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Abraham
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This article is about the biblical Abraham. For Islam, see Abraham in Islam. For other uses, see Abraham (disambiguation).
"Abram", "Avram", and "Ibrahim" redirect here. For other uses, see Abram (disambiguation), Avram (disambiguation), and Ibrahim (disambiguation).

Abraham
Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 035.jpg
Sacrifice of Isaac by Rembrandt (1635)

Personal

Born
Abram
Mesopotamia[Notes 1]
Died
Canaan[Notes 1]

Resting place
 Cave of Machpelah
31.524744°N 35.110726°E
Family

Spouse
Sarah ·
 Hagar ·
 Keturah
 
Children
Ishmael ·
 Isaac ·
 Zimran ·

Jokshan ·
 Medan ·
 Midian ·

Ishbak ·
 Shuah
 



The bosom of Abraham - medieval illustration from the Hortus deliciarum of Herrad of Landsberg (12th century)
Abraham (Hebrew: אַבְרָהָם‎ About this sound listen (help·info)), originally Abram, is the first of the three biblical patriarchs of Israel whose story is told in chapters 11 through 25 of the Book of Genesis.
Abram was called by God to leave his father Terah's house and native land of Mesopotamia in return for a new land, family, and inheritance in Canaan, the promised land. Threats to the covenant arose – difficulties in producing an heir, the threat of bondage in Egypt, of lack of fear of God – but all were overcome and the covenant was established.[1] After the death and burial of his wife, Sarah, in the grave that he purchased in Hebron, Abraham arranged for the marriage of Isaac to a woman from his own people.[2] Abraham later married a woman called Keturah and had six more sons, before he died at the recorded age of 175 and was buried by his sons, Isaac and Ishmael. (Genesis 25:1–10)
The Bible's internal chronology places Abraham around 2000 BCE,[3] but the stories in Genesis cannot be related to the known history of that time and most biblical histories accordingly no longer begin with the patriarchal period.[4]


Contents  [hide]
1 Genesis narrative 1.1 Abram's origins and calling
1.2 Abram and Sarai
1.3 Abram and Lot separate
1.4 Abram and Chedorlaomer
1.5 Abrahamic covenant
1.6 Abram and Hagar
1.7 Abraham and Sarah
1.8 Abraham's three visitors
1.9 Abraham's plea
1.10 Abraham and Abimelech
1.11 Birth of Isaac
1.12 Abraham and Ishmael
1.13 Abraham and Isaac
1.14 Later years
2 Historicity and origins 2.1 Historicity
2.2 Origins of the narrative
3 Abraham in religious traditions 3.1 Overview
3.2 Judaism
3.3 Christianity
3.4 Islam
3.5 Baha'i Faith
4 Abraham in the arts 4.1 Painting and sculpture
4.2 Literature
4.3 Music
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links

Genesis narrative[edit]



 A painting of Abraham's departure by József Molnár.
The story of Abraham is related in Genesis 11:26–25:10 of the Hebrew Bible.
Abram's origins and calling[edit]
Terah, the tenth in descent from Noah, begat three sons, Abram (later called Abraham), Nahor and Haran. Haran begat Lot (who was thus Abram's nephew), and died in his native city, Ur of the Chaldees. Abram married Sarai, who was barren. Terah, with Abram, Sarai, and Lot, then departed for Canaan, but settled in a place named Haran, where Terah died at the age of 205. (Genesis 11:27–32) The LORD had told Abram to leave his country and kindred and go to a land that he would show him, and promised to make of him a great nation, bless him, make his name great, bless them that bless him, and curse "him" that curses him. (Genesis 12:1–3) Abram was 75 years old when he left Haran with his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the substance and souls that they had acquired, and traveled to Shechem in Canaan. (Genesis 12:4–6)



Abram's Counsel to Sarai (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by James Tissot)
Abram and Sarai[edit]
There was a severe famine in the land of Canaan, so that Abram and Lot and their households, travelled south to Egypt. On the way, Abram told his wife Sarai to say that she was his sister, so that the Egyptians would not kill him. (Genesis 12:10–13) When they entered Egypt, the princes of the Pharaoh praised Sarai's beauty to the Pharaoh, and she was taken into his palace, and Abram was given provisions: "oxen, and he-asses, and menservants, and maidservants, and she-asses, and camels". However, God afflicted Pharaoh and his household with great plagues, which he tried to find the reason for.(Genesis 12:14–17) Upon discovering that Sarai was a married woman, Pharaoh demanded that they and their household leave immediately, along with all their goods. (Genesis 12:18–20)
Abram and Lot separate[edit]



 Depiction of the separation of Abraham and Lot by Wenceslaus Hollar.
Main article: Abraham and Lot's conflict
When they came back to the Bethel and Hai area, Abram's and Lot's sizeable numbers of livestock occupied the same pastures. This became a problem for the herdsmen who were assigned to each family's cattle. The conflicts between herdsmen had become so troublesome that Abram graciously suggested that Lot choose a separate area, either on the left hand [north] or on the right hand [south], that there be no conflict amongst brethren. But Lot chose to go east to the plain of Jordan where the land was well watered everywhere as far as Zoar, and he dwelled in the cities of the plain toward Sodom. Abram went south to Hebron and settled in the plain of Mamre, where he built another altar to worship God. (Genesis 13:1–18)
Abram and Chedorlaomer[edit]
Main article: Battle of Siddim



 Meeting of Abram and Melchizedek (painting circa 1464–1467 by Dieric Bouts the Elder)
During the rebellion of the Jordan River cities against Elam, (Genesis 14:1–9) Abram's nephew, Lot, was taken prisoner along with his entire household by the invading Elamite forces. The Elamite army came to collect the spoils of war, after having just defeated the king of Sodom's armies. (Genesis 14:8–12) Lot and his family, at the time, were settled on the outskirts of the Kingdom of Sodom which made them a visible target. (Genesis 13:12)
One person that escaped capture came and told Abram what happened. Once Abram received this news, he immediately assembled 318 trained servants. Abram's force headed north in pursuit of the Elamite army, who were already worn down from the Battle of Siddim. When they caught up with them at Dan, Abram devised a battle plan by splitting his group into more than one unit, and launched a night raid. Not only were they able to free the captives, Abram's unit chased and slaughtered the Elamite King Chedorlaomer at Hobah, just north of Damascus. They freed Lot, as well as his household and possessions, and recovered all of the goods from Sodom that had been taken. (Genesis 14:13–16)
Upon Abram's return, Sodom's king came out to meet with him in the Valley of Shaveh, the "king's dale". Also, Melchizedek king of Salem (Jerusalem), a priest of God Most High, brought out bread and wine and blessed Abram and God. Abram then gave Melchizedek a tenth of everything. The king of Sodom then offered to let Abram keep all the possessions if he would merely return his people. Although he released the captives, Abram refused any reward from the king of Sodom, other than the share to which his allies were entitled. (Genesis 14:17–24)



 The Vision of the Lord Directing Abram to Count the Stars (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Bible in Pictures)
Abrahamic covenant[edit]
See also: Covenant of the pieces
The word of God came to Abram in a vision and repeated the promise of the land and descendants as numerous as the stars. Abram and God made a covenant ceremony, and God told of the future bondage of Israel in Egypt. God described to Abram the land that his offspring would claim: the land of the Kenites, Kenizzites, Kadmonites, Hittites, Perizzites, Rephaims, Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites, and Jebusites. (Genesis 15:1–21)
Abram and Hagar[edit]
See also: Hagar and Hagar in Islam



Abraham, Sarah and Hagar, imagined here in a Bible illustration from 1897.
Abram and Sarai tried to make sense of how he would become a progenitor of nations since after 10 years of living in Canaan, no child had been born from Abram's seed. Sarai then offered her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, for Abram to consort with so that he may have a child by her, as a wife. After Hagar found she was pregnant, she began to despise her mistress, Sarai. Therefore, Sarai mistreated Hagar, and Hagar fled away. En route, the angel of the Lord spoke with Hagar at the fountain on the way to Shur. He instructed her to return and that her son would be "a wild ass of a man; his hand shall be against every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the face of all his brethren." She was told to call her son Ishmael. Hagar then called God who spoke to her "El-roi", ("Thou God seest me:" KJV). From that day, the well was called Beer-lahai-roi, ("The well of him that liveth and seeth me." KJV margin). She then did as she was instructed by returning to her mistress in order to have her child. Abram was eighty-six years of age when Ishmael was born. (Genesis 16:4–16)
Abraham and Sarah[edit]
Thirteen years later, when Abram was ninety-nine years of age, God declared Abram's new name: "Abraham" – "a father of many nations" (Genesis 17:5). Abraham then received the instructions for the covenant of circumcision (Genesis 17:10-14). Circumcision was necessary to be part of this 'great nation', whether by bloodline or inducted. Then God declared Sarai's new name: "Sarah" and blessed her and told Abraham, "I will give thee a son also of her". (Genesis 17:15-16) But Abraham laughed, and "said in his heart, Shall a child be born unto him that is an hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear?" (Genesis 17:17) Immediately after Abraham's encounter with God, he had his entire household of men, including himself (age 99) and Ishmael (age 13), circumcised. (Genesis 17:22–27)
Abraham's three visitors[edit]



 Abraham and the Three Angels (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by James Tissot)
Not long afterward, during the heat of the day, Abraham had been sitting at the entrance of his tent by the terebinths of Mamre. He looked up and saw three men in the presence of God. Then he ran and bowed to the ground to welcome them. Abraham then offered to wash their feet and fetch them a morsel of bread, of which they assented. Abraham rushed to Sarah's tent to order cakes made from choice flour, then he ordered a servant-boy to prepare a choice calf. When all was prepared, he set curds, milk and the calf before them, waiting on them, under a tree, as they ate. (Genesis 18:1–8)
One of the visitors told Abraham that upon his return next year, Sarah would have a son. While at the tent entrance, Sarah overheard what was said and she laughed to herself about the prospect of having a child at their ages. The visitor inquired of Abraham why Sarah laughed at bearing a child at her age, as nothing is too hard for God. Frightened, Sarah denied laughing.
Abraham's plea[edit]
Main articles: Sodom and Gomorrah and Lot (biblical person)



 Abraham Sees Sodom in Flames (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by James Tissot)
After eating, Abraham and the three visitors got up. They walked over to the peak that overlooked the 'cities of the plain' to discuss the fate of Sodom and Gomorrah for their detestable sins that were so great, it moved God to action. Because Abraham's nephew was living in Sodom, God revealed plans to confirm and judge these cities. At this point, the two other visitors left for Sodom. Then Abraham turned to the Lord and pleaded decrementally with Him (from fifty persons to less) that "if there were at least ten righteous men found in the city, would not God spare the city?" For the sake of ten righteous people, God declared that he would not destroy the city. (Genesis 18:17–33)
When the two visitors got to Sodom to conduct their report, they planned on staying in the city square. However, Abraham's nephew, Lot, met with them and strongly insisted that these two "men" stay at his house for the night. A rally of men stood outside of Lot's home and demanded that they bring out his guests so that they may "know" (v.5) them. However, Lot objected and offered his virgin daughters who had not "known" (v.8) man to the rally of men instead. They rejected that notion and sought to break down Lot's door to get to his male guests, (Genesis 19:1–9) thus confirming that their "cry" had waxed great before the Lord, and they would be destroyed. (Genesis 19:12–13)
Early the next morning, Abraham went to the place where he stood before the Lord. He "looked out toward Sodom and Gomorrah" and saw what became of the cities of the plain, where not even "ten righteous" (v.18:32) had been found, as "the smoke of the land went up as the smoke of a furnace." (Genesis 19:27–29)
Abraham and Abimelech[edit]
See also: Endogamy and Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis
Abraham settled between Kadesh and Shur in the land of the Philistines. While he was living in Gerar, Abraham openly claimed that Sarah was his sister. Upon discovering this news, King Abimelech had her brought to him. God then came to Abimelech in a dream and declared that taking her would result in death because she was a man's wife. Abimelech had not laid hands on her, so he inquired if he would also slay a righteous nation, especially since Abraham had claimed that he and Sarah were siblings. In response, God told Abimelech that he did indeed have a blameless heart and that is why he continued to exist. However, should he not return the wife of Abraham back to him, God would surely destroy Abimelech and his entire household. Abimelech was informed that Abraham was a prophet who would pray for him.(Genesis 20:1–7)
Early next morning, Abimelech informed his servants of his dream and approached Abraham inquiring as to why he had brought such great guilt upon his kingdom. Abraham stated that he thought there was no fear of God in that place, and that they might kill him for his wife. Then Abraham defended what he had said as not being a lie at all: "And yet indeed she is my sister; she is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother; and she became my wife." (Genesis 20:12) Abimelech returned Sarah to Abraham, and gave him gifts of sheep, oxen, and servants; and invited him to settle wherever he pleased in Abimelech's lands. Further, Abimelech gave Abraham a thousand pieces of silver to serve as Sarah's vindication before all. Abraham then prayed for Abimelech and his household, since God had stricken the women with infertility because of the taking of Sarah. (Genesis 20:8–18)
After living for some time in the land of the Philistines, Abimelech and Phicol, the chief of his troops, approached Abraham because of a dispute that resulted in a violent confrontation at a well. Abraham then reproached Abimelech due to his Philistine servant's aggressive attacks and the seizing of Abraham's well. Abimelech claimed ignorance of the incident. Then Abraham offered a pact by providing sheep and oxen to Abimelech. Further, to attest that Abraham was the one who dug the well, he also gave Abimelech seven ewes for proof. Because of this sworn oath, they called the place of this well: Beersheba. After Abimelech and Phicol headed back to Philistia, Abraham planted a grove in Beersheba and called upon "the name of the Lord, the everlasting God." (Genesis 21:22–34)
Birth of Isaac[edit]



Sacrifice of Isaac, by Caravaggio
As had been prophesied in Mamre the previous year (Genesis 17:21), Sarah became pregnant and bare a son to Abraham, on the first anniversary of the covenant of circumcision. Abraham was "an hundred years old", when his son whom he named Isaac was born; and he circumcised him when he was eight days old. (Genesis 21:1–5) For Sarah, the thought of giving birth and nursing a child, at such an old age, also brought her much laughter, as she declared, "God hath made me to laugh, so that all that hear will laugh with me." (Genesis 21:6–7) Isaac continued to grow and on the day he was weaned, Abraham held a great feast to honor the occasion. During the celebration, however, Sarah found Ishmael mocking; an observation that would begin to clarify the birthright of Isaac. (Genesis 21:8-13)
Abraham and Ishmael[edit]
See also: Ishmael in Islam § The sacrifice
Ishmael was fourteen years old when Abraham's son Isaac was born to a different mother, Sarah. Sarah had finally borne her own child, even though she had passed her child bearing period. When she found Ishmael teasing Isaac, Sarah told Abraham to send both Ishmael and Hagar away. She declared that Ishmael would not share in Isaac's inheritance. Abraham was greatly distressed by his wife's words and sought the advice of his God. The Lord told Abraham not to be distressed but to do as his wife commanded. God reassured Abraham that "in Isaac shall seed be called to thee." (Genesis 21:12) He also said that Ishmael would make a nation, "because he is thy seed". (Genesis 21:9–13)
Early the next morning, Abraham brought Hagar and Ishmael out together. He gave her bread and water and sent them away. The two wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba until her bottle of water was completely consumed. In a moment of despair, she burst into tears. The boy then called to God and upon hearing him, an angel of God confirmed to Hagar that he would become a great nation. A well of water then appeared so that it saved their lives. As the boy grew, he became a skilled archer living in the wilderness of Paran. Eventually his mother found a wife for Ishmael from her home country, the land of Egypt. (Genesis 21:14–21)
Abraham and Isaac[edit]
Main article: Binding of Isaac
See also: Isaac § Binding of Isaac
At some point in Isaac's youth, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of Moriah. The patriarch traveled three days until he came to the mount that God told him of. He commanded the servants to remain while he and Isaac proceeded alone into the mount. Isaac carried the wood upon which he would be sacrificed. Along the way, Isaac asked his father where the animal for the burnt offering was, to which Abraham replied, "God will provide himself a lamb for a burnt offering". Just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, he was interrupted by the Angel of the Lord, and he saw behind him a ram caught in a thicket by its horns, which he sacrificed instead of his son. For his obedience he received another promise of numerous descendants and abundant prosperity. After this event, Abraham went to Beersheba. (Genesis 22:1–19)
Later years[edit]
Sarah died, and Abraham buried her in the Cave of the Patriarchs (the "Cave of Machpelah"), near Hebron which he had purchased along with the adjoining field from Ephron the Hittite. (Genesis 23:1–20) After the death of Sarah, Abraham took another wife, a concubine named Keturah, by whom he had six sons: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah. (Genesis 25:1–6) Abraham lived 175 years, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael. (Genesis 25:7–10)
Historicity and origins[edit]
Historicity[edit]



 Abraham's well at Beersheba
In the early to mid-20th century, leading scholars such as William F. Albright and Albrecht Alt believed the patriarchs and matriarchs to be either real individuals or believable composite people living in the "patriarchal age", the 2nd millennium BCE. In the 1970s, however, new conclusions about Israel's past and the biblical texts challenged this portrait. The two works largely responsible were Thomas L. Thompson's The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives (1974), and John Van Seters' Abraham in History and Tradition (1975). Thompson's argument, based on archaeology and ancient texts, was that no compelling evidence pointed to the patriarchs living in the 2nd millennium and that the biblical texts reflected first millennium conditions and concerns; Van Seters, basing himself on an examination of the patriarchal stories, agreed with Thompson that their names, social milieu and messages strongly suggested that they were Iron Age creations.[5] By the beginning of the 21st century, and despite sporadic attempts by more conservative scholars such as Kenneth Kitchen to save the patriarchal narratives as history, archaeologists had "given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac or Jacob credible 'historical figures'".[6]
Origins of the narrative[edit]
The patriarchal stories most likely had a substantial oral prehistory.[7] Abraham's name is apparently very ancient, as the tradition found in Genesis no longer understands its original meaning, probably "Father is exalted" - the meaning offered in Genesis 17:5, "Father of a multitude", is a popular etymology.[8] At some stage in Israel's history the oral traditions became part of the written tradition of the Pentateuch; a majority of scholars believes this stage belongs to the Persian period, roughly 520–320 BCE.[9] The mechanisms by which this came about remain unknown,[10] but there are currently two important hypotheses.[11] The first is Persian Imperial authorisation, the idea that the post-Exilic community needed a legal basis on which to function within the Persian Imperial system; the second relates to the community of citizens organised around the Temple, with the Pentateuch providing the criteria for who would belong to it (the narratives and genealogies in Genesis) and establishing the power structures and relative positions of its various groups.[11]
Nevertheless, the completion of the Torah and its elevation to the centre of post-Exilic Judaism was as much or more about combining older texts as writing new ones - the final Pentateuch was based on existing traditions.[12] In Ezekiel 33:24, written during the Exile (i.e., in the first half of the 6th century BCE), Ezekiel, an exile in Babylon, tells how those who remained in Judah are claiming ownership of the land based on inheritance from Abraham; but the prophet tells them they have no claim because they don't observe Torah.[13] Isaiah 63:16 similarly testifies of tension between the people of Judah and the returning post-Exilic Jews (the "gôlâ"), stating that God is the father of Israel and that Israel's history begins with the Exodus and not with Abraham.[14] The conclusion to be inferred from this and similar evidence (e.g., Ezra-Nehemiah), is that the figure of Abraham must have been preeminent among the great landowners of Judah at the time of the Exile and after, serving to support their claims to the land in opposition to those of the returning exiles.[14]
Abraham in religious traditions[edit]

Abraham
Aert de Gelder 009.jpg
Abraham and the Angels by Aert de Gelder (c. 1680–85)

First Patriarch

Honored in
Judaism ·
 Christianity ·
 Islam ·
 Baha'i Faith
 
Feast
October 9 – Roman Catholicism
Overview[edit]
Abraham is given a high position of respect in three major world faiths, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In Judaism he is the founding father of the Covenant, the special relationship between the Jewish people and God – a belief which gives the Jews a unique position as the Chosen People of God. Christianity and Islam in their beginnings challenged this special relationship, both Paul and Muhammad claiming Abraham for themselves as a "believer before the fact." In both cases the fact was the Mosaic law or its symbol, circumcision. For Paul, Abraham's faith in God made him the prototype of all believers, circumcised and uncircumcised; for Muhammad, Abraham's belief separated islam, submission to God, from the Torah. Thus Abraham, by his faith (according to Paul) or by his submission (according to Muhammad), undercut Jewish claims to an exclusive relationship with God and the Covenant.[15]
Judaism[edit]
In Jewish tradition, Abraham is called Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו), "our father Abraham," signifying that he is both the biological progenitor of the Jews (including converts, according to Jewish tradition), and the father of Judaism, the first Jew.[16] His life can be read in the weekly Torah reading portions, predominantly in the parashot: Lech-Lecha (לֶךְ-לְךָ), Vayeira (וַיֵּרָא), Chayei Sarah (חַיֵּי שָׂרָה), and Toledot (תּוֹלְדֹת).
Christianity[edit]
Abraham (Abram) does not loom so large in Christianity as he does in Judaism and Islam – it is Jesus as the Messiah who is central to Christianity, and the idea of the supernatural Christ is what separates Christianity from the other two religions.[17] In Romans 4, Abraham's merit is less his obedience to the divine will than his faith in God's ultimate grace; this faith provides him the merit for God's having chosen him for the covenant, and the covenant becomes one of faith, not obedience.[18]
The Roman Catholic Church calls Abraham "our father in Faith" in the Eucharistic prayer of the Roman Canon, recited during the Mass (see Abraham in the Catholic liturgy). He is also commemorated in the calendars of saints of several denominations: on 20 August by the Maronite Church, 28 August in the Coptic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East (with the full office for the latter), and on 9 October by the Roman Catholic Church and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. In the introduction to his 15th-century translation of the Golden Legend's account of Abraham, William Caxton noted that this patriarch's life was read in church on Quinquagesima Sunday.[19] He is the patron saint of those in the hospitality industry.[20] The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates him as the "Righteous Forefather Abraham", with two feast days in its liturgical calendar. The first time is on 9 October (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, 9 October falls on 22 October of the modern Gregorian Calendar), where he is commemorated together with his nephew "Righteous Lot". The other is on the "Sunday of the Forefathers" (two Sundays before Christmas), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. Abraham is also mentioned in the Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil the Great, just before the Anaphora, and Abraham and Sarah are invoked in the prayers said by the priest over a newly married couple.
In 1835 Joseph Smith claimed to translate some papyri which "purport[ed] to be the writings of Abraham, while he was in Egypt, called the Book of Abraham, written by his own hand, upon papyrus."[21] The writings discuss Abraham's flight from Egypt, God's promises to Abraham, Abraham's foreordination, and the creation story.[22] The work was recognized as one of the standard works of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 1880.[23]
Islam[edit]


Ibrahim
Ibrāhīm   إبراهيم
Abraham

"Ibrahim" (Abraham) in Islamic calligraphy

Family[hide]
Hājar ·
 Sārah ·
 Ismā'īl ·
 ʾIsḥāq ·
 Lūṭ
 

Related[hide]
Ḥaj ·
 Maqām Ibrāhīm ·
 ‘Īd al-’Aḍḥá
 
Category ·
 Islam portal
 
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Main article: Abraham in Islam
Islam focuses on Abraham (Arabic: إبراهيم‎ʾIbrāhīm) more than either Judaism or Christianity, but with an important difference: where Judaism holds that one becomes a descendant of Abraham through birth, and Christianity that one becomes a descendant through faith, Islam holds that descent is unimportant – Abraham, in other words, is not the father of the believing community, but a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Mohammad.[24]
Ibrāhīm is mentioned in 35 chapters of the Quran, more often than any other biblical personage apart from Moses.[25] He is called both a hanif (monotheist) and muslim (one who surrenders to God),[26] and Muslims regard him as a prophet and patriarch, the archetype of the perfect Muslim, and the revered reformer of the Kaaba in Mecca.[27]
Islamic traditions consider Ibrāhīm (Abraham) the first Pioneer of Islam (which is also called millat Ibrahim, the "religion of Abraham"), and that his purpose and mission throughout his life was to proclaim the Oneness of God. In Islam, he is referred to as "Ibrahim El Khalil" (إبراهيم الخليل), meaning "Abraham the Friend [of Allah]". When Ibrahim (Abraham) was asked for sacrifice, he took Ismā'īl (Ishmael) to sacrifice. When he was about to use the knife, God placed a sheep under his hand. From that day onward, every Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى ‘Īd al-’Aḍḥá) once a year Muslims around the world slaughter a sheep to follow the path of Ibrāhīm (Abraham) that is called Qurban ("sacrifice").[28]
Baha'i Faith[edit]
Bahá'u'lláh, the prophet of the Baha'i Faith, affirms the highest religious station for Abraham and generally for prophets mentioned among the other Abrahamic religions,[29] and has claimed a lineage of descent from Abraham through Keturah and Sarah.[30][31][32] Additionally Bahá'u'lláh actually did lose a son, Mírzá Mihdí.[33] Bahá'u'lláh, then in prison, eulogized his son and connected the subsequent easing of restrictions to his dying prayer and also compared it to the intended sacrifice of Abraham's son.[34]
Abraham in the arts[edit]
Painting and sculpture[edit]
Paintings on the life of Abraham tend to focus on only a few incidents: the sacrifice of Isaac; meeting Melchizedek; entertaining the three angels; Hagar in the desert; and a few others.[35] Additionally, Martin O'Kane, a professor of Biblical Studies, writes that the parable of Lazarus resting in the "Bosom of Abraham", as described in the Gospel of Luke, became an iconic image in Christian works.[36] According to O'Kane, artists often chose to divert from the common literary portrayal of Lazarus sitting next to Abraham at a banquet in Heaven and instead focus on the "somewhat incongruous notion of Abraham, the most venerated of patriarchs, holding a naked and vulnerable child in his bosom".[36] Several artists have been inspired by the life of Abraham, including Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), Caravaggio (1573–1610), Donatello, Raphael, Philip van Dyck (Dutch painter, 1680–1753), and Claude Lorrain (French painter, 1600–1682). Rembrandt van Rijn (Dutch, 1606–1669) created at least seven works on Abraham, Petrus-Paulus Rubens (1577–1640) did several, Marc Chagall did at least five on Abraham, Gustave Doré (French illustrator, 1832–1883) did six, and James Jacques Joseph Tissot (French painter and illustrator, 1836–1902) did over twenty works on the subject.[35]



 Cast of the Sacrifice of Isaac. The hand of God originally came down to hold Abraham's knife (both are now missing).
The Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus depicts a set of biblical stories, including Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac. These sculpted scenes are on the outside of a marble Early Christian sarcophagus used for the burial of Junius Bassus. He died in 359. This sarcophagus has been described as "probably the single most famous piece of early Christian relief sculpture."[37] The sarcophagus was originally placed in or under Old St. Peter's Basilica, was rediscovered in 1597,[38] and is now below the modern basilica in the Museo Storico del Tesoro della Basilica di San Pietro (Museum of Saint Peter's Basilica) in the Vatican. The base is approximately 4 × 8 × 4 feet. The Old Testament scenes depicted were chosen as precursors of Christ's sacrifice in the New Testament, in an early form of typology. Just to the right of the middle is Daniel in the lion's den and on the left is Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac.
George Segal created figural sculptures by molding plastered gauze strips over live models in his 1987 work Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael. The human condition was central to his concerns, and Segal used the Old Testament as a source for his imagery. This sculpture depicts the dilemma faced by Abraham when Sarah demanded that he expel Hagar and Ishmael. In the sculpture, the father's tenderness, Sarah's rage, and Hagar's resigned acceptance portray a range of human emotions. The sculpture was donated to the Miami Art Museum after the artist's death in 2000.[39]
Abraham in Christian Iconography
Usually Abraham can be identified by the context of the image – the meeting with Melchizedek, the three visitors, or the sacrifice of Isaac. In solo portraits a sword or knife may be used as his attribute, as in this statue by Gian Maria Morlaiter or this painting by Lorenzo Monaco. He always wears a gray or white beard.
As early as the beginning of the 3rd century, Christian art followed Christian typology in making the sacrifice of Isaac a foreshadowing of Christ's sacrifice on the cross and its memorial in the sacrifice of the Mass. See for example this 11th-century Christian altar engraved with Abraham's and other sacrifices taken to prefigure that of Christ in the Eucharist.[40]
Some early Christian writers interpreted the three visitors as the triune God. Thus in Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, a 5th-century mosaic portrays only the visitors against a gold ground and puts semitransparent copies of them in the "heavenly" space above the scene. In Eastern Orthodox art the visit is the chief means by which the Trinity is pictured (example). Some images do not include Abraham and Sarah, like Andrei Rublev's Trinity, which shows only the three visitors as beardless youths at a table.[41]
Literature[edit]
Fear and Trembling (original Danish title: Frygt og Bæven) is an influential philosophical work by Søren Kierkegaard, published in 1843 under the pseudonym Johannes de silentio (John the Silent). Kierkegaard wanted to understand the anxiety that must have been present in Abraham when God asked him to sacrifice his son.[42]
Music[edit]
In 1994, Steve Reich released an opera named The Cave. The title refers to The Cave of the Patriarchs. The narrative of the opera is based on the story of Abraham and his immediate family as it is recounted in the various religious texts, and as it is understood by individual people from different cultures and religious traditions.
Bob Dylan's "Highway 61 Revisited"[43] is the title track for his 1965 album Highway 61 Revisited. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked the song as number 364 in their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.[44] The song has five stanzas. In each stanza, someone describes an unusual problem that is ultimately resolved on Highway 61. In Stanza 1, God tells Abraham to "kill me a son". God wants the killing done on Highway 61. Abram, the original name of the biblical Abraham, is also the name of Dylan's own father.
See also[edit]

Portal icon Judaism portal
Portal icon Christianity portal
Portal icon Islam portal
Abraham in Islam
Abraham's Gate at Tel Dan
Abraham in History and Tradition (book)
Bosom of Abraham
Gathering of Israel
Genealogies of Genesis
Jewish Kabbalah
The Pearl of Great Price and Book of Abraham in Mormonism.
Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions
Notes[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b For Abraham's place of birth, see Genesis 11:28 and 24:4-10, Acts 7:2. For the place where he died, see Genesis 25:7-10.
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Hill and Walton 2010, p. 2024–2030.
2.Jump up ^ Ska 2009, p. 30–31.
3.Jump up ^ Shea 2000, p. 248.
4.Jump up ^ McNutt 1999, p. 41.
5.Jump up ^ Moore & Kelle 2011, p. 18-19.
6.Jump up ^ Dever 2002, p. 98 and fn.2.
7.Jump up ^ Pitard 2001, p. 27.
8.Jump up ^ Thompson 2002, p. 23-24.
9.Jump up ^ Ska 2009, p. 260.
10.Jump up ^ Enns 2012, p. 26.
11.^ Jump up to: a b Ska 2006, p. 217,227-228.
12.Jump up ^ Carr & Conway 2010, p. 193.
13.Jump up ^ Ska 2009, p. 43.
14.^ Jump up to: a b Ska 2009, p. 44.
15.Jump up ^ Peters 2010, p. 170–171.
16.Jump up ^ Levenson 2012, p. 3.
17.Jump up ^ Peters 2010, p. 171.
18.Jump up ^ Firestone, Reuven, Encyclopedia of World History -Abraham (PDF)
19.Jump up ^ Caxton, William. "Abraham". The Golden Legend. Internet Medieval Source Book. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
20.Jump up ^ Holweck 1924.
21.Jump up ^ Willard Richards Copy of Abraham Manuscript, Early 1842
22.Jump up ^ Book of Abraham
23.Jump up ^ "LDS FAQ - Book of Abraham". Brigham Young University. Retrieved 2014-04-02.
24.Jump up ^ Levenson 2012, p. PA8.
25.Jump up ^ Peters 2003, p. PA9.
26.Jump up ^ Levenson 2012, p. PA200.
27.Jump up ^ Mecca, Martin Lings, c. 2004
28.Jump up ^ Siddiqui, Mona (September 4, 2009). "Ibrahim - the Muslim view of Abraham". BBC. Retrieved September 12, 2013.
29.Jump up ^ May 1993, p. 102.
30.Jump up ^ Hatcher & Martin 1998.
31.Jump up ^ "Abrahamic Religion". Christianity: Details about ... Christianity Guide. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
32.Jump up ^ Flow, Christian B.; Nolan, Rachel B. (16 November 2006). "Go Forth From Your Country". The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
33.Jump up ^ Ma'ani 2008, p. 150.
34.Jump up ^ Taherzadeh 1984, p. 204-220.
35.^ Jump up to: a b For a very thorough online collection of links to artwork about Abraham see: Artwork Depicting Scenes from Abraham's Life Accessed 25 March 2011
36.^ Jump up to: a b Exum 2007, p. 135.
37.Jump up ^ Journal of Early Christian Studies, Leonard Victor Rutgers, The Iconography of the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (review of Malbon book), Volume 1, Number 1, Spring 1993, pp. 94–96; for Janson it is also the "finest Early Christian sarcophagus".
38.Jump up ^ or 1595, see Elsner, p. 86n.
39.Jump up ^ Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael. George Segal. Miami Art Museum. Collections: Recent Acquisitions. Accessed 10 April 2011.
40.Jump up ^ "Abraham the Patriarch in Art – Iconography and Literature". Christian Iconography – a project of Georgia Regents University. Retrieved 2014-04-18.
41.Jump up ^ Boguslawski, Alexander. "The Holy Trinity". Rollins.edu. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
42.Jump up ^ Kierkegaard 1980, p. 155-156.
43.Jump up ^ "Highway 61 Revisited" Retrieved 25 March 2011.
44.Jump up ^ "Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". Archived from the original on 13 September 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2008.
Bibliography[edit]
Andrews, Stephen J. (1990). "Abraham". In Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger A. Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7.Barr, James (2013). Bible and Interpretation: The Collected Essays of James Barr. Oxford University Press.Barr, James (1993). "Chronology". In Metzger, Bruce; Coogan, Michael D. The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press.Carr, David M.; Conway, Colleen M. (2010). "Introduction to the Pentateuch". An Introduction to the Bible: Sacred Texts and Imperial Contexts. John Wiley & Sons.Coogan, Michael (2008). The Old Testament: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530505-0.Davies, Philip R. (2008). Memories of Ancient Israel: An Introduction to Biblical History - Ancient and Modern. Westminster John Knox Press.Dever, William G. (2002). What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and when Did They Know It?: What Archaeology Can Tell Us about the Reality of Ancient Israel. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2126-3.Enns, Peter (2012). The Evolution of Adam. Baker Books.Exum, Jo Cheryl (2007). Retellings: The Bible in Literature, Music, Art and Film. Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-04-16572-X.Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2338-1.Hatcher, W.S.; Martin, J.D. (1998). The Bahá'í Faith: The Emerging Global Religion. Bahá'í Publishing Trust.Hendel, Ronald (2005). Remembering Abraham : Culture, Memory, and History in the Hebrew Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-803959-X.Hill, Andrew E.; Walton, John H. (2010). A Survey of the Old Testament. Zondervan. pp. 2024–2030. ISBN 978-0-310-59066-8.Holweck, Frederick George (1924). A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints. B. Herder Book Co.Hubbard, David Allan; Sanford La Sor, Frederic William; Bush (1996). Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-3788-3.Hughes, Jeremy (1990). Secrets of the Times. Continuum.Kierkegaard, Søren (1980). The Concept of Anxiety: A Simple Psychologically Orienting Deliberation on the Dogmatic Issue of Hereditary Sin. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02011-6.Levenson, Jon Douglas (2012). Inheriting Abraham: The Legacy of the Patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Princeton University Press.Ma'ani, Baharieh Rouhani (2008). Leaves of the Twin Divine Trees. Oxford, United Kingdom: George Ronald. ISBN 0-85398-533-2.May, Dann J (December 1993). "Web Published". The Bahá'í Principle of Religious Unity and the Challenge of Radical Pluralism. University of North Texas, Denton, Texas. p. 102.McCarter, P. Kyle (2000). "Abraham". In Freedman, Noel David; Myers, Allen C. Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 8–10. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2.McNutt, Paula M. (1999). Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22265-9.Mills, Watson E. (1998). Mercer Commentary on the Bible, Volume 1; Volume 8. Mercer University Press. ISBN 0-86554-506-5.Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). Biblical History and Israel's Past. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-6260-0.Peters, Francis Edwards (2003). Islam, a Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 9.Peters, Francis Edwards (2010). The Children of Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Princeton University Press. ISBN 1-4008-2129-0.Pitard, Wayne T. (2001). "Before Israel". In Coogan, Michael D. The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2.Shea, William H. (2000). "Chronology of the Old Testament". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans.Ska, Jean Louis (2006). Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch. Eisenbrauns.Ska, Jean Louis (2009). The Exegesis of the Pentateuch: Exegetical Studies and Basic Questions. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 30–31,260. ISBN 978-3-16-149905-0.Taherzadeh, Adib (1984). "The Death of the Purest Branch". The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 3: 'Akka, The Early Years 1868–77. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. ISBN 0-85398-144-2.Thompson, Thomas L. (2002). The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham. Valley Forge, Pa: Trinity Press International. pp. 23–24, 36. ISBN 1-56338-389-6.Wilson, Marvin R. (1989). Our Father Abraham: Jewish Roots of the Christian Faith. Massachusetts: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-0423-3.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Abraham.
 Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Abraham
 Wikisource has the text of the 1897 Easton's Bible Dictionary article Abraham.
Abraham from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica at Wikisource.
"Abraham" at chabad.org.
Abraham smashes the idols (accessed 24 March 2011).
"Journey and Life of the Patriarch Abraham", a map dating back to 1590.


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Loki
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For other uses, see Loki (disambiguation).
"Loke" redirects here. For the ethnic group of Nigeria, see Yakurr.



 Loki, from an 18th-century Icelandic manuscript
In Norse mythology, Loki, Loptr, or Hveðrungr is a god or jötunn (or both). Loki is the son of Fárbauti and Laufey, and the brother of Helblindi and Býleistr. By the jötunn Angrboða, Loki is the father of Hel, the wolf Fenrir, and the world serpent Jörmungandr. By his wife Sigyn, Loki is the father of Narfi and/or Nari. By the stallion Svaðilfari, Loki is the mother—giving birth in the form of a mare—to the eight-legged horse Sleipnir. In addition, Loki is referred to as the father of Váli in the Prose Edda.
Loki's relation with the gods varies by source. Loki sometimes assists the gods and sometimes causes problems for them. Loki is a shape shifter and in separate incidents he appears in the form of a salmon, mare, seal, a fly, and possibly an elderly woman. Loki's positive relations with the gods end with his role in engineering the death of the god Baldr. Loki is eventually bound by the gods with the entrails of one of his sons.
In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda, the goddess Skaði is responsible for placing a serpent above him while he is bound. The serpent drips venom from above him that Sigyn collects into a bowl; however, she must empty the bowl when it is full, and the venom that drips in the meantime causes Loki to writhe in pain, thereby causing earthquakes. With the onset of Ragnarök, Loki is foretold to slip free from his bonds and to fight against the gods among the forces of the jötnar, at which time he will encounter the god Heimdallr and the two will slay each other.
Loki is referred to in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; the Prose Edda and Heimskringla, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson; the Norwegian Rune Poems, in the poetry of skalds, and in Scandinavian folklore. Loki may be depicted on the Snaptun Stone, the Kirkby Stephen Stone, and the Gosforth Cross. Loki's origins and role in Norse mythology, which some scholars have described as that of a trickster god, have been much debated by scholars.


Contents  [hide]
1 Names
2 Attestations 2.1 Poetic Edda 2.1.1 Völuspá
2.1.2 Lokasenna
2.1.3 Þrymskviða
2.1.4 Reginsmál
2.1.5 Baldrs draumar
2.1.6 Hyndluljóð
2.1.7 Fjölsvinnsmál
2.2 Prose Edda 2.2.1 Gylfaginning
2.3 Norwegian rune poem
3 Archaeological record 3.1 Snaptun Stone
3.2 Kirkby Stephen Stone and Gosforth Cross
4 Folklore
5 Theories
6 Popular culture
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links

Names[edit]
The etymology of the name Loki has yet to be solved. It may be related to Old Norse luka, meaning "close" (potentially pointing to Loki's role at Ragnarök).[1]
In various poems from the Poetic Edda (stanza 2 of Lokasenna, stanza 41 of Hyndluljóð, and stanza 26 of Fjölsvinnsmál), and sections of the Prose Edda (chapter 32 of Gylfaginning, stanza 8 of Haustlöng, and stanza 1 of Þórsdrápa) Loki is alternately referred to as Loptr, which is generally considered derived from Old Norse lopt meaning "air", and therefore points to an association with the air.[2]
The name Hveðrungr (Old Norse '?roarer') is also used in reference to Loki, occurring in names for Hel (such as in Ynglingatal; hveðrungs mær) and in reference to Fenrir (as in Völuspa).[3]
Attestations[edit]



Loki and Sigyn (1863) by Mårten Eskil Winge
Poetic Edda[edit]
In the Poetic Edda, Loki appears (or is referenced) in the poems Völuspá, Lokasenna, Þrymskviða, Reginsmál, Baldrs draumar, and Hyndluljóð.
Völuspá[edit]
In stanza 35 of the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá, a völva tells Odin that, among many other things, she sees Sigyn sitting very unhappily with her bound husband, Loki, under a "grove of hot springs".[4] In stanza 51, during the events of Ragnarök, Loki appears free from his bonds and is referred to as the "brother of Býleistr" (here transcribed as Byleist):
A ship journeys from the east, Muspell's people are coming,over the waves, and Loki steersThere are the monstrous brood with all the raveners,The brother of Byleist is in company with them.[5]
In stanza 54, after consuming Odin and being killed by Odin's son Víðarr, Fenrir is described as "Loki's kinsman".[6]
Lokasenna[edit]



Loki taunts Bragi (1908) by W. G. Collingwood


 A depiction of Lokasenna (1895) by Lorenz Frølich
The poem Lokasenna (Old Norse "Loki's Quarrel") centers around Loki flyting with other gods; Loki puts forth two stanzas of insults while the receiving figure responds with a single stanza, and then another figure chimes in. The poem begins with a prose introduction detailing that Ægir, a figure associated with the sea, is hosting a feast in his hall for a number of the gods and elves. There, the gods praise Ægir's servers Fimafeng and Eldir. Loki "could not bear to hear that," and kills the servant Fimafeng. In response, the gods grab their shields, shrieking at Loki, and chase him out of the hall and to the woods. The gods then return to the hall, and continue drinking.[7]
Entrance and rejection
Loki comes out of the woods, and meets Eldir outside of the hall. Loki greets Eldir (and the poem itself begins) with a demand that Eldir tell him what the gods are discussing over their ale inside the hall. Eldir responds that they discuss their "weapons and their prowess in war" and yet no one there has anything friendly to say about Loki. Loki says that he will go into the feast, and that, before the end of the feast, he will induce quarrelling among the gods, and "mix their mead with malice." Eldir responds that "if shouting and fighting you pour out on" to the gods, "they'll wipe it off on you." Loki then enters the hall, and everyone there falls silent upon noticing him.[8]
Re-entrance and insults
Breaking the silence, Loki says that, thirsty, he had come to these halls from a long way away to ask the gods for a drink of "the famous mead." Calling the gods arrogant, Loki asks why they are unable to speak, and demands that they assign him a seat and a place for him at the feast, or tell him to leave. The skaldic god Bragi is the first to respond to Loki by telling him that Loki will not have a seat and place assigned to him by the gods at the feast, for the gods know what men they should invite.[9] Loki does not respond to Bragi directly, but instead directs his attention to Odin, and states:
Do you remember, Odin, when in bygone dayswe mixed our blood together?You said you would never drink aleunless it were brought to both of us.[9]
Odin then asks his silent son Víðarr to sit up, so that Loki (here referred to as the "wolf's father") may sit at the feast, and so that he may not speak words of blame to the gods in Ægir's hall. Víðarr stands and pours a drink for Loki. Prior to drinking, Loki declaims a toast to the gods, with a specific exception for Bragi. Bragi responds that he will give a horse, sword, and ring from his possessions so that he does not repay the gods "with hatred." Loki responds that Bragi will always be short of all of these things, accusing him of being "wary of war" and "shy of shooting." Bragi responds that, were they outside of Ægir's hall, Bragi would be holding Loki's head as a reward for his lies. Loki replies that Bragi is brave when seated, calling him a "bench-ornament," and that Bragi would run away when troubled by an angry, spirited man.[10]
The goddess Iðunn interrupts, asking Bragi, as a service to his relatives and adopted relatives, not to say words of blame to Loki in Ægir's hall. Loki tells Iðunn to be silent, calling her the most "man-crazed" of all women, and saying that she placed her washed, bright arms around her brother's slayer. Iðunn says that she won't say words of blame in Ægir's hall, and affirms that she quietened Bragi, who was made talkative by beer, and that she doesn't want the two of them to fight. The goddess Gefjun asks why the two gods must fight, saying that Loki knows that he is joking, and that "all living things love him." Loki responds to Gefjun by stating that Gefjun's heart was once seduced by a "white boy" who gave her a jewel, and who Gefjun laid her thigh over.[11]
Odin says that Loki must be insane to make Gefjun his enemy, as her wisdom about the fates of men may equal Odin's own. Loki says that Odin does a poor job in handing out honor in war to men, and that he's often given victory to the faint-hearted. Odin responds that even if this is true, Loki (in a story otherwise unattested) once spent eight winters beneath the earth as a woman milking cows, and during this time bore children. Odin declares this perverse. Loki counters that Odin once practiced seiðr on the island of Samsey (now Samsø, Denmark), and, appearing as a wizard, traveled among mankind, which Loki condemns as perverse.[12]
Frigg, a major goddess and Odin's wife, says that what Loki and Odin did in the ancient past should not be spoken of in front of others, and that ancient matters should always remain hidden. Loki brings up that Frigg is the daughter of Fjörgyn, a personification of the earth, and that she had once taken Odin's brothers Vili and Vé into her embrace. Frigg responds that if there was a boy like her now-deceased son Baldr in the hall, Loki would not be able to escape from the wrath of the gods. Loki reminds Frigg that he is responsible for the death of her son Baldr.[13]
The goddess Freyja declares that Loki must be mad, stating that Frigg knows all fate, yet she does not speak it. Loki claims each of the gods and elves that are present have been Freyja's lover. Freyja replies that Loki is lying, that he just wants to "yelp about wicked things" that gods and goddesses are furious with him, and that he will go home thwarted. In response, Loki calls Freyja a malicious witch, and claims that Freyja was once astride her brother Freyr, when all of the other laughing gods surprised her, Freyja then farted. This scenario is otherwise unattested. Njörðr (Freyja and Freyr's father) says that it is harmless for a woman to have a lover or "someone else" beside her husband, and that what is surprising is a "pervert god coming here who has borne children."[14]
Loki tells Njörðr to be silent, recalling Njörðr's status as once having been a hostage from the Vanir to the Æsir during the Æsir-Vanir War, that the "daughters of Hymir" once used Njörðr "as a pisspot," urinating in his mouth (an otherwise unattested comment). Njörðr responds that this was his reward when he was sent as a hostage to the Æsir, and that he fathered his son (Freyr), whom no one hates, and is considered a prince of the Æsir. Loki tells Njörðr to maintain his moderation, and that he won't keep it secret any longer that Njörðr fathered this son with his sister (unnamed), although one would expect him to be worse than he turned out.[15]
The god Tyr defends Freyr, to which Loki replies that Tyr should be silent, for Tyr cannot "deal straight with people," and points out that it was Loki's son, the wolf Fenrir, who tore Tyr's hand off. (According to the prose introduction to the poem Tyr is now one-handed from having his arm bitten off by Loki's son Fenrir while Fenrir was bound.) Tyr responds that while he may have lost a hand, Loki has lost the wolf, and trouble has come to them both. Further, that Fenrir must now wait in shackles until the onset of Ragnarök. Loki tells Tyr to be silent a second time, and states that Tyr's wife (otherwise unattested) had a son by Loki, and that Tyr never received any compensation for this "injury," further calling him a "wretch."[16]
Freyr himself interrupts at this point, and says that he sees a wolf lying before a river mouth, and that, unless Loki is immediately silent, like the wolf, Loki shall also be bound until Ragnarök. Loki retorts that Freyr purchased his consort Gerðr with gold, having given away his sword, which he will lack at Ragnarök. Byggvir (referred to in the prose introduction to the poem as a servant of Freyr) says that if he had as noble a lineage and as an honorable a seat as Freyr, he would grind down Loki, and make all of his limbs lame. Loki refers to Byggvir in terms of a dog, and says that Byggvir is always found at Freyr's ears, or twittering beneath a grindstone. Byggvir says that he's proud to be here by all the gods and men, and that he's said to be speedy. Loki tells him to be silent, that Byggvir does not know how to apportion food among men, and that he hides among the straw and dais when men go to battle.[17]
The god Heimdallr says that Loki is drunk and witless, and asks Loki why he won't stop speaking. Loki tells Heimdallr to be silent, that he was fated a "hateful life," that Heimdallr must always have a muddy back, and serve as watchman of the gods. The goddess Skaði says that while Loki now appears light-hearted and "playing" with his "tail-wagging," he will soon be bound with his ice-cold son's guts on a sharp rock by the gods. Loki says that, even if this is his fate, that he was "first and foremost" with the other gods at the killing of Skaði's father, Þjazi. Skaði says that, with these events in mind, "baneful advice" will always come from her "sanctuaries and plains" to Loki. Loki says that Skaði was once gentler in speech to him (referring to himself as the "son of Laufey") when Skaði once invited him to her bed (an event that is unattested elsewhere), and that such events must be mentioned if they are to recall "shameful deeds."[18]
Sif, wife of Thor, goes forth and pours Loki a glass of mead into a crystal cup in a prose narrative. Continuing the poem, Sif welcomes Loki and invites him to take a crystal cup filled with ancient mead, and says that among the children of the Æsir, she is singularly blameless. Loki "takes the horn," drinks it, and says that she would be, if it were so, and states that Sif had a lover beside Thor, namely, Loki himself (an event that is otherwise unattested). Beyla (referred to in the prose introduction to the poem as a servant of Freyr) says that all of the mountains are shaking, that she thinks Thor must be on his way home, and when Thor arrives he will bring peace to those that quarrel there. Loki tells Beyla to be silent, that she is "much imbued with malice," that no worse female has ever been among the "Æsir's children," and calling her a bad "serving-wench."[19]
The arrival of Thor and the bondage of Loki


 Loki threatens the Æsir with fire (1895) by Lorenz Frølich


 "The Punishment of Loki" by Louis Huard (1813-1874)
Thor arrives, and tells Loki to be silent, referring to him as an "evil creature," stating that with his hammer Mjöllnir he will silence Loki by hammering his head from his shoulders. Acknowledging that Thor has arrived, Loki asks Thor why he is raging, and says that Thor won't be so bold to fight against the wolf when he swallows Odin at Ragnarök. Thor again tells Loki to be silent, and threatens him with Mjöllnir, adding that he will throw Loki "up on the roads to the east," and thereafter no one will be able to see Loki. Loki states that Thor should never brag of his journeys to the east, claiming that there Thor crouched cowering in the thumb of a glove, mockingly referring to him as a "hero," and adding that such behaviour was unlike Thor. Thor responds by telling Loki to be silent, threatening him with Mjöllnir, and adding that every one of Loki's bones will be broken with it. Loki says he intends to live for a long while yet despite Thor's threats, and taunts Thor about an encounter Thor once had with the Skrýmir (Útgarða-Loki in disguise). Thor again commands Loki to be silent, threatens Loki with Mjöllnir, and says he will send Loki to Hel, below the gates of Nágrind.[20]
In response to Thor, Loki says that he "spoke before the Æsir," and "before the sons of the Æsir" what his "spirit urged" him to say, yet before Thor alone he will leave, as he knows that Thor does strike. Loki ends the poetic verses of Lokasenna with a final stanza:
Ale you brewed, Ægir, and you will never again hold a feast;all your possessions which are here inside—may flame play over them,and may your back be burnt![21]
Following this final stanza a prose section details that after Loki left the hall, he disguised himself as a salmon and hid in the waterfall of Franangrsfors, where the Æsir caught him. The narrative continues that Loki was bound with the entrails of his son Nari, and his son Narfi changed into a wolf. Skaði fastened a venomous snake over Loki's face, and from it poison dripped. Sigyn, Loki's wife, sat with him holding a basin beneath the dripping venom, yet when the basin became full, she carried the poison away; and during this time the poison dripped on to Loki, causing him to writhe with such violence that all of the earth shook from the force, resulting in what are now known as earthquakes.[22]
Þrymskviða[edit]



Loki's flight to Jötunheim (1908) by W. G. Collingwood


Ah, what a lovely maid it is! (1902) by Elmer Boyd Smith.
In the poem Þrymskviða, Thor wakes and finds that his powerful hammer, Mjöllnir, is missing. Thor turns to Loki first, and tells him that nobody knows that the hammer has been stolen. The two then go to the court of the goddess Freyja, and Thor asks her if he may borrow her feather cloak so that he may attempt to find Mjöllnir. Freyja agrees, saying she'd lend it even if it were made of silver and gold, and Loki flies off, the feather cloak whistling.[23]
In Jötunheimr, the jötunn Þrymr sits on a burial mound, plaiting golden collars for his female dogs, and trimming the manes of his horses. Þrymr sees Loki, and asks what could be amiss among the Æsir and the Elves; why is Loki alone in the Jötunheimr? Loki responds that he has bad news for both the elves and the Æsir - that Thor's hammer, Mjöllnir, is gone. Þrymr says that he has hidden Mjöllnir eight leagues beneath the earth, from which it will be retrieved, if Freyja is brought to him as his wife. Loki flies off, the feather cloak whistling, away from Jötunheimr and back to the court of the gods.[24]
Thor asks Loki if his efforts were successful, and that Loki should tell him while he's still in the air as "tales often escape a sitting man, and the man lying down often barks out lies." Loki states that it was indeed an effort, and also a success, for he has discovered that Þrymr has the hammer, but that it cannot be retrieved unless Freyja is brought to Þrymr as his wife. The two return to Freyja, and tell her to dress herself in a bridal head dress, as they will drive her to Jötunheimr. Freyja, indignant and angry, goes into a rage, causing all of the halls of the Æsir to tremble in her anger, and her necklace, the famed Brísingamen, falls from her. Freyja pointedly refuses.[25]
As a result, the gods and goddesses meet and hold a thing to discuss and debate the matter. At the thing, the god Heimdallr puts forth the suggestion that, in place of Freyja, Thor should be dressed as the bride, complete with jewels, women's clothing down to his knees, a bridal head-dress, and the necklace Brísingamen. Thor rejects the idea, and Loki (here described as "son of Laufey") interjects that this will be the only way to get back Mjöllnir, and points out that without Mjöllnir, the jötnar will be able to invade and settle in Asgard. The gods dress Thor as a bride, and Loki states that he will go with Thor as his maid, and that the two shall drive to Jötunheimr together.[26]
After riding together in Thor's goat-driven chariot, the two, disguised, arrive in Jötunheimr. Þrymr commands the jötnar in his hall to spread straw on the benches, for Freyja has arrived to be his wife. Þrymr recounts his treasured animals and objects, stating that Freyja was all that he was missing in his wealth.[27]
Early in the evening, the disguised Loki and Thor meet in the with the Þrymr and the assembled jötnar. Thor eats and drinks ferociously, consuming entire animals and three casks of mead. Þrymr finds the behaviour at odds with his impression of Freyja, and Loki, sitting before Þrymr and appearing as a "very shrewd maid", makes the excuse that "Freyja's" behaviour is due to her having not consumed anything for eight entire days before arriving due to her eagerness to arrive. Þrymr then lifts "Freyja's" veil and wants to kiss "her" until catching the terrifying eyes staring back at him, seemingly burning with fire. Loki states that this is because "Freyja" had not slept for eight nights in her eagerness.[27]
The "wretched sister" of the jötnar appears, asks for a bridal gift from "Freyja", and the jötnar bring out Mjöllnir to "sanctify the bride", to lay it on her lap, and marry the two by "the hand" of the goddess Vár. Thor laughs internally when he sees the hammer, takes hold of it, strikes Þrymr, beats all of the jötnar, and kills the "older sister" of the jötnar.[28]
Reginsmál[edit]
Loki appears in both prose and the first six stanzas of the poem Reginsmál. The prose introduction to Reginsmál details that, while the hero Sigurd was being fostered by Regin, son of Hreidmar, Regin tells him that once the gods Odin, Hœnir, and Loki went to Andvara-falls, which contained many fish. Regin, a dwarf, had two brothers; Andvari, who gained food by spending time in the Andvara-falls in the form of a pike, and Ótr, who would often go to the Andvara-falls in the form of an otter.[29]
While the three gods are at the falls, Ótr (in the form of an otter) catches a salmon and eats it on a river bank, his eyes shut, when Loki hits and kills him with a stone. The gods think that this is great, and flay the skin from the otter to make a bag. That night, the three gods stay with Hreidmar (the father of Regin, Andvari, and the now-dead Ótr) and show him their catches, including the skin of the otter. Upon seeing the skin, Regin and Hreidmar "seized them and made them ransom their lives" in exchange for filling the otterskin bag the gods had made with gold and covering the exterior of the bag with red gold.[29]
Loki is sent to retrieve the gold, and Loki goes to the goddess Rán, borrows her net, and then goes back to the Andvara-falls. At the falls, Loki spreads his net before Andvari (who is in the form of a pike), which Andvari jumps into. The stanzas of the poem then begin: Loki mocks Andvari, and tells him that he can save his head by telling Loki where his gold is. Andvari gives some background information about himself, including that he was cursed by a "norn of misfortune" in his "early days". Loki responds by asking Andvari "what requital" does mankind get if "they wound each other with words". Andvari responds that lying men receive a "terrible requital": having to wade in the river Vadgelmir, and that their suffering will be long.[30]
Loki looks over the gold that Andvari possesses, and after Andvari hands over all of his gold, Andvari holds on to but a single ring; the ring Andvarinaut, which Loki also takes. Andvari, now in the form of a dwarf, goes into a rock, and tells Loki that the gold will result in the death of two brothers, will cause strife between eight princes, and will be useless to everyone.[31]
Loki returns, and the three gods give Hreidmar the money from the gold hoard and flatten out the otter skin, stretch out its legs, and heap gold atop it, covering it. Hreidmar looks it over, and notices a single hair that has not been covered. Hreidmar demands that it be covered as well. Odin puts forth the ring Andvarinaut, covering the single hair.[31]
Loki states that they have now handed over the gold, and that gold is cursed as Andvari is, and that it will be the death of Hreidmar and Regin both. Hreidmar responds that if he had known this before, he would have taken their lives, yet that he believes those are not yet born whom the curse is intended for, and that he doesn't believe him. Further, with the hoard, he will have red gold for the rest of his life. Hreidmar tells them to leave, and the poem continues without further mention of Loki.[32]
Baldrs draumar[edit]
In Baldr draumar, Odin has awoken a deceased völva in Hel, and questions her repeatedly about his son Baldr's bad dreams. Loki is mentioned in stanza 14, the final stanza of the poem, where the völva tells Odin to ride home, to be proud of himself, and that no one else will come visit until "Loki is loose, escaped from his bonds" and the onset of Ragnarök.[33]
Hyndluljóð[edit]



 Loki consumes a roasted heart in a painting (1911) by John Bauer
Loki is referenced in two stanzas in Völuspá hin skamma, found within the poem Hyndluljóð. The first stanza notes that Loki produced "the wolf" with the jötunn Angrboða, that Loki himself gave birth to the horse Sleipnir by the stallion Svaðilfari, and that Loki (referred to as the "brother of Býleistr") thirdly gave birth to "the worst of all marvels". This stanza is followed by:
Loki ate some of the heart, the thought-stone of a woman,roasted on a linden-wood fire, he found it half-cooked;Lopt was impregnated by a wicked woman,from whom every ogress on earth is descended.[34]
In the second of the two stanzas, Loki is referred to as Lopt. Loki's consumption of a woman's heart is otherwise unattested.[35]
Fjölsvinnsmál[edit]
In the poem Fjölsvinnsmál, a stanza mentions Loki (as Lopt) in association with runes. In the poem, Fjölsviðr describes to the hero Svipdagr that Sinmara keeps the weapon Lævateinn within a chest, locked with nine strong locks (due to significant translation differences, two translations of the stanza are provided here):

Fjolsvith spake:"Lævatein is there, that Lopt with runesOnce made by the doors of death;In Lægjarn's chest by Sinmora lies it,And nine locks fasten it firm."[36] Fiolsvith.Hævatein the twig is named, and Lopt plucked it,down by the gate of Death.In an iron chest it lies with Sinmœra,and is with nine strong locks secured.[37] 
Prose Edda[edit]
Gylfaginning[edit]
The Prose Edda book Gylfaginning tells various myths featuring Loki, including Loki's role in the birth of the horse Sleipnir and Loki's contest with Logi, fire personified.
High's introduction
Loki first appears in the Prose Edda in chapter 20 of the book Gylfaginning, where he is referred to as the "ás called Loki" while the enthroned figure of Third explains to "Gangleri" (King Gylfi in disguise) the goddess Frigg's prophetic abilities while citing a stanza of Lokasenna.[38]



 "The children of Loki" (1920) by Willy Pogany
Loki is more formally introduced by High in chapter 34, where he is "reckoned among the Æsir", and High states that Loki is called by some "the Æsir's calumniator", "originator of deceits", and "the disgrace of all gods and men". High says that Loki's alternative name is Lopt, that he is the son of the male jötunn Farbauti, his mother is "Laufey or Nál", and his brothers are Helblindi and Býleistr. High describes Loki as "pleasing and handsome" in appearance, malicious in character, "very capricious in behaviour", and as possessing "to a greater degree than others" learned cunning, and "tricks for every purpose", often getting the Æsir into trouble, and then getting them out of it with his trickery. Loki's wife is named Sigyn, and they have a son named "Nari or Narfi". Otherwise, Loki had three children with the female jötunn Angrboða from Jötunheimr; the wolf Fenrir, the serpent Jörmungandr, and the female being Hel. The gods realized that these three children were being raised in Jötunheimr, and expected trouble from them partially due to the nature of Angrboða, but worse yet Loki.[39] In chapter 35, Gangleri comments that Loki produced a "pretty terrible"—yet important—family.[40]
Loki, Svaðilfari, and Sleipnir
In chapter 42, High tells a story set "right at the beginning of the gods' settlement, when the gods at established Midgard and built Val-Hall." The story is about an unnamed builder who has offered to build a fortification for the gods that will keep out invaders in exchange for the goddess Freyja, the sun, and the moon. After some debate, the gods agree to these conditions, but place a number of restrictions on the builder, including that he must complete the work within three seasons without the help of any man. The builder makes a single request; that he may have help from his stallion Svaðilfari, and due to Loki's influence, this is allowed. The stallion Svaðilfari performs twice the deeds of strength as the builder, and hauls enormous rocks—to the surprise of the gods. The builder, with Svaðilfari, makes fast progress on the wall, and three days before the deadline of summer, the builder is nearly at the entrance to the fortification. The gods convene, and figure out who is responsible, resulting in a unanimous agreement that, along with most trouble, Loki is to blame (here referred to as Loki Laufeyjarson—his surname derived from his mother's name, Laufey).[41]



Loki and Svaðilfari (1909) by Dorothy Hardy
The gods declare that Loki deserves a horrible death if he cannot find a scheme that will cause the builder to forfeit his payment, and threaten to attack him. Loki, afraid, swears oaths that he will devise a scheme to cause the builder to forfeit the payment, whatever it may cost himself. That night, the builder drives out to fetch stone with his stallion Svaðilfari, and out from a wood runs a mare. The mare neighs at Svaðilfari, and "realizing what kind of horse it was," Svaðilfari becomes frantic, neighs, tears apart his tackle, and runs towards the mare. The mare runs to the wood, Svaðilfari follows, and the builder chases after. The two horses run around all night, causing the building to be halted and the builder is then unable to regain the previous momentum of his work.[42]
The builder goes into a rage, and when the Æsir realize that the builder is a hrimthurs, they disregard their previous oaths with the builder, and call for Thor. Thor arrives, and subsequently kills the builder by smashing the builder's skull into shards with the hammer Mjöllnir. However, Loki "had such dealings" with Svaðilfari that "somewhat later" Loki gives birth to a gray foal with eight legs; the horse Sleipnir—"the best horse among gods and men."[42]
Loki, Útgarða-Loki, and Logi
In chapter 44, Third reluctantly relates a tale where Thor and Loki are riding in Thor's chariot, which is pulled by his two goats. Loki and Thor stop at the house of a peasant farmer, and there they are given lodging for a night. Thor slaughters his goats, prepares them, puts them in a pot, and Loki and Thor sit down for their evening meal. Thor invites the peasant family who own the farm to share with him the meal he has prepared. Afterward, the peasant child Þjálfi sucks the bone marrow from one of the goat bones, and when Thor goes to resurrect the goats, he finds one of the goats to be lame. In their terror, the family atones to Thor by giving Thor their son Þjálfi and their daughter Röskva.[43]



I am the giant Skrymir by Elmer Boyd Smith
Minus the goats, Thor, Loki, and the two children continue east until they arrive at a vast forest in Jötunheimr. They continue through the woods until dark. The four seek shelter for the night. They encounter an immense building. Finding shelter in a side room, they experience earthquakes through the night. The earthquakes cause all four but Thor, who grips his hammer in preparation of defense, to be fearful. The building turns out to be the huge glove of Skrymir, who has been snoring throughout the night, causing what seemed to be earthquakes. All four sleep beneath an oak tree near Skrymir in fear.[44]
Thor wakes up in the middle of the night, and a series of events occur where Thor twice attempts to kill the sleeping Skrýmir with his hammer. Skrýmir awakes after each attempt, only to say that he detected an acorn falling on his head or that he wonders if bits of tree from the branches above have fallen on top of him. The second attempt awakes Skrýmir. Skrýmir gives them advice; if they are going to be cocky at the keep of Útgarðr it would be better for them to turn back now, for Útgarða-Loki's men there won't put up with it. Skrýmir throws his knapsack onto his back and abruptly goes into the forest. High comments that "there is no report that the Æsir expressed hope for a happy reunion".[45]
The four travelers continue their journey until midday. They find themselves facing a massive castle in an open area. The castle is so tall that they must bend their heads back to their spines to see above it. At the entrance to the castle is a shut gate, and Thor finds that he cannot open it. Struggling, all four squeeze through the bars of the gate, and continue to a large hall. Inside the great hall are two benches, where many generally large people sit on two benches. The four see Útgarða-Loki, the king of the castle, sitting.[46]
Útgarða-Loki says that no visitors are allowed to stay unless they can perform a feat. Loki, standing in the rear of the party, is the first to speak, claiming that he can eat faster than anyone. Útgarða-Loki comments that this would be a feat indeed, and calls for a being by the name of Logi to come from the benches. A trencher is fetched, placed on the floor of the hall, and filled with meat. Loki and Logi sit down on opposing sides. The two eat as quickly as they can and meet at the midpoint of the trencher. Loki consumed all of the meat off of the bones on his side, yet Logi had not only consumed his meat, but also the bones and the trencher itself. It was evident to all that Loki had lost. In turn, Þjálfi races against a figure by the name of Hugi three times and thrice loses.[47]
Thor agrees to compete in a drinking contest but after three immense gulps fails. Thor agrees to lift a large, gray cat in the hall but finds that it arches his back no matter what he does, and that he can only raise a single paw. Thor demands to fight someone in the hall, but the inhabitants say doing so would be demeaning, considering Thor's weakness. Útgarða-Loki then calls for his nurse Elli, an old woman. The two wrestle but the harder Thor struggles the more difficult the battle becomes. Thor is finally brought down to a single knee. Útgarða-Loki says to Thor that fighting anyone else would be pointless. Now late at night, Útgarða-Loki shows the group to their rooms and they are treated with hospitality.[48]
The next morning the group gets dressed and prepares to leave the keep. Útgarða-Loki appears, has his servants prepare a table, and they all merrily eat and drink. As they leave, Útgarða-Loki asks Thor how he thought he fared in the contests. Thor says that he is unable to say he did well, noting that he is particularly annoyed that Útgarða-Loki will now speak negatively about him. Útgarða-Loki points out that the group has left his keep and says that he hopes that they never return to it, for if he had an inkling of what he was dealing with he would never have allowed the group to enter in the first place. Útgarða-Loki reveals that all was not what it seemed to the group. Útgarða-Loki was in fact the immense Skrýmir, and that if the three blows Thor attempted to land had hit their mark, the first would have killed Skrýmir. In reality, Thor's blows were so powerful that they had resulted in three square valleys.[49]
The contests, too, were an illusion. Útgarða-Loki reveals that Loki had actually competed against wildfire itself (Logi, Old Norse "flame"), Þjálfi had raced against thought (Hugi, Old Norse "thought"), Thor's drinking horn had actually reached to the ocean and with his drinks he lowered the ocean level (resulting in tides). The cat that Thor attempted to lift was in actuality the world serpent, Jörmungandr, and everyone was terrified when Thor was able to lift the paw of this "cat", for Thor had actually held the great serpent up to the sky. The old woman Thor wrestled was in fact old age (Elli, Old Norse "old age"), and there is no one that old age cannot bring down. Útgarða-Loki tells Thor that it would be better for "both sides" if they did not meet again. Upon hearing this, Thor takes hold of his hammer and swings it at Útgarða-Loki but he is gone and so is his castle. Only a wide landscape remains.[50]
Norwegian rune poem[edit]



 The Bjarkan rune
Loki is mentioned in stanza 13 of the Norwegian rune poem in connection with the Younger Futhark Bjarkan rune:


Old Norse:
Bjarkan er laufgrønster líma; Loki bar flærða tíma.[51] Modern English:Birch has the greenest leaves of any shrub; Loki was fortunate in his deceit.[52]
According to Bruce Dickins, the reference to 'Loki's deceit' in the poem "is doubtless to Loki's responsibility for Balder's death."[52]
Archaeological record[edit]
Snaptun Stone[edit]



 The Snaptun Stone may feature a depiction of Loki
In 1950, a semi-circular flat stone featuring a depiction of a mustachioed face was discovered on a beach near Snaptun, Denmark. Made of soapstone that originated in Norway or Sweden, the depiction was carved around the year 1000 CE and features a face with a curled mustache and scarred lips. The figure is identified as Loki due to the lips, considered a reference to a tale recorded in Skáldskaparmál where sons of Ivaldi stitch up Loki's lips.[53]
The stone is identified as a hearth stone; the nozzle of the bellows would be inserted into the hole in the front of the stone, and the air produced by the bellows pushed flame through the top hole, all the while the bellows were protected from the heat and flame. The stone may point to a connection between Loki and smithing and flames. According to Hans Jørgen Madsen, the Snaptun Stone is "the most beautifully made hearth-stone that is known." The stone is housed and on display at the Moesgård Museum near Aarhus, Denmark.[53]
Kirkby Stephen Stone and Gosforth Cross[edit]



Loki Bound (motive from the Gosforth Cross) (1908) by W. G. Collingwood
A fragmentary late 10th century cross located in St Stephen's Church, Kirkby Stephen, Cumbria, England features a bound figure with horns and a beard. This figure is sometimes theorized as depicting the bound Loki.[54] Discovered in 1870, the stone consists of yellowish-white sandstone, and now sits at the front of the Kirkby Stephen church. A depiction of a similarly horned and round-shouldered figure was discovered in Gainford, County Durham and is now housed in the Durham Cathedral Library.[55]
The mid-11th century Gosforth Cross has been interpreted as featuring various figures from Norse mythology and, like the Kirkby Stephen Stone, is also located in Cumbria. The bottom portion of the west side of the cross features a depiction of a long-haired female, kneeling figure holding an object above another prostrate, bound figure. Above and to their left is a knotted serpent. This has been interpreted as Sigyn soothing the bound Loki.[56]




The bound figure on the Kirkby Stephen Stone




Detail from the Gosforth Cross

Folklore[edit]
The notion of Loki survived into the modern period in the folklore of Scandinavia. In Denmark, Loki appeared as Lokke. In Jutland, the phrases "Lokke slår sin havre" ("Lokke is reaping his oats") and "Lokkemand driver sine geder" ("Lokkemand drives his goats") are thereby recorded in the beginning of the 20th century, the latter with the variation of simply "Lokke". In Zealand the name "Lokke lejemand" ("Lokke the Playing Man") was used. In his study of Loki's appearance in Scandinavian folklore in the modern period, Danish folklorist Axel Olrik cites numerous examples of natural phenomena explained by way of Lokke in popular folk tradition, including rising heat. An example from 1841 reads as follows:
The expressions: "Lokke (Lokki) sår havre i dag" (Lokke (Lokki) sows oats today), or: "Lokke driver i dag med sine geder" (Lokke herds his goats today), are used in several regions of Jutland, for example in Medelsom shire, the diocese of Viborg etc. ... and stand for the sight in the springtime, when the sunshine generates vapour from the ground, which can be seen as fluttering or shimmering air in the horizon of the flat landscape, similar to the hot steam over a kettle or a burning fire
And in Thy, from the same source: "... when you look at the horizon in clear weather and sunshine, and the air seems to move in shimmering waves, or like a sheet of water which seems to rise and sink in waves." Olrik further cites several different types of plants named after Loki. Olrik detects three major themes in folklore attestations; Lokke appeared as an "air phenomenon", connected with the "home fire", and as a "teasing creature of the night".[57]
Loka Táttur or Lokka Táttur (Faroese "tale—or þáttr—of Loki") is a Faroese ballad dating to the late Middle Ages that features the gods Loki, Odin, and Hœnir helping a farmer and a boy escape the wraith of a bet-winning jötunn. The tale notably features Loki as a benevolent god in this story, although his slyness is in evidence as usual.[58]
Theories[edit]
Loki's origins and role in Norse mythology have been much debated by scholars. In 1835, Jacob Grimm was first to produce a major theory about Loki, in which he advanced the notion of Loki as a "god of fire". In 1889, Sophus Bugge theorized Loki to be variant of Lucifer of Christian mythology, an element of Bugge's larger effort to find a basis of Christianity in Norse mythology. After World War II, four scholarly theories dominated. The first of the four theories is that of Folke Ström, who in 1956 concluded that Loki is a hypostasis of the god Odin. In 1959, Jan de Vries theorized that Loki is a typical example of a trickster figure. In 1961, by way of excluding all non-Scandinavian mythological parallels in her analysis, Anna Birgitta Rooth concluded that Loki was originally a spider. Anne Holtsmark, writing in 1962, concluded that no conclusion could be made about Loki.[59]
Regarding scholarship on Loki, scholar Gabriel Turville-Petre comments (1964) that "more ink has been spilled on Loki than on any other figure in Norse myth. This, in itself, is enough to show how little scholars agree, and how far we are from understanding him."[60]
In her review of scholarly discourse involving Loki, scholar Stefanie von Schnurbein (2000) comments that "Loki, the outsider in the Northern Germanic pantheon, confounds not only his fellow deities and chronicler Snorri Sturluson [referring to the Prose Edda] but has occasioned as much quarrel among his interpreters. Hardly a monography, article, or encyclopedic entry does not begin with the reference to Loki as a staggeringly complex, confusing, and ambivalent figure who has been the catalyst of countless unresolved scholarly controversies and has elicited more problems than solutions".[61]
Popular culture[edit]
Loki has been depicted in or is referenced in a variety of media in modern popular culture. During the 19th century, Loki was depicted in a variety of manners, sometimes strongly at odds. According to Stefan Arvidssen, "the conception of Loki varied during the nineteenth century. Sometimes he was presented as a dark-haired Semitic fifth columnist among the Nordic Aesir, but sometimes he was described as a Nordic Prometheus, a heroic bearer of culture".[62] Famously, Loki appears in Richard Wagner's opera cycle Ring of the Nibelung as Loge (a play on Old Norse loge "fire"). He is depicted as an ally of the gods (specifically Wotan's assistant rather than Donner's), although he generally dislikes them and thinks of them as greedy, as they refuse to return the Rhine Gold to its rightful owners. In the conclusion of the first opera Das Rheingold he reveals his hope to turn into fire and destroy Valhalla, and in the final opera Götterdämmerung Valhalla is set alight, destroying the Gods.[63]
Loki appears as an Angel of Death in Kevin Smith's 1999 film Dogma. Matt Damon plays a despondent angel, desperate to escape exile in Wisconsin, and comes into conflict with the film's protagonist. Dogma is considered controversial because of the concept that all mythological deities were considered real, and part of accepted Judeo-Christian teachings.
Loki appears as a Marvel Comics supervillain of the same name where he consistently comes into conflict with the superhero Thor, in the Marvel universe his adopted brother and archenemy[64] This version of Loki is played by Tom Hiddleston in the movies Thor (2011), The Avengers (2012) and Thor: The Dark World (2013). This is, by far, the most popular modern version of Loki.
Loki reappeared in, among other works, in the 1975 fantasy novel Eight Days of Luke by Diana Wynne Jones. He is also a central character in Neil Gaiman's novel American Gods.[65] and an important character in a few arcs of Gaiman's comic The Sandman.[66] He also appears in Joanne Harris' books Runemarks (2007),[67] Runelight(2011)[68] and "the Gospel of Loki"[69]
Loki appeared in the movie Son of the Mask, 2005. Alan Cumming stars as the god of mischief, Loki, whom Odin has ordered to find the Mask. [70]
Loki also appears in the online arena combat game, Smite by HiRez Studios, along with other Norse, Hindu, Mayan, Greek, Egyptian and Chinese Deities. In Smite,[71] players can choose to be Loki who is labeled fighting style is assassin.
Notes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Simek (2007:195).
2.Jump up ^ Simek (2007:197).
3.Jump up ^ Simek (2007:166).
4.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:8).
5.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:10).
6.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:11).
7.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:84–85).
8.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:85).
9.^ Jump up to: a b Larrington (1998:86).
10.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:87).
11.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:87–88).
12.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:88–89).
13.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:89).
14.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:89–90).
15.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:90–91).
16.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:91).
17.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:91–92).
18.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:91–93).
19.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:94).
20.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:94–95).
21.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:95).
22.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:95–96).
23.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:97).
24.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:97–98).
25.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:98).
26.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:99).
27.^ Jump up to: a b Larrington (1998:100).
28.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:101).
29.^ Jump up to: a b Larrington (1999:151).
30.Jump up ^ Larrington (1999:151–152).
31.^ Jump up to: a b Larrington (1999:152).
32.Jump up ^ Larrington (1999:152–153).
33.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:245).
34.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:258).
35.Jump up ^ Larrington (1998:296).
36.Jump up ^ Bellows (2004:245).
37.Jump up ^ Thorpe (1907:96–97).
38.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:21).
39.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:26–27).
40.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:29).
41.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:35).
42.^ Jump up to: a b Faulkes (1995:36).
43.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:37-38).
44.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:38-40).
45.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:40).
46.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:40—41).
47.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:41-42).
48.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:42—44).
49.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:44—45).
50.Jump up ^ Faulkes (1995:45—46).
51.Jump up ^ Dickins (1915:26).
52.^ Jump up to: a b Dickins (1915:27).
53.^ Jump up to: a b Madsen (1990:180).
54.Jump up ^ Orchard (1997:105).
55.Jump up ^ Calverley (1899:218).
56.Jump up ^ Orchard (1997:13).
57.Jump up ^ Olrik (1909).
58.Jump up ^ Hirschfeld (1889:30—31).
59.Jump up ^ Von Schnurbein (2000:112-113).
60.Jump up ^ Turville-Petre (1964:324).
61.Jump up ^ Von Schnurbein (2000:109).
62.Jump up ^ Arvidsson (2006:154).
63.Jump up ^ Winder McConnell, Werner Wunderlich, Frank Gentry, Ulrich Mueller. 2013. The Nibelungen Tradition: An Encyclopedia Routledge. Entries "Loge" & "Loki"
64.Jump up ^ Arnold, Martin (2011). Thor: Myth to Marvel. ISBN 9781441135421.
65.Jump up ^ Hill, Mark (2005). Neil Gaiman's American Gods: An Outsider's Critique of American Culture (Thesis). University of New Orleans.
66.Jump up ^ Cetiner-Oktem, Zuleyha (2008). "The Sandman as a Neomedieval Text". ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies 4 (1). Retrieved 1 April 2013.
67.Jump up ^ http://joanne-harris.co.uk/v3site/books/runemarks/
68.Jump up ^ http://joanne-harris.co.uk/v3site/books/runelight/index.html
69.Jump up ^ http://joanne-harris.co.uk/v3site/books/loki/index.html
70.Jump up ^ Son of the Mask
71.Jump up ^ http://www2.hirezstudios.com/smite/nav/game-info/gods/god-info?god=1797
References[edit]
Arvidsson, Stefan (2006). Aryan Idols: Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science. University of Chicago Press.
Bellows, Henry Adams (1936). The Poetic Edda: Translated from the Icelandic with an Introduction and Notes. Princeton University Press. American Scandinavian Foundation.
Calverley, William Slater (1899). Notes on the Early Sculptured Cross: Shrines in Monuments in the Present Diocese of Carlisle. T. Wilson.
Dickins, Bruce (1915). Runic and Heroic Poems of the Old Teutonic Peoples. Cambridge University Press.
Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.) (1995). Edda. Everyman. ISBN 0-460-87616-3
Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999). The Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 0-19-283946-2
Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0
Madsen, Hans Jørgen (1990). "The God Loki from Snaptun" as collected in Oldtidens Ansigt: Faces of the Past. Det kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab. ISBN 87-7468-274-1
Hirschfeld, Max (1889). Untersuchungen zur Lokasenna, Acta Germanica 1.1, Berlin: Mayer & Müller. (German)
Olrik, Axel (1909) translated by Eli, Anker. "Loki in Younger Tradition" as published in Særtryk af Danske Studier.
Orchard, Andy (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell. ISBN 0-304-34520-2
Von Schnurbein, Stefanie (2000). "The Function of Loki in Snorri Sturluson's "Edda"" as published in History of Religions, vol. 40, no. 2 (Nov., 2000), pp. 109–124. University of Chicago Press.
Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer. ISBN 0-85991-513-1
Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1907). The Elder Edda of Saemund Sigfusson. Norrœna Society.
Turville-Petre, E. O. G. (1964). Myth and Religion of the North: The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Loki.


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Mighty Morphin Power Rangers
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 This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. You can assist by editing it. (March 2013)
This article is about the first installment in the series. For the media franchise, see Power Rangers.

Mighty Morphin Power Rangers
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers logo.png
MMPR 2010 New Logo.jpg
Top: Logo for original Power Rangers series
 Bottom: New logo created for the 2010 re-version

Also known as
MMPR
Format
Action
Adventure
Created by
Haim Saban
Shuki Levy
Starring
Austin St. John (Seasons 1-2)
Thuy Trang (Seasons 1-2)
Walter Jones (Season 1-2)
Amy Jo Johnson
David Yost
Jason David Frank
Johnny Yong Bosch (Seasons 2-3)
Karan Ashley (Seasons 2-3)
Steve Cardenas (Seasons 2-3)
Catherine Sutherland (Season 3)
Paul Schrier
Jason Narvy
 Gregg Bullock (Season 3)
David Fielding
Machiko Soga (Seasons 1-2)
 Carla Perez (Seasons 2-3)
Ed Neil
Voices of
David Fielding (Season 1)
Robert L. Manahan
Richard Wood
Barbara Goodson
Ryan O'Flannigan
Colin Phillips
Michael J. Sorich
Robert Axelrod
Wendee Swan
Bob Papenbrook
Tony Oliver
Kurt Strauss
Opening theme
"Go Go Power Rangers"
Country of origin
 United States
No. of seasons
3
No. of episodes
145 (List of episodes)
Production

Executive producer(s)
Haim Saban
Shuki Levy
 James Simone (Re-version)
Producer(s)
Ronnie Hadar
Jonathan Tzachor
 Dan Evans III (Re-version)
Running time
22 minutes
Production company(s)
Saban Entertainment
 Renaissance Atlantic Entertainment
Toei Company, Ltd.
 MMPR Productions, Inc.
Broadcast

Original channel
Fox (Fox Kids)
ABC (ABC Kids) (Re-version)
Original run
August 28, 1993 – November 27, 1995
Chronology

Followed by
Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers is an American live action children's television series that premiered on August 28, 1993, on the Fox Kids weekday afternoon block. The show is about a group of teenagers who were chosen to protect the world from a group of alien invaders and were given the ability to "morph" into super-powered warriors and to pilot giant robots called "Zords." It was adapted and used stock footage from the Japanese television show Kyōryū Sentai Zyuranger, which was the 16th installment of Bandai Visual and Toei Company's Super Sentai franchise.[1] Both the show and its related merchandise saw unbridled overnight success, becoming a staple of 1990s pop culture in mere months.[2][3][4] Under the original name, "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers," the series ran from 1993 to 1995 and spawned the feature film Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie.[5]
The second and third seasons of the show drew on footage and elements from the Super Sentai series Gosei Sentai Dairanger and Ninja Sentai Kakuranger respectively, though the Zyuranger costumes were still used for the lead cast. Only the mecha and the Kiba Ranger costume (worn by the White Ranger) were retained from Dairanger for the second season, while only the mecha from Kakuranger were featured in the third season. However the Kakuranger costumes were later used for the title characters of the mini-series, Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers. The series was produced by MMPR Productions, distributed by Saban Entertainment, and aired on Fox Kids. The show's merchandise was produced and distributed by Bandai Entertainment.
In 1996, the series was rebranded as the Power Rangers franchise, renaming the series every year after, and using costumes, props, and footage from subsequent Super Sentai series, as well as changing the cast and story line. While an overarching story line would continue until Power Rangers Lost Galaxy, subsequent series after MMPR are not sequels or spin-offs in the traditional sense.
In 2010, a re-version of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, with a new logo, comic book-referenced graphics, and extra alternative special effects, was broadcast on ABC Kids, and Bandai produced brand new toys to coincide with the series.[6][7][8]


Contents  [hide]
1 Series overview 1.1 Season 1 (1993–94)
1.2 Season 2 (1994–95)
1.3 Season 3 (1995)
2 Characters 2.1 The Power Rangers
2.2 Allies
2.3 Villains
3 Production
4 Reception and controversy
5 Video games
6 Comic books
7 References
8 External links

Series overview[edit]
Season 1 (1993–94)[edit]
Main article: Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (season 1)
The series takes place in the fictional town of Angel Grove, California.[9] On an exploratory mission, two astronauts discover an extraterrestrial container (referred to as a dumpster as a result of its smell) and breach the unit, inadvertently releasing the evil alien sorceress Rita Repulsa from 10,000 years of confinement. Upon her release, she and her army of evil space aliens set their sights on conquering the nearest planet: Earth. The wise sage Zordon, who was responsible for capturing Rita Repulsa, becomes aware of her release and orders his robotic assistant Alpha 5 to select five "teenagers with attitude" to defend the Earth from Rita's attacks. The five teens chosen are Jason Lee Scott, Kimberly Hart, Zack Taylor, Trini Kwan, and Billy Cranston. Zordon gives them the ability to transform into a fighting force known as the Power Rangers, providing them with an arsenal of weapons at their disposal, as well as colossal assault machines called Zords, which can combine into the Megazord.[10][11][12]
The series begins with five teenagers combating Rita and her seemingly endless array of monsters, while also dealing with typical teenage problems and clashing with local bullies Bulk and Skull. However, consecutive failures lead Rita to adopt a new method for conquering Earth and destroying the Power Rangers: by attacking them with one of their own. Using her magic, Rita kidnaps and brainwashes a local teen whose fighting skills prove to equal that of Jason's in a martial-arts contest held in Angel Grove. The new teen, Tommy Oliver, passes Rita's tests, becoming the Green Power Ranger. Entrusted with Rita's Sword of Darkness, the source for the continuance of the evil spell he has fallen victim to, Tommy comes dangerously close to defeating the Power Rangers, especially when Rita causes a solar eclipse that temporarily drains the Megazord's power. However, the Green Ranger is ultimately defeated, and the Sword of Darkness is destroyed by Jason. Now free from Rita's spell, Tommy chooses to use his Green Ranger powers to assist the other Rangers in defeating the evil that gave them to him in the first place. His Zord, the Dragonzord, is reconfigured to enable it to help form more powerful Zord combinations alongside the other Dinozords.[13]
As time goes on, Rita focuses on eliminating Tommy in order to regain the powers that she believes belong to her. Using a special wax that was touched by Tommy when he was evil, Rita uses a magic Green Candle to slowly remove his powers, returning them to her. In the end, Tommy loses his powers, but he prevents Rita from reclaiming them by transferring them to Jason who, feeling guilt for failing to protect Tommy's powers, accepts them. However, Tommy later returns to the team when the other Rangers' Power Coins are handed over to Rita in exchange for their kidnapped parents. With Zordon's help, Tommy regains his powers and successfully retrieves the other Rangers' Power Coins. However, Tommy's regained powers are only temporary and must be frequently re-charged by Zordon, who mentions that the Green Ranger's powers will ultimately fail. Despite this, Tommy remains determined to continue assisting the other Rangers as long as possible.[14][15]
Season 2 (1994–95)[edit]
Main article: Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (season 2)
Lord Zedd, Rita's superior, arrives at Rita's Moon Palace, where he takes her place and throws her into a space dumpster again. He then begins his own campaign to conquer Earth. In order for the Power Rangers to compete with Zedd's monsters, which are superior to the ones Finster made for Rita, Zordon and Alpha upgrade the Dinozords into the more powerful Thunderzords. However, Tommy is forced to retain use of the Dragonzord, due to his powers being too weak to support a new Zord.[16]
After several defeats, Zedd's attack on the Rangers progressively becomes more violent. He focuses his attention on eliminating Tommy, whom he sees as Rita's biggest mistake in giving him the Dragon Coin. The Green Ranger's powers were rapidly deteriorating, but Zedd's efforts had enhanced the process. He eventually does so with a special Green Crystal, using it to take away the Green Ranger's powers permanently. The crystal also powers up Zedd's Dark Rangers, but when Tommy smashes it, the Dark Rangers powers are transferred back to the regular Rangers. Nevertheless, Zedd finally succeeds in destroying the Green Ranger's powers for good. Following the permanent loss of the Green Ranger's powers, Zordon and Alpha create, in secret, a new White Ranger to aid the other Rangers in battle. The White Ranger is revealed to be Tommy, who in addition receives a new Zord, the Tigerzord, and also becomes the new leader of the Power Rangers.[17][18]
During the Team Ninja Trials in Angel Grove, the Rangers become friends with three teenagers from Stone Canyon: Rocky DeSantos, Adam Park, and Aisha Campbell. During an ensuing battle with Zedd and a magical serpent, Rocky, Adam, and Aisha discover the Rangers' identities and, having been entrusted with their secret by Zordon himself, the three newcomers become allies of the Rangers.[19]
Later on, Jason, Zack, and Trini are selected to represent Angel Grove at the World Peace Conference in Geneva, Switzerland, and the Rangers are faced with the task of finding replacements. In order to transfer the powers of the Red, Black, and Yellow Rangers, they must find the Sword of Light, which is located on the Deserted Planet. Zedd pursues them across the galaxy in Serpentera, his massive personal Zord, and destroys most of the Deserted Planet. Serpentera runs out of power before being able to finish the Rangers, and they return to Earth safely with the Sword of Light. Zordon then chooses Rocky, Adam, and Aisha to replace Jason, Zack, and Trini as the Red, Black, and Yellow Rangers, respectively.[20]
Some time before the power transfer, Rita had returned to Earth when Tommy made his debut as the White Ranger, and fell into the hands of Bulk and Skull, but the Rangers sent her back into space. She later returns to the Moon while the Rangers are in Australia, and with the help of Finster, she gets a special "makeover" to gain a younger and "prettier" face. She then uses a love potion on Zedd, who is in a deep sleep during his centennial re-evilizer, and he falls in love with her when he wakes up. They get married and thus join forces to make an even more terrible threat for the Rangers, but not even this can prepare them for what is to come.[21]
Season 3 (1995)[edit]
Main article: Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (season 3)
Rito Revolto, Rita's skeletal brother, comes to Earth and, with the help of a group of monsters, destroys the Rangers' Thunderzords and the Tigerzord. As a result, the Dinozords are also destroyed and the Power Coins are damaged beyond repair. Undaunted, the Power Rangers seek the aid of Ninjor, alleged creator of the Power Coins, who gives them new Ninja Coins, providing them with the even more powerful Ninjazords and the Falconzord.[22]
An Australian girl named Kat Hillard moves to Angel Grove. She befriends Kimberly, and displays an intense affection for Tommy. Later it is found that Rita had captured Kat and put her under a powerful spell, giving her the ability to transform into a normal cat as well as a cat-like monster. Under this spell, she steals Kimberly's Ninja Coin, vastly weakening the Pink Ranger, whose life force, like that of the other Ninja Rangers, is connected to her Ninja Coin. It is during this time that the Rangers acquire their most powerful Zords ever: the Shogunzords. Eventually, Kat overcomes Rita's evil spell and returns Kimberly's Ninja Coin to her. A short time thereafter, Kimberly gets a chance to pursue her personal athletic dreams. With Zordon's blessing, she leaves to train for the Pan Global Games, choosing Kat to replace her as the Pink Ranger. Though her initial fear and hesitation keeps her from contributing fully to the fight against evil, Kat eventually becomes both comfortable and capable of fulfilling her duty as a Ranger.[23][24][25]
After several more battles, Zedd and Rita are joined by Rita's father, Master Vile. Following his failed attempts to defeat the Rangers, he reverses time, turning the Rangers into powerless children. These events culminate in the mini-series Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers, which leads to the next incarnation of the Power Rangers franchise, entitled Power Rangers Zeo.[26]
Characters[edit]
Main article: List of Power Rangers
The Power Rangers[edit]
Jason Lee ScottThe original Red Ranger; portrayed by Austin St. John.Zack TaylorThe original Black Ranger; portrayed by Walter Emanuel Jones.Billy CranstonThe original Blue Ranger, and the Blue Ninja Ranger; portrayed by David Yost.Trini KwanThe original Yellow Ranger; portrayed by Thuy Trang.Kimberly Ann HartThe original Pink Ranger, and the original Pink Ninja Ranger; portrayed by Amy Jo Johnson.Thomas "Tommy" OliverThe original Green Ranger, the original White Ranger, and the White Ninja Ranger; portrayed by Jason David Frank.Rocky DeSantosThe second Red Ranger, and Red Ninja Ranger; portrayed by Steve Cardenas.Adam ParkThe second Black Ranger, and Black Ninja Ranger; portrayed by Johnny Yong Bosch.Aisha CampbellThe second Yellow Ranger, and Yellow Ninja Ranger; portrayed by Karan Ashley.Katherine "Kat" HillardThe second Pink Ranger, and second Pink Ninja Ranger; portrayed by Catherine Sutherland.
Allies[edit]
ZordonAn inter-dimensional being trapped in a time warp, he is the wise mentor of the Rangers, who also bestowed their powers. 10,000 years ago, Zordon led the fight against the forces of evil, specifically Rita. Finally, he was able to imprison the evil witch and her minions in a dumpster on the moon. He once had a corporeal human form but now appears as a floating head in an energy tube. Voiced and portrayed by David Fielding, and later voiced by Robert L. Manahan (credited as Bob Manahan).Alpha 5A multi-functional semi-sentient automaton, Alpha was Zordon's trusted robotic assistant, responsible for the daily operations and upkeep of the Command Center. Voiced by Richard Steven Horvitz (credited as Richard Wood).Farkas "Bulk" Bulkmeier and Eugene "Skull" SkullovitchTwo bullies at Angel Grove High School. Bulk, the leader of the duo, was prone to dragging Skull into wacky schemes, which usually failed miserably and ended in humiliation or injury. Later on, the two decide to discover the identities of the Power Rangers after they were saved by the Rangers in the second season. In the third season, they enroll in the Junior Police Force in order to impress girls. Thanks to the efforts of their superior officer, Lt. Stone, the duo become good-natured goofs. Portrayed by Paul Schrier and Jason Narvy.ErnieThe owner and proprietor of the Youth Center, he could often be seen behind the counter of the Juice Bar, and would sometimes dispense advice to the teens. Portrayed by Richard Genelle.Principal KaplanThe stern principal of Angel Grove High School, who often encouraged his students in their extracurricular activities. He wore a toupée to cover his bald head. Portrayed by Henry Cannon (uncredited).Ms. ApplebyPortrayed by Royce Herron (uncredited).AngelaThe girl of Zack's affections, he was constantly attempting to impress and go out on a date with her, much to her annoyance. She would often demean Zack for his attempts. Portrayed by Renee Griggs.Lt. Jerome B. StonePortrayed by Gregg Bullock.Prince Dex/Masked RiderPortrayed by Ted Jan Roberts (credited as T.J. Roberts)NinjorVoiced by Kim Strauss (credited as Kurt Strauss).
Villains[edit]
Main article: Villains in Mighty Morphin Power Rangers
Rita RepulsaPortrayed by Soga Machiko in Season 1, and Carla Perez onwards; voiced by Barbara Goodson.Lord ZeddPortrayed by Ed Neil (uncredited) and voiced by Robert Axelrod.GoldarPortrayed by Takashi Sakamoto, Kazutoshi Yokoyama and Danny Stallcup (former two uncredited) and voiced by Kerrigan Mahan (credited as Ryan O'Flannigan in the first two seasons).Rito RevoltoVoiced by Bob Papenbrook (credited as Bob Pappenbrook).ScorpinaPortrayed by Ami Kawai in Season 1, and Sabrina Lu in Season 2 (1 episode only); voiced by Wendee Lee (credited as Wendee Swan)FinsterRita's chief monster maker in the first season. Portrayed by Takako Iiboshi (uncredited) and voiced by Robert Axelrod.SquattOne of Rita's henchman. A short, fat, blue creature resembles Bulk. Usually blamed for Rita or Zedd's failures. Portrayed by Minoru Watanabe (uncredited) and voiced by Michael J. Sorich.BabooOne of Rita's henchman. A tall, bat-like creature who wears a monacle resembles Skull. Usually chastises Squatt when Rita's plans fail and too is often blamed. Portrayed by Hideaki Kusaka (uncredited) and voiced by Colin Phillips.Master VileVoiced by Tom Wyner (uncredited).LokarVoiced by Robert Axelrod.Hydro HogVoiced by Brad Orchard (uncredited).Putty PatrollersWarriors made of clay who act as Rita Repulsa's foot soldiers, the Putties are often sent to wear the Rangers down before a monster battle, as well as for sabotage and other special missions. In Season 2, Lord Zedd upgrades the Putty design, completely replacing Rita's original design. Zedd's Putties are superior to the original Putties and are more expendable. However, Zedd's Putties also have a big weakness—striking the Z-logo on their chests causes these Putties to explode into pieces.Tenga WarriorsCrow-like soldiers that are able to speak, they are introduced in Season 3 when Rito Revolto takes them with him to the Moon as a wedding gift, and replace Zedd's Putties in attacking the Power Rangers. The Rangers normally use their Ninja Ranger powers to fight them. Unlike the Putties, the Tenga Warriors are not expendable and they return to the Moon when defeated. The Tengas originated in Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie (going by the name "Tengu Warriors") under the command of Ivan Ooze. The name change between the movie and television show was because of copyright complications with the movie's producer 20th Century Fox.[citation needed]
Production[edit]
After all available stock footage from Zyuranger was used for the first 40 episodes of season one, Saban commissioned Toei to produce 25 new monster costumes and new battle footage using the existing Zyuranger suits. Saban was able to produce 20 additional episodes using 15 of the monster suits. This new footage has been referred to as "Zyu2" by Power Rangers fans. Saban then used the remaining suits and footage for the first 12 episodes of season two.[27]
Mid-way through the production of season two, Austin St. John, Thuy Trang, and Walter Emanuel Jones left the show over contract disputes.[28] To disguise this incident, a combination of body doubles, voice doubles, and stock footage were used to continue featuring Jason, Trini, and Zack. The subplot of those three Rangers leaving Angel Grove for the World Peace Conference was made to bridge the transition to their replacements Rocky, Aisha, and Adam (played by Steve Cardenas, Karan Ashley, and Johnny Yong Bosch, respectively).
The appearance of Lord Zedd sparked outrage among parents, who deemed him too dark and grim for a children's show.[citation needed] In response, Saban counterbalanced Zedd's character by bringing back Rita Repulsa. For this, Carla Perez was brought in to play Rita (with Barbara Goodson still providing her voice), with the makeover subplot explaining her change in appearance.[citation needed]
Reception and controversy[edit]
Despite the popularity of the series, it was also subject to much controversy from parents who felt the show was too violent for young children. The show had aired before television stations issued content warnings, the V-chip, and television ratings. In the USA, numerous complaints were sent to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). In 1993, the Canadian broadcast rights to Mighty Morphin Power Rangers were jointly purchased by the over-the-air Canwest Global System and the YTV cable channel, and the series played to a receptive audience on weekday mornings on Global Television in Ontario and weekday afternoons on YTV, the latter trailing the American broadcast by several months. However, due to complaints sent to the recently formed Canadian Broadcast Standards Council and a negative assessment from that body over the show's violent content,[29] YTV removed the series from their line-up.[4][30] Despite not actually being a member of the CBSC, YTV complied and pulled the series before the end of its first season; Global (which was a CBSC member) ultimately did the same. While a phone-in poll was conducted to see if viewers wanted MMPR back on YTV, no further installments of the Power Rangers franchise aired on the network until 2011's Power Rangers Samurai, although commercials for toys and videos were still advertised on it.[31] Later Disney-era versions of the series were broadcast on Family.
In Malaysia, the phrase "Mighty Morphin" was censored and removed from the logo due to the word "morphin" being too similar to the drug Morphine.
In 1994, the murder of a young Norwegian girl by two of her young friends prompted Swedish-owned TV3 to pull MMPR from its broadcast schedule in all of its market countries. However, MMPR was not related to the event. Instead, the young children responsible were fans of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles cartoon.[32]
In 1994, the New Zealand Broadcasting Standards Authority (BSA) upheld several complaints from members of the public about the level of violence in the show. The main concern of those complainants was that the show portrayed violence as the primary means of resolving conflict, and that this was influencing children to behave more violently more frequently. Immediately following the BSA decision, the second season of the show was all but canceled by Television New Zealand.[30] New Zealand is the only country in the world where this show has been prematurely withdrawn from public broadcast to date.[33] DVD and video releases of the more-recent Power Rangers series that were filmed in New Zealand can be found at The Warehouse, although general sales through video stores and other retailers are scarce. Later series in the Power Rangers franchise, such as Power Rangers: Mystic Force and Power Rangers: Jungle Fury, were filmed in New Zealand, but the programs were still not shown in the country, until 2011, when Samurai premiered.
When brought up on VH1's I Love the '90s, the original cast members Amy Jo Johnson, and Walter Emanuel Jones as well as other celebrity commentators, made fun of how the original line-up had Jones' role as the Black Ranger and Thuy Trang's role as the Yellow Ranger because the actors and characters were of African and Asian descent, respectively.[citation needed]
In a 2010 interview with fan blog "No Pink Spandex", David Yost revealed that he had left the show in the subsequent Power Rangers: Zeo production due to homophobic reactions to his sexuality, citing that he walked off set one day because "[he] was called 'faggot' one too many times." He also stated that the producers would often ask other cast members what they thought about his homosexuality, and this made him uncomfortable as well.[34][35] Shortly after this interview, producer Scott Page-Pagter stated that Yost left over a pay dispute and that the allegations of homophobia are false; he added that Yost did not get along with any of the crew.[36] In the episode where Yost's character appeared for the last time, "Rangers of Two Worlds", footage from previous episodes was used as well as vocal work from a separate, uncredited actor, to conceal the fact that Yost was not present during filming. A tribute to the Blue Ranger and Billy was seen in the closing credits of this last Billy episode.
Video games[edit]
##Mighty Morphin Power Rangers
##Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie
##Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Fighting Edition
Comic books[edit]
Several comic book series were based on Mighty Morphin Power Rangers. From 1994 to 1995, Hamilton Comics produced three separate series totaling thirteen issues altogether. Marvel Comics produced two series, the first with seven issues based on the second season and the second with five issues called Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Ninja Rangers/VR Troopers which was a flip book with adventures based on the third season on one side and of VR Troopers on the other. The Power Rangers also appeared in the Masked Rider comic book from Marvel.
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Watanabe, Teresa (1995-03-09). "Pop culture: For two decades, Toei Studios of Japan has churned out versions of those ubiquitous Power Rangers-- and as long there are kids, they'll keep right on going.". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
2.Jump up ^ Bellafante, Ginia (1993-12-06). "Mighty Raters". Time. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
3.Jump up ^ "Ninja Turtles, Eat Our Dust". Newsweek. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
4.^ Jump up to: a b Collins, Glenn (1994-12-05). "With Power Rangers Scarce, A Frenzied Search by Parents". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
5.Jump up ^ James, Caryn (1995-06-30). "FILM REVIEW; For Power Rangers, Bikinis Are Not The Issue". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-08-08.
6.Jump up ^ "Correcting and replacing photos Bandai America Powers up Like It’s 1993; Brings Back Mighty Morphin Power Rangers in New Toy Line". 2009-10-01. Retrieved 2009-10-01.
7.Jump up ^ "Press release: Bandai America Powers Up Like It’s 1993; Brings Back Mighty Morphin Power Rangers in New Toy Line | Bandai America". 2009-10-01. Retrieved 2009-10-02.
8.Jump up ^ "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: TV Listings". TV Guide. Retrieved 20 December 2009.
9.Jump up ^ McCormick, Patricia S. (1995-02-12). "TELEVISION; . . . And a Parents' Guide to the Politics of Angel Grove". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
10.Jump up ^ "From Power Bow to Hip-Hop-Kido". The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved 2010-08-30.
11.Jump up ^ "Superhero Teens Are Hip, Hot". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved 2010-08-30.
12.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season One; "Day of the Dumpster"
13.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season One; "Green With Evil, Parts I-V"
14.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season One; "The Green Candle, Parts I-II"
15.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season One; "Return of an Old Friend, Parts I-II"
16.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season Two; "The Mutiny, Parts I-III"
17.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season Two; "Green No More, Parts I-II"
18.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season Two; "White Light, Parts I-II"
19.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season Two; "The Ninja Encounter, Parts I-III"
20.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season Two; "The Power Transfer, Parts I-II"
21.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season Two; "The Wedding, Parts I-III"
22.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season Three; "Ninja Quest, Parts I-IV"
23.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season Three; "A Ranger Catastrophe, Parts I-II"
24.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season Three; "Changing of the Zords, Parts I-III"
25.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season Three; "A Different Shade of Pink, Parts I-III"
26.Jump up ^ Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Season Three; "Rangers in Reverse"
27.Jump up ^ "Zyu2". GrnRngr.com. 2006-10-24. Retrieved 2013-11-11.
28.Jump up ^ "Actors in Spandex - Austin St. John". Awwman.com. 1975-09-17. Retrieved 2011-12-23.
29.Jump up ^ CBSC.ca, Canadian Broadcast Standards Council — Ontario Regional Council October 24, 1994 decision regarding CanWest Global's broadcasting of the show.
30.^ Jump up to: a b O'Neill, Patrick Daniel (March 1995). "Morphin Prohibited in the Great North". Heroes on Screen (Wizard #43). pp. 68–69.
31.Jump up ^ Bellafante, Ginia (1996-02-19). "Television: So what's on in Tokyo?". Time. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
32.Jump up ^ Associated Press (1994-10-20). "Norway Pulls The Plug On `Power Rangers'". Deseret News. Retrieved 2013-11-15.
33.Jump up ^ "Broadcasting Policy in New Zealand" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-01-07.
34.Jump up ^ Advocate.com editors (2010-08-26). "Blue Power Ranger Comes Out". Advocate.com. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
35.Jump up ^ "Interview with David Yost Part 3". No Pink Spandex. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
36.Jump up ^ "Morphin Producer -- Blue Ranger Was 'Pain in the Ass'". TMZ.com. Retrieved 2010-08-28.
External links[edit]

Portal icon Television portal
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 Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Mighty Morphin Power Rangers
##Official Power Rangers Website
##Mighty Morphin Power Rangers at the Internet Movie Database
##Mighty Morphin Power Rangers at TV.com


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Power Rangers


Media


TV series
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (1993–1995, 2010)  (Alien Rangers (1996))
   ·
 Zeo (1996) ·
 Turbo (1997) ·
 in Space (1998) ·
 Lost Galaxy (1999) ·
 Lightspeed Rescue (2000) ·
 Time Force (2001) ·
 Wild Force (2002) ·
 Ninja Storm (2003) ·
 Dino Thunder (2004) ·
 S.P.D. (2005) ·
 Mystic Force (2006) ·
 Operation Overdrive (2007) ·
 Jungle Fury (2008) ·
 RPM (2009) ·
 Samurai & Super Samurai (2011–2012) ·
 Megaforce & Super Megaforce (2013–2014)
 

Films
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie (1995) ·
 Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie (1997)
 

Video
 games
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (1994) ·
 The Movie (1995) ·
 The Fighting Edition (1995) ·
 Zeo: Battle Racers (1996) ·
 Lightspeed Rescue (2000) ·
 Time Force (2001) ·
 Wild Force (2002) ·
 Ninja Storm (2003) ·
 Dino Thunder (2004) ·
 S.P.D. (2005) ·
 Super Legends (2007) ·
 Samurai (2011) ·
 Super Samurai (2012) ·
 Megaforce (2013)
 


Characters
Rangers ·
 Allies ·
 Other characters
 

Miscellany
Cast members ·
 Theme song ·
 "The Official Single" ·
 A Rock Adventure ·
 World Tour Live on Stage ·
 Collectible Card Game
 

Other
Saban series
VR Troopers ·
 Masked Rider ·
 Big Bad Beetleborgs ·
 Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation ·
 The Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog
 

See also
Super Sentai ·
 Haim Saban ·
 Shuki Levy ·
 Tony Oliver ·
 Bandai ·
 Saban Entertainment ·
 Fox Kids ·
 Disney ·
 ABC Kids ·
 ABC Family ·
 Toon Disney ·
 Jetix ·
 Saban Brands ·
 Nickelodeon ·
 The CW ·
 Vortexx
 

 


Categories: Superhero television programs
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1990s American television series
Fox network shows
1993 American television series debuts
1995 American television series endings
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Abra, Kadabra, and Alakazam
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For the Osamu Tezuka creation, see Alakazam the Great.
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Abra, Kadabra, and Alakazam
Pokémon series character
AbraKadabraAlakazam.png
Abra (top left), Kadabra (top right), and Alakazam (bottom middle)
National Pokédex
Poliwrath - Abra (#63) - Kadabra (#064) - Alakazam (#65) - Machop
First game
Pokémon Red and Blue
Designed by
Ken Sugimori
Voiced by (English)
Maddie Blaustein (4Kids), Bill Rogers (TPCI)
Voiced by (Japanese)
Unshō Ishizuka
Abra, Kadabra, and Alakazam, known in Japan as Casey (ケーシィ Kēshii?), Yungerer (ユンゲラー Yungerā?), and Foodin (フーディン Fūdin?), are three Pokémon species in Nintendo and Game Freak's Pokémon franchise that are linked through evolution. Abra evolves into Kadabra after gaining enough experience in battle, and Kadabra evolves into Alakazam after being traded to another trainer. Created by Ken Sugimori, they first appeared in the video games Pokémon Red and Blue and later appear in subsequent sequels. They have appeared in various merchandise, spinoff titles and animated and printed adaptations of the franchise. Known as the Psi Pokémon, using self-hypnosis, Abra spends 18 hours a day sleeping, unable to utilize its abilities unless rested. This behavior ceases once it evolves into Kadabra, a strong psychic that emits alpha waves affected by its current mental state. Able to remember everything, Alakazam's IQ is around 5000 and can outperform a supercomputer.
In the Pokémon anime, Abra and Kadabra appear under the ownership of Sabrina. In Pokémon Mystery Dungeon Alakazam plays a large supporting role in the plot of the game. All three appear in the Pokémon Adventures manga in various roles. IGN described Abra, Kadabra, and Alakazam as "losing most of its charm" as it progressed. Calling Abra cute, they describe Kadabra as having "a bit of that personality", and Alakazam as being a "distinctly grim, foreboding character". Conservative Christian groups have targeted the trio as representing anti-Christian aspects of the franchise.


Contents  [hide]
1 Design and characteristics
2 Appearances 2.1 In video games
2.2 In anime
2.3 In printed adaptations
3 Cultural impact 3.1 Critical reception
3.2 Controversy
4 References
5 External links

Design and characteristics[edit]
Abra, Kadabra, and Alakazam were three of several different designs conceived by Game Freak's character development team and finalized by Ken Sugimori for the first generation of Pocket Monsters games Red and Green, which were localized outside of Japan as Pokémon Red and Blue.[1][2] Originally called "Casey", "Yungerer", and "Foodin" in Japanese, Nintendo decided to give the various Pokémon species "clever and descriptive names" related to their appearance or features when translating the game for western audiences as a means to make the characters more relatable to American children.[3] Abra and Kadabra were initially intended to be named Hocus and Pocus for American audiences, but changed to Abra and Kadabra, based on the famous magic charm along with Alakazam.[4][5][6] Alakazam's Japanese name Foodin was inspired by a rough translation of Harry Houdini's last name.[6]
Abra, Kadabra, and Alakazam are bipedal Pokémon characterized by their human-like body structure and somewhat fox-like appearance. They look like they are wearing armor, as they have two pauldron-shaped pieces on their shoulders and a fauld-like piece around their chest. Abra, Kadabra, and Alakazam have three fingers on each hand and three toes on each foot, with two toes in the front on either side and one in the back near the ankle. Abra and Kadabra also have thick tails the same gold color as the rest of its body, except for a brown band located near the top. Kadabra and Alakazam have relatively large mustaches, which are shorter in female species. Kadabra has a red star-shaped symbol on its forehead, and three red wavy lines on its fauld-like torso. After evolving into Alakazam, the creatures no longer have the Zener markings and tails,[6] while their heads become much larger, resulting in extremely powerful mental powers.
Possessing the ability to read minds, Abra can sense danger,[7] teleporting when it does and can do so quickly enough to create visual doubles.[7][8] Using self-hypnosis, Abra spends 18 hours a day sleeping, unable to utilize its abilities unless rested.[9][10][11] This behavior ceases once it evolves into Kadabra, a strong psychic that emits alpha waves affected by its current mental state.[12][13] These waves can trigger headaches in nearby people and can cause machines to malfunction.[12][14][15][16] Once it evolves into Alakazam, it has mastered every type and form of psychic ability, and its brain continually grows.[17] This causes its head to become too heavy for its neck, requiring psychokinesis to hold it upright.[18] Able to remember everything, its IQ is around 5000 and can outperform a supercomputer.[17][19] Both Kadabra and Alakazam utilize spoons generated mentally to enhance their abilities, two for the latter, and can increase them further by closing their eyes.[20][21][22]
Appearances[edit]
In video games[edit]
The first video game appearance of Abra, Kadabra, and Alakazam was in Pokémon Red and Blue versions. Abra evolves into Kadabra after gaining enough experience in battle, and Kadabra evolves into Alakazam after being traded to another trainer. Abra and Kadabra later appear in every subsequent sequel. In Pokémon Gold, Silver, and Crystal, before the Elite Four are defeated for the first time, an Abra appears as an NPC at the Indigo Plateau which will teleport the player back to New Bark Town.[23] This NPC appears again in their remakes, but does not perform this function.[24] In the main game series, many trainers use Abra, Kadabra, and Alakazam in their teams. Notable trainers include Saffron City Gym Leader, Sabrina;[25] the player's rival in Pokémon Red and Blue, and their remakes, Blue;[25][26] the player's rival in Pokémon Gold and Silver, and their remakes, Silver;[23][24] the Hoenn Battle frontier Salon Maiden, Anabel;[27] and Elite Four member, Lucian.[28] Outside of the main series, Abra, Kadabra, and Alakazam appeared in Pokémon Pinball, the Pokémon Mystery Dungeon games, and the Pokémon Ranger games, while Abra and Alakazam appeared in Pokémon Puzzle League and Abra appeared in PokéPark Wii: Pikachu's Adventure and its sequel, PokéPark 2: Wonders Beyond. In Pokémon Mystery Dungeon, Alakazam plays a large supporting role in the plot as the leader of a Gold Rank rescue team.[29]
In anime[edit]
In the Pokémon anime, the Saffron City Gym Leader, Sabrina owns an Abra, which she sends out in a battle against the series protagonist, Ash. After battling, Sabrina's Abra evolves into Kadabra, causing Ash to forfeit the match due to Kadabra's new and more powerful psychic abilities.[30] Ash later returns for a rematch, and Ash's Haunter makes Sabrina laugh, which causes Kadabra to laugh due to the psychic bond it has with Sabrina. Because of Kadabra and Sabrina's laugh, they are unable to fight, and hand over the gym badge.[31] Abra later appears in the series under the ownership of Mira, who offers to teleport everyone to Hearthome city using her Abra, but instead teleports them to a flooded city to find a Poké Ball containing a Sandshrew that was lost in the newly flooded lake.[32] One of Abra and Kadabra's other appearances is living in an abandoned mining colony with several other Psychic-type Pokémon.[33] Alakazam's first appearance was as a giant Alakazam awakened near the site of the Pokémopolis ruins.[34] Alakazam has also been owned by many notable trainers, such as Luana, the Gym Leader of Kumquat Island,[35] Eusine,[36] Anabel,[37][38] and Kenny.[39]
In printed adaptations[edit]
In the Pokémon Adventures manga, Abra makes a cameo as the stolen Pokémon of the Pokémon Fan Club President.[40] Later when Red frees the Pokémon kidnapped by Lt. Surge; instead of his beloved Abra, the President of the Pokémon Fan Club finds himself with a not-so-cute Alakazam.[41] Like her anime counterpart, Sabrina also owns a Kadabra.[42] After Red's aptitude test to be the Gym Leader of Viridian City, a swarm of wild Pokémon suddenly appear outside the Gym after being attracted by Pokémon March music, one of which is an Alakazam. Blue captures all of them with his Scizor.[43] Alakazam is seen again as part of Blue's team for the Gym Leader faceoff,[44] and again as one of the Pokémon in Viridian Gym. It defeated Yellow's Pikachu easily using a combination of Role Play and ThunderPunch.[45] Green is seen to have an Abra, using its Teleport move to transport Silver away to a safer location.[46]
Cultural impact[edit]
Critical reception[edit]
IGN described Abra, Kadabra, and Alakazam as "losing most of its charm" as it progressed. Calling Abra cute, they describe Kadabra as having "a bit of that personality", and Alakazam as being a "distinctly grim, foreboding character".[47] At the same time, they cited them as one of the most versatile groups of characters in the franchise.[48] IGN also listed Alakazam, and to a lesser extent Kadabra, as one of the best Psychic types, alongside Mew, Mewtwo, and Starmie. They commented that Alakazam was good for "down-to-Earth" players who don't want to use legendaries like Mew or Mewtwo.[49] They further described Alakazam as "arguably the single most popular non-legendary Psychic type in any of the current games", also calling it a "brilliant yet brittle brainiac".[50] Boys' Life named Abra one of the five "coolest" Pokémon from Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen at fourth.[51] The St. Petersburg Times also praised the characters, describing their names as "clever".[52]
IGN called Abra unimpressive, but worth raising because it evolves into the more powerful Kadabra.[4] GameSpy further commented that Kadabra makes up for the shortcomings of Abra.[53] 1UP FM praised the characters' design, as the hosts noted them as some of their favorite Pokémon in the series and that they were impressed with their appearance.[54] GamesRadar editor Henry Gilbert praised Kadabra and Alakazam's mustaches, listing them on their list of "The 10 greatest mustaches in gaming history".[55] GamesRadar editor Brett Elston labelled Abra's moveset "lame", while acknowledging its potential to evolve into more powerful Pokémon.[56] However, he claimed that Alakazam was useful only in limited circumstances.[56] Elston also called Alakazam one of the most disturbing Pokémon of all time for the game's assertion that its brain cells continually multiply until it dies a horrible death.[57] In a poll conducted by IGN, Kadabra was voted as the 91st best Pokémon, where it was called "much cooler" than Alakazam because "He doesn’t need to show off by bending two spoons".[58] Alakazam was voted as the 20th best Pokémon, where the staff commented on the evolution line, stating they "not only loved the clever naming system but the creatures’ designs and abilities as well". They further stated that "Abra has always been a bit of a pain to raise and evolve, but the end result, an Alakazam, is well worth it in my book."[59]
Controversy[edit]
Some conservative Christian groups have targeted Kadabra as representing anti-Christian aspects of the franchise. In Palm Beach, Florida, Pastor Eugene Walton distributed pamphlets that described the symbol on its head as "a pentagram" (even though Kadabra simply has a red five-pointed star on its head, different than a pentagram) and claimed the symbol on its chest was representative of Nazi Germany's Waffen-SS.[60] In the book It's a Dark World, Roger Boehm argued that due to its psychic-status and the symbols on its body of the latter, Kadabra represented the occult, further arguing that the etymology of its name tied directly to them.[61]
In November 2000, it was reported that Uri Geller, an Israeli "psychic"-magician who claims to bend spoons with his mind, sued Nintendo over the Pokémon Kadabra, due to its Japanese name which he claimed was an unauthorized appropriation of his identity.[62] Geller learned of the similarity after fans of both himself and Pokémon noted a resemblance to the character's Japanese name, behavior and face, and presented him with cards of the character to autograph after he had finished taping a television special in Japan.[63][64] He further claimed that the star on Kadabra's forehead, and the lightning patterns on its abdomen, were symbols popular with the Waffen-SS and that, through the character, Nintendo had "turned [him] into an evil, occult Pokémon character".[65] Nintendo countered by stating there was no connection between the two and that they had not named any of the Pokémon after actual people to the knowledge of their staff.[66] Geller sued, claiming damages equivalent to $100 million, but lost.[62]
References[edit]
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6.^ Jump up to: a b c "#065 Alakazam". Pokemon Blue Version Walkthrough. Costa Mesa, California: GameSpy. News Corporation. p. 4. Retrieved October 8, 2010.
7.^ Jump up to: a b Game Freak (1998-09-30). Pokémon Red and Blue. Game Boy. Nintendo. "Using its ability to read minds, it will sense impending danger and teleport to safety."
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11.Jump up ^ Game Freak (2003-03-17). Pokémon Sapphire. Game Boy Advance. Nintendo. "Abra needs to sleep for eighteen hours a day. If it doesn't, this Pokémon loses its ability to use telekinetic powers. If it is attacked, Abra escapes using Teleport while it is still sleeping."
12.^ Jump up to: a b Game Freak (1998-09-30). Pokémon Red and Blue. Game Boy. Nintendo. "It emits special alpha waves from its body that induce headaches just by being close by."
13.Jump up ^ Game Freak (2003-03-17). Pokémon Ruby. Game Boy Advance. Nintendo. "Kadabra emits a peculiar alpha wave if it develops a headache. Only those people with a particularly strong psyche can hope to become a Trainer of this Pokémon."
14.Jump up ^ Game Freak (1999-10-19). Pokémon Yellow. Game Boy. Nintendo. "Many odd things happen if this Pokémon is close by. For example, it makes clocks run backwards."
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18.Jump up ^ Game Freak (2003-03-17). Pokémon Ruby. Game Boy Advance. Nintendo. "Alakazam's brain continually grows, making its head far too heavy to support with its neck. This Pokémon holds its head up using its psychokinetic power instead."
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36.Jump up ^ Atsuhiro Tomioka (writer) (September 25, 2002). "For Ho-Oh the Bells Toll!". Pokémon. Season Master Quest. Episode 227. Various.
37.Jump up ^ Shōji Yonemura (writer) (November 25, 2006). "Talking a Good Game!". Pokémon. Season Battle Frontier. Episode 169. Various.
38.Jump up ^ Shōji Yonemura (writer) (November 27, 2006). "Second Time's the Charm!". Pokémon. Season Battle Frontier. Episode 170. Various.
39.Jump up ^ Atsuhiro Tomioka (writer) (September 8, 2007). "Settling a Not-So-Old Score!". Pokémon. Season Diamond and Pearl. Episode 27. Various.
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44.Jump up ^ Kusaka, Hidenori; Satoshi Yamamoto (August 8, 2002). "Chapter 161". Flames From Entei. Pokémon Adventures. Volume 13. VIZ Media LLC. ISBN 4-09-149713-6.
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66.Jump up ^ Staff (January 4, 2000). "Uri Geller sues Pokémon". ZDNet. CBS Interactive. Retrieved September 29, 2009.
External links[edit]

Portal icon Pokémon portal
##Abra on Bulbapedia
##Kadabra on Bulbapedia
##Alakazam on Bulbapedia
##Alakazam at the Internet Movie Database


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