedback response". Climatic Change 18 (1): 1. doi:10.1007/BF00142502.
5.Jump up ^ Sousa, Wayne P (1986) [1985]. "7, Disturbance and Patch Dynamics on Rocky Intertidal Shores". The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics. eds. Steward T. A. Pickett & P. S. White. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-554521-5.
6.Jump up ^ "History of the Study of Marine Biology - MarineBio.org". MarineBio Conservation Society. Web. Monday, March 31, 2014. <http://marinebio.org/oceans/history-of-marine-biology.asp>
7.Jump up ^ Gmelin S G (1768) Historia Fucorum Ex typographia Academiae scientiarum, St. Petersburg.
8.Jump up ^ Silva PC, Basson PW and Moe RL (1996) Catalogue of the Benthic Marine Algae of the Indian Ocean page 2, University of California Press. ISBN 9780520915817.
9.Jump up ^ "A Brief History of Marine Biology and Oceanography". Retrieved 31 March 2014.
10.Jump up ^ Ward, Ritchie R. Into the ocean world; the biology of the sea. 1st ed. New York: Knopf; [distributed by Random House], 1974: 161
11.Jump up ^ Gage, John D., and Paul A. Tyler. Deep-sea biology: a natural history of organisms at the deep-sea floor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991: 1
12.Jump up ^ Maienschein, Jane. 100 years exploring life, 1888-1988: the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 1989: 189-192
13.Jump up ^ Anderson, Genny. "Beginnings: History of Marine Science".
14.Jump up ^ http://www.fishbase.org
15.Jump up ^ http://www.worldwatch.org/node/784
16.Jump up ^ Stidworthy J. 1974. Snakes of the World. Grosset & Dunlap Inc. 160 pp. ISBN 0-448-11856-4.
17.Jump up ^ Sea snakes at Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Accessed 7 August 2007.
18.Jump up ^ Hyde, K.D.; E.B.J. Jones, E. Leaño, S.B. Pointing, A.D. Poonyth, L.L.P. Vrijmoed (1998). "Role of fungi in marine ecosystems". Biodiversity and Conservation 7 (9): 1147–1161. doi:10.1023/A:1008823515157.
19.Jump up ^ Kirk, P.M., Cannon, P.F., Minter, D.W. and Stalpers, J. "Dictionary of the Fungi". Edn 10. CABI, 2008
20.Jump up ^ Hyde, K.D.; E.B.J. Jones (1989). "Spore attachment in marine fungi". Botanica Marina 32: 205–218. doi:10.1515/botm.1989.32.3.205.
21.Jump up ^ San-Martín, A.; S. Orejanera, C. Gallardo, M. Silva, J. Becerra, R. Reinoso, M.C. Chamy, K. Vergara, J. Rovirosa (2008). "Steroids from the marine fungus Geotrichum sp". Journal of the Chilean Chemical Society 53 (1): 1377–1378.
22.Jump up ^ Suttle, C.A. (2005). "Viruses in the Sea". Nature 437 (9): 356–361. doi:10.1038/nature04160. PMID 16163346.
23.Jump up ^ NOAA (1998) Record-breaking coral bleaching occurred in tropics this year. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Press release (October 23, 1998).
24.Jump up ^ ICRS (1998) Statement on Global Coral Bleaching in 1997-1998. International Coral Reef Society, October 15, 1998.
25.Jump up ^ Bryant, D., Burke, L., McManus, J., et al. (1998) "Reefs at risk: a map-based indicator of threats to the world's coral reefs". World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
26.Jump up ^ Goreau, T. J. (1992). "Bleaching and Reef Commumity Change in Jamaica: 1951 - 1991". Amer. Zool. 32: 683–695. doi:10.1093/icb/32.6.683.
27.Jump up ^ Sebens, K. P. (1994). "Biodiversity of Coral Reefs: What are We Losing and Why?". Amer Zool 34: 115–133. doi:10.1093/icb/34.1.115.
28.Jump up ^ Wilkinson, C. R., and Buddemeier, R. W. (1994) "Global Climate Change and Coral Reefs:Implications for People and Reefs". Report of the UNEP-IOC-ASPEI-IUCN Global Task Team on the Implications of Climate Change on Coral Reefs. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
29.Jump up ^ Seven Miles Down: The Story of The Bathyscaph Trieste., Rolex Deep Sea Special, January 2006.
30.Jump up ^ http://us7.campaign-archive2.com/?u=82eb97f4b587306a3537ecf16&id=e398851e6b&e=%5BUNIQID%5D
Further references[edit]
Morrissey J and Sumich J (2011) Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 9780763781606.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marine biology.
Smithsonian Ocean Portal
Marine Conservation Society
Marine biology at DMOZ
Marine Ecology - an evolutionary perspective
Free special issue: Marine Biology in Time and Space
Creatures of the deep ocean – National Geographic documentary, 2010.
Exploris. [1]
Freshwater and Marine Image Bank - From the University of Washington Library


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Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

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 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution logo.
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI, acronym pronounced /ˈhuːi/ HOO-ee) is a private, nonprofit research and higher education facility dedicated to the study of all aspects of marine science and engineering and to the education of marine researchers. Established in 1930, it is the largest independent oceanographic research institution in the U.S., with staff and students numbering about 1,000. The Institution is organized into six departments,[1] four ocean institutes—ocean life, coastal ocean, ocean and climate change, deep ocean exploration[2]—the Cooperative Institute for Climate and Ocean Research, and a marine policy center. Its shore-based facilities are located in the village of Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States and a mile and a half away on the Quissett Campus. The bulk of the Institution's funding comes from grants and contracts from the National Science Foundation and other government agencies, augmented by foundations and private donations.
WHOI scientists, engineers, and students collaborate to develop theories, test ideas, build seagoing instruments, and collect data in diverse marine environments. Working in all the world’s oceans, their research agenda includes: geological activity deep within the earth; plant, animal, and microbial populations and their interactions in the ocean; coastal erosion; ocean circulation; ocean pollution; and global climate change.
Ships operated by WHOI carry research scientists throughout the world’s oceans. The WHOI fleet includes two large research vessels (Atlantis, Knorr), the coastal craft Tioga, small research craft such as the dive-operation work boat Echo, the deep-diving human-occupied submersible Alvin, the tethered, remotely operated vehicle Jason/Medea, and autonomous underwater vehicles such as the REMUS and SeaBED. A new ship, Neil Armstrong is under construction and is scheduled to be completed in 2014. The RV Neil Armstrong will also replace the R/V Knorr, which has been used by WHOI since 1970.
WHOI offers graduate and post-graduate studies in marine science. There are several fellowship and trainee-ship programs, and graduate degrees are awarded through a joint program with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) or by the Institution itself.[3] WHOI also offers other outreach programs and informal public education through its Exhibit Center and summer tours. The Institution has a volunteer program and a membership program, WHOI Associates.


Contents  [hide]
1 Mission
2 History
3 Awards
4 Research vessels
5 Small boat fleet
6 Underwater vehicles
7 See also
8 Notes
9 External links

Mission[edit]
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution is dedicated to research and education to advance understanding of the ocean and its interaction with the Earth system, and to communicating this understanding for the benefit of society.
History[edit]



R/V Atlantis, the first research vessel operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
In 1927, a National Academy of Sciences committee concluded that it was time to "consider the share of the United States of America in a worldwide program of oceanographic research." The committee's recommendation for establishing a permanent independent research laboratory on the East Coast to "prosecute oceanography in all its branches" led to the founding in 1930 of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.[4]
A $2.5 million grant from the Rockefeller Foundation supported the summer work of a dozen scientists, construction of a laboratory building and commissioning of a research vessel, the 142-foot (43 m) ketch Atlantis, whose profile still forms the Institution's logo.[4]
WHOI grew substantially to support significant defense-related research during World War II, and later began a steady growth in staff, research fleet, and scientific stature. Over the years, WHOI scientists have made seminal discoveries about the ocean that have contributed to improving US commerce, health, national security, and quality of life.
In 1977 the institute appointed the influential oceanographer John Steele as director, and he served until his retirement in 1989.[5]
On 1 September 1985, a joint French-American expedition led by Jean-Louis Michel of IFREMER and Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution identified the location of the wreck of the RMS Titanic which sank off the coast of Newfoundland 15 April 1912.
In February 2008, Dr. Susan K. Avery became the new president and director of the institution. Avery, an atmospheric physicist, is the ninth director in WHOI's 77-year history, and the first woman to hold the position.
On 3 April 2011, within a week of resuming of the search operation for Air France Flight 447, a team led by WHOI, operating full ocean depth autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) owned by the Waitt Institute discovered, by means of sidescan sonar, a large portion of debris field from flight AF447.[6]
Awards[edit]
B H Ketchum Award
The B H Ketchum award is presented for innovative coastal/nearshore research and is named in honor of oceanographer Bostwick H. "Buck" Ketchum.
Henry Bryant Bigelow Medal in Oceanography
The Henry Bryant Bigelow Medal in Oceanography was established in 1960 in honor of the first Director, biologist Henry Bryant Bigelow.
Research vessels[edit]
WHOI operates several research vessels, owned by the United States Navy, the National Science Foundation, or the Institution:
##R/V Knorr (AGOR-15) - 279 feet long
##R/V Atlantis (AGOR-25) - 274 feet long, mothership of the Alvin submarine
##R/V Tioga (WHOI-owned) - 60 feet long
##RV Neil Armstrong (AGOR-27) (under construction) - 238 feet long
Small boat fleet[edit]
WHOI also operates many small boats, used in inland harbors, ponds, rivers, and coastal bays. All are owned by the Institution itself.
##Motorboat Echo - 29 feet long (mainly used as a work boat to support dive operations, also the newest small research craft at WHOI)
##Motorboat Mytilus - 24 feet long (mainly used in water too shallow for larger craft and is a versatile coastal research boat)
##Motorboat Calanus - 21 feet long (mainly used in local water bodies such as Great Harbor, Vineyard Sound and Buzzards Bay)
##Motorboat Limulus - 13 feet long (mainly used to shuttle equipment to larger craft and as a work platform for near-shore research tasks)
##Rowboat Orzrus - 12 feet long (mainly used in harbors and ponds where motor craft are not permitted)
Underwater vehicles[edit]
WHOI also has developed numerous underwater autonomous and remotely operated vehicles for research:
##dsv-2 ALVIN – the most famous of their equipment, a human-occupied vehicle.
##Deepsea Challenger – human-occupied vehicle designed, field-tested, and later donated to the WHOI by Canadian film director James Cameron [7]
##Jason – a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV).
##Sentry – an autonomous underwater vehicle and successor to ABE
##Nereus (HROV, a type of Remotely Operated Vehicle) – A hybrid autonomous underwater vehicle; lost on 5/10/14 while exploring the Kermadec Trench.[8]
##Remus – Remote Environment Monitoring UnitS, an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV).
##SeaBED – an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle optimized for high-resolution seafloor imaging.
##Spray Glider - a remotely operated vehicle, used to collect data about the salinity, temperature, etc. about an area
##Slocum Glider - another remotely operated vehicle, with functions similar to the functions of the Spray Glider
##CAMPER - a towed vehicle used to collect samples from the seabed of the Arctic Ocean
##Seasoar - a submarine towed by a ship
##TowCam - a submarine with cameras that is towed by a ship along the ocean floor to take photographs
##Video Plankton Recorder - a submarine with microscopic camera systems, towed along by a ship to take videos of plankton
##ABE – Autonomous Benthic Explorer, another Autonomous Underwater Vehicle.
See also[edit]

Portal icon Massachusetts portal
Portal icon Nautical portal
##52-Hertz whale
##Liquid Jungle Lab, a tropical research station in Pacific Panama operated by WHOI
##Marine Biological Laboratory, a neighboring but administratively unrelated institution in Woods Hole
##Scripps Institution of Oceanography, a similar research facility associated with the University of California, San Diego and located in La Jolla, California
##The Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, a smaller oceanographic facility located at Rutgers University in New Jersey
Notes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ "Departments, Centers, and Labs". whoi.edu. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
2.Jump up ^ "Ocean Institutes". whoi.edu. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
3.Jump up ^ "Ensuring the future of ocean science". whoi.edu. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
4.^ Jump up to: a b "History and Legacy". whoi.edu. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
5.Jump up ^ "John Steele - obituary". The Telegraph. 27 January 2014. Retrieved 13 February 2014.
6.Jump up ^ In search of Air France Flight 447 Lawrence D. Stone Institute of Operations Research and the Management Sciences 2011
7.Jump up ^ "James Cameron Partners With WHOI". National Geographic. 26 March 2013. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
8.Jump up ^ "Robotic Deep-sea Vehicle Lost on Dive to 6-Mile Depth". WHOI. May 10, 2014. Retrieved May 10, 2014.
External links[edit]
##Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
##Woods Hole Scientific Community Publications
##Woods Hole buildings, aerial photo of
##Oceanus Magazine, The Magazine that Explores the Oceans in Depth
##MIT/WHOI Joint Program
##Project Oceanology


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Ships and vehicles of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution


Ships:
RV Knorr ·
 RV Oceanus ·
 RV Atlantis (sailboat) ·
 RV Atlantis II ·
 RV Atlantis (AGOR-25) ·
 RV Tioga
 

DSV:
DSV Alvin
 

ROVs:
ROV Jason ·
 ROV Jason Jr. ·
 ROV Medea ·
 ROV Nereus ·
 ROV ANGUS ·
 ROV Argo ·
 ROV Hugo
 

AUV:
ABE ·
 Sentry ·
 REMUS
 

List of research vessels of the United States


Coordinates: 41°31′28.26″N 70°40′15.50″W
  


Categories: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Research institutes in the United States
Independent research institutes
Oceanographic institutions
Universities and colleges in Massachusetts
New England Association of Schools and Colleges
Education in Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Universities and colleges in Barnstable County, Massachusetts




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Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

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 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution logo.
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI, acronym pronounced /ˈhuːi/ HOO-ee) is a private, nonprofit research and higher education facility dedicated to the study of all aspects of marine science and engineering and to the education of marine researchers. Established in 1930, it is the largest independent oceanographic research institution in the U.S., with staff and students numbering about 1,000. The Institution is organized into six departments,[1] four ocean institutes—ocean life, coastal ocean, ocean and climate change, deep ocean exploration[2]—the Cooperative Institute for Climate and Ocean Research, and a marine policy center. Its shore-based facilities are located in the village of Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States and a mile and a half away on the Quissett Campus. The bulk of the Institution's funding comes from grants and contracts from the National Science Foundation and other government agencies, augmented by foundations and private donations.
WHOI scientists, engineers, and students collaborate to develop theories, test ideas, build seagoing instruments, and collect data in diverse marine environments. Working in all the world’s oceans, their research agenda includes: geological activity deep within the earth; plant, animal, and microbial populations and their interactions in the ocean; coastal erosion; ocean circulation; ocean pollution; and global climate change.
Ships operated by WHOI carry research scientists throughout the world’s oceans. The WHOI fleet includes two large research vessels (Atlantis, Knorr), the coastal craft Tioga, small research craft such as the dive-operation work boat Echo, the deep-diving human-occupied submersible Alvin, the tethered, remotely operated vehicle Jason/Medea, and autonomous underwater vehicles such as the REMUS and SeaBED. A new ship, Neil Armstrong is under construction and is scheduled to be completed in 2014. The RV Neil Armstrong will also replace the R/V Knorr, which has been used by WHOI since 1970.
WHOI offers graduate and post-graduate studies in marine science. There are several fellowship and trainee-ship programs, and graduate degrees are awarded through a joint program with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) or by the Institution itself.[3] WHOI also offers other outreach programs and informal public education through its Exhibit Center and summer tours. The Institution has a volunteer program and a membership program, WHOI Associates.


Contents  [hide]
1 Mission
2 History
3 Awards
4 Research vessels
5 Small boat fleet
6 Underwater vehicles
7 See also
8 Notes
9 External links

Mission[edit]
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution is dedicated to research and education to advance understanding of the ocean and its interaction with the Earth system, and to communicating this understanding for the benefit of society.
History[edit]



R/V Atlantis, the first research vessel operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
In 1927, a National Academy of Sciences committee concluded that it was time to "consider the share of the United States of America in a worldwide program of oceanographic research." The committee's recommendation for establishing a permanent independent research laboratory on the East Coast to "prosecute oceanography in all its branches" led to the founding in 1930 of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.[4]
A $2.5 million grant from the Rockefeller Foundation supported the summer work of a dozen scientists, construction of a laboratory building and commissioning of a research vessel, the 142-foot (43 m) ketch Atlantis, whose profile still forms the Institution's logo.[4]
WHOI grew substantially to support significant defense-related research during World War II, and later began a steady growth in staff, research fleet, and scientific stature. Over the years, WHOI scientists have made seminal discoveries about the ocean that have contributed to improving US commerce, health, national security, and quality of life.
In 1977 the institute appointed the influential oceanographer John Steele as director, and he served until his retirement in 1989.[5]
On 1 September 1985, a joint French-American expedition led by Jean-Louis Michel of IFREMER and Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution identified the location of the wreck of the RMS Titanic which sank off the coast of Newfoundland 15 April 1912.
In February 2008, Dr. Susan K. Avery became the new president and director of the institution. Avery, an atmospheric physicist, is the ninth director in WHOI's 77-year history, and the first woman to hold the position.
On 3 April 2011, within a week of resuming of the search operation for Air France Flight 447, a team led by WHOI, operating full ocean depth autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) owned by the Waitt Institute discovered, by means of sidescan sonar, a large portion of debris field from flight AF447.[6]
Awards[edit]
B H Ketchum Award
The B H Ketchum award is presented for innovative coastal/nearshore research and is named in honor of oceanographer Bostwick H. "Buck" Ketchum.
Henry Bryant Bigelow Medal in Oceanography
The Henry Bryant Bigelow Medal in Oceanography was established in 1960 in honor of the first Director, biologist Henry Bryant Bigelow.
Research vessels[edit]
WHOI operates several research vessels, owned by the United States Navy, the National Science Foundation, or the Institution:
##R/V Knorr (AGOR-15) - 279 feet long
##R/V Atlantis (AGOR-25) - 274 feet long, mothership of the Alvin submarine
##R/V Tioga (WHOI-owned) - 60 feet long
##RV Neil Armstrong (AGOR-27) (under construction) - 238 feet long
Small boat fleet[edit]
WHOI also operates many small boats, used in inland harbors, ponds, rivers, and coastal bays. All are owned by the Institution itself.
##Motorboat Echo - 29 feet long (mainly used as a work boat to support dive operations, also the newest small research craft at WHOI)
##Motorboat Mytilus - 24 feet long (mainly used in water too shallow for larger craft and is a versatile coastal research boat)
##Motorboat Calanus - 21 feet long (mainly used in local water bodies such as Great Harbor, Vineyard Sound and Buzzards Bay)
##Motorboat Limulus - 13 feet long (mainly used to shuttle equipment to larger craft and as a work platform for near-shore research tasks)
##Rowboat Orzrus - 12 feet long (mainly used in harbors and ponds where motor craft are not permitted)
Underwater vehicles[edit]
WHOI also has developed numerous underwater autonomous and remotely operated vehicles for research:
##dsv-2 ALVIN – the most famous of their equipment, a human-occupied vehicle.
##Deepsea Challenger – human-occupied vehicle designed, field-tested, and later donated to the WHOI by Canadian film director James Cameron [7]
##Jason – a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV).
##Sentry – an autonomous underwater vehicle and successor to ABE
##Nereus (HROV, a type of Remotely Operated Vehicle) – A hybrid autonomous underwater vehicle; lost on 5/10/14 while exploring the Kermadec Trench.[8]
##Remus – Remote Environment Monitoring UnitS, an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV).
##SeaBED – an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle optimized for high-resolution seafloor imaging.
##Spray Glider - a remotely operated vehicle, used to collect data about the salinity, temperature, etc. about an area
##Slocum Glider - another remotely operated vehicle, with functions similar to the functions of the Spray Glider
##CAMPER - a towed vehicle used to collect samples from the seabed of the Arctic Ocean
##Seasoar - a submarine towed by a ship
##TowCam - a submarine with cameras that is towed by a ship along the ocean floor to take photographs
##Video Plankton Recorder - a submarine with microscopic camera systems, towed along by a ship to take videos of plankton
##ABE – Autonomous Benthic Explorer, another Autonomous Underwater Vehicle.
See also[edit]

Portal icon Massachusetts portal
Portal icon Nautical portal
##52-Hertz whale
##Liquid Jungle Lab, a tropical research station in Pacific Panama operated by WHOI
##Marine Biological Laboratory, a neighboring but administratively unrelated institution in Woods Hole
##Scripps Institution of Oceanography, a similar research facility associated with the University of California, San Diego and located in La Jolla, California
##The Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, a smaller oceanographic facility located at Rutgers University in New Jersey
Notes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ "Departments, Centers, and Labs". whoi.edu. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
2.Jump up ^ "Ocean Institutes". whoi.edu. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
3.Jump up ^ "Ensuring the future of ocean science". whoi.edu. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
4.^ Jump up to: a b "History and Legacy". whoi.edu. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
5.Jump up ^ "John Steele - obituary". The Telegraph. 27 January 2014. Retrieved 13 February 2014.
6.Jump up ^ In search of Air France Flight 447 Lawrence D. Stone Institute of Operations Research and the Management Sciences 2011
7.Jump up ^ "James Cameron Partners With WHOI". National Geographic. 26 March 2013. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
8.Jump up ^ "Robotic Deep-sea Vehicle Lost on Dive to 6-Mile Depth". WHOI. May 10, 2014. Retrieved May 10, 2014.
External links[edit]
##Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
##Woods Hole Scientific Community Publications
##Woods Hole buildings, aerial photo of
##Oceanus Magazine, The Magazine that Explores the Oceans in Depth
##MIT/WHOI Joint Program
##Project Oceanology


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Ships and vehicles of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution


Ships:
RV Knorr ·
 RV Oceanus ·
 RV Atlantis (sailboat) ·
 RV Atlantis II ·
 RV Atlantis (AGOR-25) ·
 RV Tioga
 

DSV:
DSV Alvin
 

ROVs:
ROV Jason ·
 ROV Jason Jr. ·
 ROV Medea ·
 ROV Nereus ·
 ROV ANGUS ·
 ROV Argo ·
 ROV Hugo
 

AUV:
ABE ·
 Sentry ·
 REMUS
 

List of research vessels of the United States


Coordinates: 41°31′28.26″N 70°40′15.50″W
  


Categories: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Research institutes in the United States
Independent research institutes
Oceanographic institutions
Universities and colleges in Massachusetts
New England Association of Schools and Colleges
Education in Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Universities and colleges in Barnstable County, Massachusetts




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Scripps Institution of Oceanography

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Scripps Oceanographic Research Institute)
Jump to: navigation, search

Coordinates: 32.865437°N 117.253626°W

Question book-new.svg
 This article may rely excessively on sources too closely associated with the subject, potentially preventing the article from being verifiable and neutral. Please help improve it by replacing them with more appropriate citations to reliable, independent, third-party sources. (March 2015)

Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Scripps Institution of Oceanography logo.png

Former names
 Marine Biological Association of San Diego
 Scripps Institution for Biological Research[1]
Established
1903
Type
Public

Parent institution
 University of California, San Diego
Director
Margaret Leinen[2]

Academic staff
 415[3]

Administrative staff
 822[3]
Postgraduates
235[3]
Location
La Jolla, California
Website
http://scripps.ucsd.edu



 A view of Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 2011, taken from the Birch Aquarium.


 Scripps Institution of Oceanography pier
The Scripps Institution of Oceanography (sometimes referred to as SIO, Scripps Oceanography, or Scripps) in San Diego, California, founded in 1903, is one of the oldest and largest centers for ocean and Earth science research, public service, undergraduate and graduate training in the world. Hundreds of ocean and Earth scientists conduct research with the aid of oceanographic research vessels and shorebased laboratories. Its Old Scripps Building is a U.S. National Historic Landmark. SIO is a department of the University of California, San Diego. The public explorations center of the institution is the Birch Aquarium at Scripps. Since becoming part of the University of California in 1912, the institution has expanded its scope to include studies of the physics, chemistry, geology, biology, and climate of Earth.
Dr. Margaret Leinen took office as Vice Chancellor for Marine Sciences, Director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography, and Dean of the Graduate School of Marine Sciences on Oct. 1, 2013.[2]
Scripps publishes explorations now, an e-magazine of ocean and earth science.


Contents  [hide]
1 Mission statement
2 History
3 Research programs
4 Organizational Structure
5 Research vessels
6 Birch Aquarium at Scripps
7 Notable faculty members (past and present)
8 Notable alumni
9 Popular culture
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links

Mission statement[edit]
"To seek, teach, and communicate scientific understanding of the oceans, atmosphere, Earth, and other planets for the benefit of society and the environment."[4]
History[edit]
Scripps Institution of Oceanography was founded in 1903 as the Marine Biological Association of San Diego, an independent biological research laboratory, by University of California Zoology professor William Emerson Ritter, with support from local philanthropist Ellen Browning Scripps and later her brother E. W. Scripps. They fully funded Scripps for the first several years. Scripps began institutional life in the boathouse of the Hotel del Coronado located on San Diego Bay. It re-located in 1905 to the La Jolla area on the head above La Jolla Cove, and finally in 1907 to its present location.
In 1912 Scripps became part of the University of California and was renamed the "Scripps Institution for Biological Research." The name was changed to Scripps Institution of Oceanography in October 1925.[1] During the 1960s, led by Scripps Institution of Oceanography director Roger Revelle, it formed the nucleus for the creation of the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) on a bluff overlooking Scripps Institution.
The Old Scripps Building, designed by Irving Gill, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1982.[5][6] Architect Barton Myers designed the current Scripps Building.
Research programs[edit]



 Scripps Institution of Oceanography researchers at sea
The institution's research programs encompass biological, physical, chemical, geological, and geophysical studies of the oceans and earth. Scripps also studies the interaction of the oceans with both the atmospheric climate and environmental concerns on terra firma. Related to this research, Scripps offers undergraduate and graduate degrees. (see https://scripps.ucsd.edu/education for more information.)
Today, the Scripps staff of 1,300 includes approximately 100 faculty, 300 other scientists and some 240 graduate students, with an annual budget of more than $180 million.[7]
The institution operates a fleet of four oceanographic research vessels and the research platform R/P FLIP (FLoating Instrument Platform) for oceanographic research. A fifth ship, R/V Sally Ride (named for the late astronaut and former UC San Diego professor), is scheduled to be launched in 2015.[8]
The Integrated Research Themes [9] encompassing the work done by Scripps researchers are:
Biodiversity and Conservation
California Environment
Earth and Planetary Chemistry
Earth Through Space and Time
Energy and the Environment
Environment and Human Health
Global Change
Global Environmental Monitoring
Hazards
Ice and Climate
Instruments and Innovation
Interfaces
Marine Life
Modeling, Theory, and Computing
Sound and Light in the Sea
Waves and Circulation
Organizational Structure[edit]
Scripps Oceanography is divided into three research sections, each with its own subdivisions:[10]
Biology Center for Marine Biotechnology & Biomedicine (CMBB)
Integrative Oceanography Division (IOD)
Marine Biology Research Division (MBRD)
Earth Cecil H. and Ida M. Green Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP)
Geosciences Research Division (GRD)
Oceans & Atmosphere Climate, Atmospheric Science & Physical Oceanography (CASPO)
Marine Physical Laboratory (MPL)

Research vessels[edit]



 Scripps research vessel Roger Revelle
Scripps owns and operates several research vessels and platforms:[11]
R/P FLIP
R/V Roger Revelle
R/V Melville
R/V New Horizon
R/V Robert Gordon Sproul
R/V Sally Ride (Operational 2015)
Previous vessels larger than 50 ft (15 m)1906–???? - R/V Loma
1907–1917 - R/V Alexander Agassiz
1918–1918 - R/V Ellen Browning
1925–1936 - R/V Scripps
1937–1955 - R/V E. W. Scripps
1955–1965 - R/V Stranger (Operated as USS Jasper from 1941 to 1947 for the UC Division of War Research)
1947–1956 - R/V Crest
1947–1969 - R/V Horizon
1948–1965 - R/V Paolina-T
1951–1965 - R/V Spencer F.Baird
1955–1969 - T-441
1956–1962 - R/V Orca
1959–1963 - R/V Hugh M. Smith
1959–1970 - R/V Argo (Official Navy name was Snatch)
1962–1976 - R/V Alexander Agassiz
1962–present - R/P FLIP
1962–1974 - R/V Oconostota (The Oconostota was known as "The Rolling O" because of its unpleasant motion.)
1965–1980 - R/V Alpha Helix (Transferred to University of Alaska, Fairbanks in 1980 (UAF sold vessel in 2007 to Stabbert Maritime)
1965–???? - R/V Ellen B. Scripps
1966–1992 - R/V Thomas Washington (Transferred to Chile and renamed Vidal Gormaz in 1992 (still operating in 2010)
1969–present - R/V Melville (AGOR-14)
1973–???? - R/V Gianna
1978–present - R/V New Horizon
1984–present - R/V Robert Gordon Sproul
1995–present - R/V Roger Revelle
Birch Aquarium at Scripps[edit]



 Birch Aquarium at Scripps, with the Village of La Jolla in the background
Main article: Birch Aquarium at Scripps
Birch Aquarium at Scripps, the public exploration center for the institution, features a Hall of Fishes with more than 60 tanks of Pacific fishes and invertebrates from the cold waters of the Pacific Northwest to the tropical waters of Mexico and the IndoPacific, a 13,000-gallon local shark and ray exhibit, interactive tide pools, and interactive science exhibits.[12]
Notable faculty members (past and present)[edit]
Farooq Azam
George Backus
Ernest Baldwin
Andrew Benson
Hugh Bradner
Edward Brinton
Theodore Holmes Bullock
Ralph J. Cicerone
Robert W. Corell
Harmon Craig
Paul J. Crutzen
Paul K. Dayton
Edward DeLong
Robert S. Dietz
Seibert Q. Duntley
Carl Eckart
Jim T. Enright
David Epel
Edward A. Frieman
Robert Garrels
Freeman Gilbert
Edward D. Goldberg
Joel Hedgpeth
Walter Heiligenberg
Sam Hinton
Carl Hubbs
Douglas Inman
John Dove Isaacs
Jeremy Jackson
Martin W. Johnson
Thomas H. Jordan
Charles David Keeling
Ralph Keeling
Charles Kennel
Nancy Knowlton
Ralph A. Lewin
Edwin P. Martz
Henry William Menard
Mario J. Molina
John W. Miles
B. Greg Mitchell
Walter Munk
Jerome Namias
William Nierenberg
Pearn P. Niiler
Stewart Nozette
Veerabhadran Ramanathan
Roger Revelle
William Emerson Ritter
Dean Roemmich
Enric Sala
Hans Suess
Francis Parker Shepard
Cornelius Cole Smith, Jr.
Richard Somerville
Fred Spiess
George Sugihara
Harald Sverdrup
Lynne Talley
Warren White
Klaus Wyrtki
Victor Vacquier Sr. and son
Benjamin Elazari Volcani
Notable alumni[edit]
Tanya Atwater
Thomas E. Bowman III
Edward Brinton
Stephen E. Calvert
Aiden M. Christiansen
Jack Corliss
John M. Edmond
Kenneth Farley
Susan M. Gaines
Eric Giddens
Susan Hough
Ancel Keys
Megan McArthur
James J. McCarthy
Marcia McNutt
Jessica Meir
Walter Munk
Wheeler J. North
Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara
Colm Ó hEocha
George Perry
Brinke Stevens
Christopher Stott
Brian Tucker
Popular culture[edit]
In 2014, the institution and its Keeling Curve measurement of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels were featured as a plot point in an episode of HBO's The Newsroom (U.S. TV series). [13] In 2008, Scripps Institution of Oceanography was the subject of a category on the TV game show Jeopardy!.[14] Scripps has been a story element in numerous fictional works.[15]
See also[edit]
Array Network Facility
The Scripps Research Institute, a neighboring, but completely independent medical research institute.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, a similar research facility on the east coast of the USA.
Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, a private, non-profit oceanographic research center in Moss Landing, California.
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b Scripps history.
2.^ Jump up to: a b Scripps Welcomes Margaret Leinen as Director
3.^ Jump up to: a b c "Mission and Quick Facts". Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
4.Jump up ^ Mission and Quick Facts, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
5.Jump up ^ "Old Scripps Building". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-07-10.
6.Jump up ^ James H. Charleton (February 12, 1982). "National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Scripps, George H., Memorial Marine Biological Laboratory / Old Scripps Building" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2009-06-22. and Accompanying 10 or so photos, exterior and interior, from 1977, 1980, and undated PDF (2.83 MB)
7.Jump up ^ 2011-2012 Annual Report
8.Jump up ^ Navy Names New Scripps Research Vessel to Honor the Legacy of Space Explorer and UC San Diego Professor Sally Ride
9.Jump up ^ https://scripps.ucsd.edu/research/integrated-themes
10.Jump up ^ https://scripps.ucsd.edu/research/research-sections
11.Jump up ^ SIO Timeline, from SIO Archives, UCSD online collection. Shor, E., Scripps in the 1950s: A Decade of Bluewater Oceanography, Journal of San Diego History, v29:4, 1983. Shor, E., SIO: Probing the oceans 1936-1976, Tofua Press, San Diego, 1978.
12.Jump up ^ Birch Aquarium Fact Sheet
13.Jump up ^ [1]
14.Jump up ^ :: explorations magazine : Scripps Oceanography, UC SAN DIEGO : Around the Pier ::
15.Jump up ^ Scripps Institution of Oceanography in Fiction. Peter Brueggeman. SIO Library, 2001
Further reading[edit]
Scripps Institution of Oceanography; First Fifty Years Helen Raitt and Beatrice Moulton. Los Angeles : W. Ritchie Press, 1967.
Scripps Institution of Oceanography : Probing the Oceans, 1936 to 1976 Elizabeth Noble Shor. San Diego, Calif. : Tofua Press, 1978.
The Keeling Curve Turns 50
External links[edit]
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
explorations E-Magazine
Support Scripps
Birch Aquarium at Scripps
"How Scripps Institution Came To San Diego", The Journal of San Diego History 27:3 (Summer 1981) by Elizabeth N. Shor


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 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography


































Scripps Institution of Oceanography

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Scripps Oceanographic Research Institute)
Jump to: navigation, search

Coordinates: 32.865437°N 117.253626°W

Question book-new.svg
 This article may rely excessively on sources too closely associated with the subject, potentially preventing the article from being verifiable and neutral. Please help improve it by replacing them with more appropriate citations to reliable, independent, third-party sources. (March 2015)

Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Scripps Institution of Oceanography logo.png

Former names
 Marine Biological Association of San Diego
 Scripps Institution for Biological Research[1]
Established
1903
Type
Public

Parent institution
 University of California, San Diego
Director
Margaret Leinen[2]

Academic staff
 415[3]

Administrative staff
 822[3]
Postgraduates
235[3]
Location
La Jolla, California
Website
http://scripps.ucsd.edu



 A view of Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 2011, taken from the Birch Aquarium.


 Scripps Institution of Oceanography pier
The Scripps Institution of Oceanography (sometimes referred to as SIO, Scripps Oceanography, or Scripps) in San Diego, California, founded in 1903, is one of the oldest and largest centers for ocean and Earth science research, public service, undergraduate and graduate training in the world. Hundreds of ocean and Earth scientists conduct research with the aid of oceanographic research vessels and shorebased laboratories. Its Old Scripps Building is a U.S. National Historic Landmark. SIO is a department of the University of California, San Diego. The public explorations center of the institution is the Birch Aquarium at Scripps. Since becoming part of the University of California in 1912, the institution has expanded its scope to include studies of the physics, chemistry, geology, biology, and climate of Earth.
Dr. Margaret Leinen took office as Vice Chancellor for Marine Sciences, Director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography, and Dean of the Graduate School of Marine Sciences on Oct. 1, 2013.[2]
Scripps publishes explorations now, an e-magazine of ocean and earth science.


Contents  [hide]
1 Mission statement
2 History
3 Research programs
4 Organizational Structure
5 Research vessels
6 Birch Aquarium at Scripps
7 Notable faculty members (past and present)
8 Notable alumni
9 Popular culture
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links

Mission statement[edit]
"To seek, teach, and communicate scientific understanding of the oceans, atmosphere, Earth, and other planets for the benefit of society and the environment."[4]
History[edit]
Scripps Institution of Oceanography was founded in 1903 as the Marine Biological Association of San Diego, an independent biological research laboratory, by University of California Zoology professor William Emerson Ritter, with support from local philanthropist Ellen Browning Scripps and later her brother E. W. Scripps. They fully funded Scripps for the first several years. Scripps began institutional life in the boathouse of the Hotel del Coronado located on San Diego Bay. It re-located in 1905 to the La Jolla area on the head above La Jolla Cove, and finally in 1907 to its present location.
In 1912 Scripps became part of the University of California and was renamed the "Scripps Institution for Biological Research." The name was changed to Scripps Institution of Oceanography in October 1925.[1] During the 1960s, led by Scripps Institution of Oceanography director Roger Revelle, it formed the nucleus for the creation of the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) on a bluff overlooking Scripps Institution.
The Old Scripps Building, designed by Irving Gill, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1982.[5][6] Architect Barton Myers designed the current Scripps Building.
Research programs[edit]



 Scripps Institution of Oceanography researchers at sea
The institution's research programs encompass biological, physical, chemical, geological, and geophysical studies of the oceans and earth. Scripps also studies the interaction of the oceans with both the atmospheric climate and environmental concerns on terra firma. Related to this research, Scripps offers undergraduate and graduate degrees. (see https://scripps.ucsd.edu/education for more information.)
Today, the Scripps staff of 1,300 includes approximately 100 faculty, 300 other scientists and some 240 graduate students, with an annual budget of more than $180 million.[7]
The institution operates a fleet of four oceanographic research vessels and the research platform R/P FLIP (FLoating Instrument Platform) for oceanographic research. A fifth ship, R/V Sally Ride (named for the late astronaut and former UC San Diego professor), is scheduled to be launched in 2015.[8]
The Integrated Research Themes [9] encompassing the work done by Scripps researchers are:
Biodiversity and Conservation
California Environment
Earth and Planetary Chemistry
Earth Through Space and Time
Energy and the Environment
Environment and Human Health
Global Change
Global Environmental Monitoring
Hazards
Ice and Climate
Instruments and Innovation
Interfaces
Marine Life
Modeling, Theory, and Computing
Sound and Light in the Sea
Waves and Circulation
Organizational Structure[edit]
Scripps Oceanography is divided into three research sections, each with its own subdivisions:[10]
Biology Center for Marine Biotechnology & Biomedicine (CMBB)
Integrative Oceanography Division (IOD)
Marine Biology Research Division (MBRD)
Earth Cecil H. and Ida M. Green Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP)
Geosciences Research Division (GRD)
Oceans & Atmosphere Climate, Atmospheric Science & Physical Oceanography (CASPO)
Marine Physical Laboratory (MPL)

Research vessels[edit]



 Scripps research vessel Roger Revelle
Scripps owns and operates several research vessels and platforms:[11]
R/P FLIP
R/V Roger Revelle
R/V Melville
R/V New Horizon
R/V Robert Gordon Sproul
R/V Sally Ride (Operational 2015)
Previous vessels larger than 50 ft (15 m)1906–???? - R/V Loma
1907–1917 - R/V Alexander Agassiz
1918–1918 - R/V Ellen Browning
1925–1936 - R/V Scripps
1937–1955 - R/V E. W. Scripps
1955–1965 - R/V Stranger (Operated as USS Jasper from 1941 to 1947 for the UC Division of War Research)
1947–1956 - R/V Crest
1947–1969 - R/V Horizon
1948–1965 - R/V Paolina-T
1951–1965 - R/V Spencer F.Baird
1955–1969 - T-441
1956–1962 - R/V Orca
1959–1963 - R/V Hugh M. Smith
1959–1970 - R/V Argo (Official Navy name was Snatch)
1962–1976 - R/V Alexander Agassiz
1962–present - R/P FLIP
1962–1974 - R/V Oconostota (The Oconostota was known as "The Rolling O" because of its unpleasant motion.)
1965–1980 - R/V Alpha Helix (Transferred to University of Alaska, Fairbanks in 1980 (UAF sold vessel in 2007 to Stabbert Maritime)
1965–???? - R/V Ellen B. Scripps
1966–1992 - R/V Thomas Washington (Transferred to Chile and renamed Vidal Gormaz in 1992 (still operating in 2010)
1969–present - R/V Melville (AGOR-14)
1973–???? - R/V Gianna
1978–present - R/V New Horizon
1984–present - R/V Robert Gordon Sproul
1995–present - R/V Roger Revelle
Birch Aquarium at Scripps[edit]



 Birch Aquarium at Scripps, with the Village of La Jolla in the background
Main article: Birch Aquarium at Scripps
Birch Aquarium at Scripps, the public exploration center for the institution, features a Hall of Fishes with more than 60 tanks of Pacific fishes and invertebrates from the cold waters of the Pacific Northwest to the tropical waters of Mexico and the IndoPacific, a 13,000-gallon local shark and ray exhibit, interactive tide pools, and interactive science exhibits.[12]
Notable faculty members (past and present)[edit]
Farooq Azam
George Backus
Ernest Baldwin
Andrew Benson
Hugh Bradner
Edward Brinton
Theodore Holmes Bullock
Ralph J. Cicerone
Robert W. Corell
Harmon Craig
Paul J. Crutzen
Paul K. Dayton
Edward DeLong
Robert S. Dietz
Seibert Q. Duntley
Carl Eckart
Jim T. Enright
David Epel
Edward A. Frieman
Robert Garrels
Freeman Gilbert
Edward D. Goldberg
Joel Hedgpeth
Walter Heiligenberg
Sam Hinton
Carl Hubbs
Douglas Inman
John Dove Isaacs
Jeremy Jackson
Martin W. Johnson
Thomas H. Jordan
Charles David Keeling
Ralph Keeling
Charles Kennel
Nancy Knowlton
Ralph A. Lewin
Edwin P. Martz
Henry William Menard
Mario J. Molina
John W. Miles
B. Greg Mitchell
Walter Munk
Jerome Namias
William Nierenberg
Pearn P. Niiler
Stewart Nozette
Veerabhadran Ramanathan
Roger Revelle
William Emerson Ritter
Dean Roemmich
Enric Sala
Hans Suess
Francis Parker Shepard
Cornelius Cole Smith, Jr.
Richard Somerville
Fred Spiess
George Sugihara
Harald Sverdrup
Lynne Talley
Warren White
Klaus Wyrtki
Victor Vacquier Sr. and son
Benjamin Elazari Volcani
Notable alumni[edit]
Tanya Atwater
Thomas E. Bowman III
Edward Brinton
Stephen E. Calvert
Aiden M. Christiansen
Jack Corliss
John M. Edmond
Kenneth Farley
Susan M. Gaines
Eric Giddens
Susan Hough
Ancel Keys
Megan McArthur
James J. McCarthy
Marcia McNutt
Jessica Meir
Walter Munk
Wheeler J. North
Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara
Colm Ó hEocha
George Perry
Brinke Stevens
Christopher Stott
Brian Tucker
Popular culture[edit]
In 2014, the institution and its Keeling Curve measurement of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels were featured as a plot point in an episode of HBO's The Newsroom (U.S. TV series). [13] In 2008, Scripps Institution of Oceanography was the subject of a category on the TV game show Jeopardy!.[14] Scripps has been a story element in numerous fictional works.[15]
See also[edit]
Array Network Facility
The Scripps Research Institute, a neighboring, but completely independent medical research institute.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, a similar research facility on the east coast of the USA.
Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, a private, non-profit oceanographic research center in Moss Landing, California.
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b Scripps history.
2.^ Jump up to: a b Scripps Welcomes Margaret Leinen as Director
3.^ Jump up to: a b c "Mission and Quick Facts". Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
4.Jump up ^ Mission and Quick Facts, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
5.Jump up ^ "Old Scripps Building". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-07-10.
6.Jump up ^ James H. Charleton (February 12, 1982). "National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Scripps, George H., Memorial Marine Biological Laboratory / Old Scripps Building" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2009-06-22. and Accompanying 10 or so photos, exterior and interior, from 1977, 1980, and undated PDF (2.83 MB)
7.Jump up ^ 2011-2012 Annual Report
8.Jump up ^ Navy Names New Scripps Research Vessel to Honor the Legacy of Space Explorer and UC San Diego Professor Sally Ride
9.Jump up ^ https://scripps.ucsd.edu/research/integrated-themes
10.Jump up ^ https://scripps.ucsd.edu/research/research-sections
11.Jump up ^ SIO Timeline, from SIO Archives, UCSD online collection. Shor, E., Scripps in the 1950s: A Decade of Bluewater Oceanography, Journal of San Diego History, v29:4, 1983. Shor, E., SIO: Probing the oceans 1936-1976, Tofua Press, San Diego, 1978.
12.Jump up ^ Birch Aquarium Fact Sheet
13.Jump up ^ [1]
14.Jump up ^ :: explorations magazine : Scripps Oceanography, UC SAN DIEGO : Around the Pier ::
15.Jump up ^ Scripps Institution of Oceanography in Fiction. Peter Brueggeman. SIO Library, 2001
Further reading[edit]
Scripps Institution of Oceanography; First Fifty Years Helen Raitt and Beatrice Moulton. Los Angeles : W. Ritchie Press, 1967.
Scripps Institution of Oceanography : Probing the Oceans, 1936 to 1976 Elizabeth Noble Shor. San Diego, Calif. : Tofua Press, 1978.
The Keeling Curve Turns 50
External links[edit]
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
explorations E-Magazine
Support Scripps
Birch Aquarium at Scripps
"How Scripps Institution Came To San Diego", The Journal of San Diego History 27:3 (Summer 1981) by Elizabeth N. Shor


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