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Ksar Hadada

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 Ksar Hadada in 2004
Ksar Hadada (Arabic: قصر حدادة‎) is a ksar in southeastern Tunisia. Star Wars: The Phantom Menace was filmed here.
External links[edit]
Ksar Hadada on Wookieepedia: a Star Wars wiki
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Coordinates: 33°06′00″N 10°18′50″E
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Tikal

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For other uses, see Tikal (disambiguation).

Tikal
Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG
Tikal Temple I rises 47 metres (154 ft) high.[1]



Tikal is located in Mesoamerica

Tikal

Location within Mesoamerica

Location

Coordinates
17°13′19.54″N 89°37′25.01″W
Country
 Guatemala
Region
Petén Department
History

Culture
Maya civilization
Period
Early Classic to Late Classic


UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official name: Tikal National Park
Type
Mixed
Criteria
i, iii, iv, ix, x
Designated
1979 (3rd session)
Reference No.
64
State Party
 Guatemala
Region
Latin America and the Caribbean
Tikal (/tiˈkäl/) (Tik’al in modern Mayan orthography) is one of the largest archaeological sites and urban centres of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. It is located in the archaeological region of the Petén Basin in what is now northern Guatemala. Situated in the department of El Petén, the site is part of Guatemala's Tikal National Park and in 1979 it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[2]
Tikal was the capital of a conquest state that became one of the most powerful kingdoms of the ancient Maya.[3] Though monumental architecture at the site dates back as far as the 4th century BC, Tikal reached its apogee during the Classic Period, ca. 200 to 900 AD. During this time, the city dominated much of the Maya region politically, economically, and militarily, while interacting with areas throughout Mesoamerica such as the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. There is evidence that Tikal was conquered by Teotihuacan in the 4th century AD.[4] Following the end of the Late Classic Period, no new major monuments were built at Tikal and there is evidence that elite palaces were burned. These events were coupled with a gradual population decline, culminating with the site’s abandonment by the end of the 10th century.
Tikal is the best understood of any of the large lowland Maya cities, with a long dynastic ruler list, the discovery of the tombs of many of the rulers on this list and the investigation of their monuments, temples and palaces.[5]

Contents
  [hide] 1 Etymology
2 Location
3 Population
4 Rulers
5 History 5.1 Preclassic
5.2 Early Classic 5.2.1 Tikal and Teotihuacan
5.2.2 Tikal and Copán
5.3 Late Classic 5.3.1 Tikal hiatus
5.3.2 Tikal and Dos Pilas
5.3.3 Tikal after Teotihuacán
5.4 Terminal Classic
5.5 Modern history
6 The site 6.1 Causeways
6.2 Architectural groups
6.3 Structures
6.4 Altars
6.5 Lintels
6.6 Stelae
6.7 Burials
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Etymology[edit]



 Emblem Glyph for Tikal (Mutal)
The name Tikal may be derived from ti ak'al in the Yucatec Maya language; it is said to be a relatively modern name meaning "at the waterhole". The name was apparently applied to one of the site's ancient reservoirs by hunters and travellers in the region.[6] It has alternatively been interpreted as meaning "the place of the voices" in the Itza Maya language. Tikal, however, is not the ancient name for the site but rather the name adopted shortly after its discovery in the 1840s.[7] Hieroglyphic inscriptions at the ruins refer to the ancient city as Yax Mutal or Yax Mutul, meaning "First Mutal".[6] Tikal may have come to have been called this because Dos Pilas also came to use the same emblem glyph; the rulers of the city presumably wanted to distinguish themselves as the first city to bear the name.[8] The kingdom as a whole was simply called Mutul,[9] which is the reading of the "hair bundle" Emblem Glyph seen in the accompanying photo. Its precise meaning remains obscure,[6] although some scholars think that it is the hair knot of the Ahau or ruler.
Location[edit]



 Map of the Maya area within the Mesoamerican region. Both Tikal and Calakmul lie near the centre of the area.
The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa Elena, approximately 64 kilometres (40 mi) by road to the southwest.[10] Tikal is approximately 303 kilometres (188 mi) north of Guatemala City. It is 19 kilometres (12 mi) south of the contemporary Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometres (19 mi) northwest of Yaxha.[6][11] The city was located 100 kilometres (62 mi) southeast of its great Classic Period rival, Calakmul, and 85 kilometres (53 mi) northwest of Calakmul's ally Caracol, now in Belize.[12]
The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometres (6.2 sq mi) that included about 3000 structures.[13] The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands. The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised causeways spanning the swamps.[14] The area around Tikal has been declared as the Tikal National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometres (220 sq mi).[15]
The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the cradle of lowland Maya civilization. The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils, and may have dominated a natural east—west trade route across the Yucatan Peninsula.[16] Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic kapok (Ceiba pentandra) the sacred tree of the Maya; Tropical cedar (Cedrela odorata), and Honduras Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla). Regarding the fauna, agouti, white-nosed coatis, gray foxes, Geoffroy's spider monkeys, howler monkeys, harpy eagles, falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots and leafcutter ants can be seen there regularly. Jaguars, jaguarundis, and cougars are also said to roam in the park. For centuries this city was completely covered under jungle. The average annual rainfall at Tikal is 1,945 millimetres (76.6 in).[17]
One of the largest of the Classic Maya cities, Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in ten reservoirs. Archaeologists working in Tikal during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use.[18]
The Tikal National Park covers an area of 575.83 square kilometres (222.33 sq mi). It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropología e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala.[19]
Population[edit]
Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10,000 to as high as 90,000 inhabitants, with the most likely figure being at the upper end of this range.[13] Because of the low salt content of the Maya diet, it is estimated that Tikal would have had to import 131 tons of salt each year, based on a conservative population estimate of 45,000.[20]
The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period (approximately 2000 BC – AD 200), with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830, followed by a sharp decline. For the 120 square kilometres (46 sq mi) area falling within the earthwork defences of the hinterland, the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometre (1340 per square mile). In an area within a 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) radius of the site core, peak population is estimated at 120,000; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometre (689 per square mile). In a region within a 25 kilometres (16 mi) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites, peak population is estimated at 425,000 with a density of 216 per square kilometre (515 per square mile). These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture. However, some archaeologists, such as David Webster, believe these figures to be far too high.[21]
Rulers[edit]
Main article: Rulers of Tikal
The dynastic line of Tikal, founded as early as the 1st century AD, spanned 800 years and included at least 33 rulers.[22]
Section of stucco frieze with a prominent human face in the centre, surrounded by elaborate decoration.
Maya civilization
­People·
 ­Languages·
 ­Society·
 ­Religion·
 ­Mythology·
 ­Sacrifice·
 ­Cities·
 ­Architecture·
 ­Calendar·
 ­Stelae·
 ­Art·
 ­Textiles·
 ­Trade·
 ­Music·
 ­Writing
 
History
Preclassic Maya
Classic Maya collapse
Spanish conquest of Yucatán
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
Spanish conquest of Petén
­v·
 ­t·
 ­e
   

Name (or nickname)[23][24]
Ruled
Dynastic
 succession no.
Alternative Names
Yax Ehb' Xook c. 90 1 Yax Moch Xok, Yax Chakte'l Xok, First Scaffold Shark[25]
Foliated Jaguar c. 292  ? –
Animal Headdress  ? 10? Kinich Ehb'?
Siyaj Chan K'awiil I c. 307 11 –
Lady Une' B'alam c. 317 12? –
K'inich Muwaan Jol I  ? –359 13 Mahk'ina Bird Skull, Feather Skull
Chak Tok Ich'aak I 360–378 14 Jaguar Paw, Great Paw, Great Jaguar Paw
Yax Nuun Ayiin I 379 –404? 15 Curl Snout, Curl Nose
Siyaj Chan K'awiil II 411–456 16 Stormy Sky, Manikin Cleft Sky
Kan Chitam 458–c. 486 17 Kan Boar, K'an Ak
Chak Tok Ich'aak II c. 486–508 18 Jaguar Paw II, Jaguar Paw Skull
Lady of Tikal Kaloomte' B'alam c. 511–527+ 19 Curl Head
Bird Claw  ? 20? Animal Skull I
Wak Chan K'awiil 537?–562 21 Double Bird
Animal Skull c. 593–628 22 –
K'inich Muwaan Jol II c. 628–650 23 or 24 –
Nuun Ujol Chaak c. 650–679 25 Shield Skull, Nun Bak Chak
Jasaw Chan K'awiil I 682–734 26 Ruler A, Ah Cacao
Yik'in Chan K'awiil 734–c. 766 27 Ruler B, Yaxkin Caan Chac, Sun Sky Rain
Ruler 28 c. 766–768 28 –
Yax Nuun Ayiin II 768–c. 794 29 –
Nuun Ujol K'inich c. 800? 30? –
Dark Sun –810+ 31? –
Jewel K'awiil –849+  ? –
Jasaw Chan K'awiil II –869+  ? –
History[edit]
Preclassic[edit]
There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic.[26] A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700-400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle-shaped chamber.[27]
Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400–300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe.[26][28] At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize.[29]
Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry-walled superstructures that may have been corbel-vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red.[30]
In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbours declined.[26] At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city.[31]
Early Classic[edit]
Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax-Moch-Xoc, perhaps in the 3rd century AD.[32] At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland.[33]
Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities.[34]
The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount centre in the southern Maya lowlands.[35] The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbour Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal.[36]
There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Une' B'alam conducted a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city.[37]
Tikal and Teotihuacan[edit]



 The great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico appears to have decisively intervened in Tikal politics.
The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw).[32] Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis.[38] Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD. On the same day, Siyah K’ak’ (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January.[32] On Stela 31 he is named as "Lord of the West".[39] Siyah K’ak’ was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K’ak’ led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed.[40] Siyah K'ak' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself;[41] roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex.[42] He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself.[26][43] Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the tenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379.[43][44] He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the pre-existing, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimised the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II.[43]
Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean.[45]
Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanised. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbour to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometres (16 mi) in every direction.[42]
Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defences provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defences protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometres (46 sq mi).[26] Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose.[46]
Tikal and Copán[edit]
In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal.[38] Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal.[47] K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal.[48] An individual known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person.[49] His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", much like Siyah K’ak’.[48] At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself.[47] The founding of these two centres may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region.[50] The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries.[51]
A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title kaloomte', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king".[52]
The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler.[53] .
Late Classic[edit]
Tikal hiatus[edit]



 The main plaza during winter solstice celebrations
In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic.[54] The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture.[55] This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal.[26] The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city.[38] Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken.[56] After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims.[57] Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period.[58]
The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archaeologists commonly sub-divide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic.[59]
Tikal and Dos Pilas[edit]
In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometres (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River.[60] B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635, and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal.[61] Roughly twenty years later Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy,[62] and attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, the then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years.[63] Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas and Caracol.[64]
In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of kaloomte', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a programme of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory.[57]
Tikal after Teotihuacán[edit]



 A vessel with jade inlays from the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I beneath Temple I and bearing an effigy, probably that of the king.[65]
By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the centre of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style.[66] Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today.[67]
In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence.[47] It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies.[68] This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán.[69]
In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis.[70] By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers.[67]
Terminal Classic[edit]
By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence.[71] Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and corresponding environmental decline.[72] Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810.[73] The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city.[74] During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence.[67] In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph.[74]
As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost the majority of its population during the period from 830 to 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly.[21] There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources.[75]



 The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at centre, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right
In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalised and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier to find tombs being looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century.[21][74][75]
The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty.[76]
Modern history[edit]
In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometres of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters.[77] After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal.[78]
As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s.[16] Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumours of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839-40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853.[79] Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archaeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s.[16]



 Archaeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park.[80]
In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins,[15] which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area.[81] From 1956 through 1970, major archaeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project.[82] They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures.[16] Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the University investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969.[83] The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site.[16] In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984.[82]
Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for his first Star Wars movie, Episode IV: A New Hope, released in 1977.[84][85] Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote.[86]
Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park.[16] A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964.[87]
The site[edit]



 Map of the site core
Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala.[44] It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas.[88] The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 metres (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments.[9][89] There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica.
The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs.[90]
The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. A huge set of earthworks has been discovered ringing Tikal with a 6-metre (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s.[91] The 16 square kilometres (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped;[67] it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometres (48 sq mi) (see below). Population estimates place the demographic size of the site between 10,000 and 90,000, and possibly 425,000 in the surrounding area. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought.[92]
Causeways[edit]
By the Late Classic, a network of sacbeob (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometres through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 metres (2,460 ft) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) to the southeast).[93] These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archaeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams.[14]
The Maler Causeway runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic.[94]
The Maudsley Causeway runs 0.8 kilometres (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H.[94]
The Mendez Causeway runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometres (0.81 mi).[79][95]
The Tozzer Causeway runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV.[96]
Architectural groups[edit]



 The North Acropolis
The Great Plaza lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis.[88]
The Central Acropolis is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza.[88]
The North Acropolis, together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 metres (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period.[83][90]



 The Lost World Pyramid in the Mundo Perdido complex
The South Acropolis is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square metres (220,000 sq ft).[14]
The Plaza of the Seven Temples is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side.[14][97]
The Mundo Perdido is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples.[98] It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal.[99] The complex was organised as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples.[99] The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the talud-tablero form.[100] During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis.[101] From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis.[101] The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archaeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centred upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it.[98]
Group G lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper storey. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask.[79]
Group H is centred on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic.[94]



 The Plaza of the Seven Temples
There are nine Twin-Pyramid Complexes at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east-west axis.[94] These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids, and lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or k'atun) intervals during the Late Classic.[79] The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic.[102]
Group Q is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun.[102] Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected.[79]
Group R is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway.[79]
Structures[edit]



 Temple II on the main plaza
There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archaeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I - VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 metres high (200 feet). They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years.[103]
Temple I (also known as the Temple of Ah Cacao or Temple of the Great Jaguar) is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734,[83][88] the pyramid was completed around 740–750.[104] The temple rises 47 metres (154 ft) high.[1] The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives.[105] The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962.[18] Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink.[18][106] The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe.[103]



 Contrasting photo, scan shot, and isometric images for the roof comb of Temple IV, using data acquired by a laser scan collected by nonprofit CyArk
Temple II (also known as the Temple of the Mask) in was built around AD 700 and stands 38 metres (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York.[70][107]
Temple III (also known as the Temple of the Jaguar Priest) was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 metres (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810.[73] The temple shrine possesses two chambers.[108]
Temple IV is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 metres (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb.[88] Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid’s summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century,[109] and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador.[110]
Temple V stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 metres (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal - only Temple IV is taller.[111] The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century.[112]
Temple VI is also known as the Temple of the Inscriptions and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-metre (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored.[79]
Temple 33 was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 metres (108 ft) tall.[113] The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archaeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction.[114]
Structure 34 is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other.[109]



 Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping talud sections of the talud-tablero sides of Structure 5D-43.[115]
Structure 5D-43 is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side.[116] The building has a talud-tablero platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical tablero panels are set between sloping talud panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping talud panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth.[115] The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake.[117] The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century.[118]
Structure 5C-49 possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a talud-tablero facade; it dates to the 4th century AD.[119] It is located near to the Lost World pyramid.[120]
Structure 5C-53 is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure.[108]



 A large stucco mask adorning the substructure of Temple 33
The Lost World Pyramid (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex.[121] It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal’s central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V.[93][95][122] It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic;[14] this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region.[93] It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 metres (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials.[119][123] Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories.[124]
Structure 5D-96 is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs.[125]
Group 6C-16 is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred metres south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics.[119]
The Great Plaza Ballcourt is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis.[107]
The Bat Palace is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III.[126] It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows.[108]
Complex N lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711.[127]
Altars[edit]
Altar 5 is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman.[128] Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III.[110]
Altar 8 is sculpted with a bound captive.[129] It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City.[94]
Altar 9 is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI.[79]
Altar 10 is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold.[129] It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion.[79]
Altar 35 is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV.[130]
Lintels[edit]



 The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743.[131]
At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region.[132]
Lintel 3 from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin.[133]
Stelae[edit]
Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows:
Stela 1 dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position.[134]
Stela 4 is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area.[135] The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile.[136]



 Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II[137]
Stela 5 was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil.[138]
Stela 6 is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year.[139]
Stela 10 is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument.[140]
Stela 11 was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II.[74]
Stela 12 is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honour of the king.[53]
Stela 16 was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument.[138] It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III.[110]
Stela 18 was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the k'atun-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine.[141]
Stela 19 was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II.[138]
Stela 20 was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City.[94]
Stela 21 was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil.[138] Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI.[79]
Stela 22 was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex.[138] The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated.[79]
Stela 23 was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century.[139]
Stela 24 was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments.[73]
Stela 26 was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine.[142]
Stela 29 bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands.[37] The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archaeologists in 1959.[143][144]
Stela 30 is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies.[138]
Stela 31 is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god.[145] In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried.[146] Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic,[137] which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378.[39] It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces.[147]
Stela 32 is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress.[148]
Stela 39 is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending.[123] The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol.[37]
Stela 40 bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468.[149]
Stela 43 is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV.[130]
Burials[edit]



 A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10.[150]
Burial 1 is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid.[151]
Burial 10 is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin.[32] It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king.[109] A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles.[146] Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands.[152] The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top.[109]
Burial 48 is generally accepted as the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awil. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis.[113][153] The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler.[153] The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king.[55] The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact.[106]
Burial 85 dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones.[25][30] The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis.[25] The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle.[154] The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband.[25][155] This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king.[54] Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels.[155]
Burial 116 is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself.[156]
Burial 195 was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archaeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone.[157][158]
Burial 196 is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God.[13]
See also[edit]
El Zotz
List of Mesoamerican pyramids
Notes[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, p.47.
2.Jump up ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
3.Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.1. Hammond 2000, p.233.
4.Jump up ^ Martin & Grube 2008, pp.29–32.
5.Jump up ^ Adams 2000, p.34.
6.^ Jump up to: a b c d Martin & Grube 2000, p.30.
7.Jump up ^ Drew 1999, p.136.
8.Jump up ^ Schele & Mathews 1999, p.64.
9.^ Jump up to: a b Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.1.
10.Jump up ^ Kelly 1996, pp.111–2.
11.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, p.118.
12.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, pp.188, 192.
13.^ Jump up to: a b c Coe 1999, p.104.
14.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Drew 1999, p.185.
15.^ Jump up to: a b Kelly 1996, p.140.
16.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Webster 2002, p.261.
17.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, p.239.
18.^ Jump up to: a b c Coe 1999, p.124.
19.Jump up ^ Torres.
20.Jump up ^ Coe 1999, p.30.
21.^ Jump up to: a b c Webster 2002, p.264.
22.Jump up ^ Martin & Grube 2000, p.25.
23.Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.310-2
24.Jump up ^ Martin & Grube 2000 pp.26-52.
25.^ Jump up to: a b c d Drew 1999, p.187.
26.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Webster 2002, p.262.
27.Jump up ^ Coe 1999, p.55.
28.Jump up ^ Coe 1999, p.73.
29.Jump up ^ Coe 1999, pp.73, 80.
30.^ Jump up to: a b Coe 1999, p.75.
31.Jump up ^ Coe 1999, p.78.
32.^ Jump up to: a b c d Coe 1999, p.90.
33.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, pp.88-9.
34.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, p.191.
35.Jump up ^ Sharer 1994, p.265.
36.Jump up ^ Kelly 1996, p.129.
37.^ Jump up to: a b c Martin & Grube 2000, p.27.
38.^ Jump up to: a b c Webster 2002, p.192.
39.^ Jump up to: a b Drew 1999, p.199.
40.Jump up ^ Coe 1999, pp.90-1.
41.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, p.133.
42.^ Jump up to: a b Drew 1999, p.201.
43.^ Jump up to: a b c Drew 1999, p.200.
44.^ Jump up to: a b Coe 1999, p.97.
45.Jump up ^ Drew 1999, pp.201-2.
46.Jump up ^ Silverstein 2009
47.^ Jump up to: a b c Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p.407.
48.^ Jump up to: a b Fash & Agurcia Fasquelle 2005, p.26.
49.Jump up ^ Looper 2003, p.37.
50.Jump up ^ Looper 2003, p.38.
51.Jump up ^ Looper 1999, p.263.
52.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, pp.168-9.
53.^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, pp.38-9.
54.^ Jump up to: a b Miller 1999, p.89.
55.^ Jump up to: a b Coe 1999, p.94.
56.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, pp.192-3.
57.^ Jump up to: a b Webster 2002, p.193.
58.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, p.194.
59.Jump up ^ Miller and Taube 1993, p.20.
60.Jump up ^ Salisbury et al 2002, p.1.
61.Jump up ^ Salisbury et al 2002, pp.2-3.
62.Jump up ^ Salisbury et al 2002, p.2.
63.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, p.276.
64.Jump up ^ Hammond 2000, p.220.
65.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, pl.13.
66.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, p.105.
67.^ Jump up to: a b c d Webster 2002, p.263.
68.Jump up ^ Looper 2003, p.79.
69.Jump up ^ Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p.408.
70.^ Jump up to: a b Miller 1999, p.33.
71.Jump up ^ Martin & Grube 2000, pp.52-3.
72.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, p.340.
73.^ Jump up to: a b c Martin & Grube 2000, p.52.
74.^ Jump up to: a b c d Martin & Grube 2000, p.53.
75.^ Jump up to: a b Webster 2002, p.273.
76.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, p.274.
77.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, pp.83-4.
78.Jump up ^ Jones 1998, pp. 218-219. Means 1917, p. 167.
79.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Kelly 1996, p.139.
80.Jump up ^ Edwin Shook at ObitCentral.
81.Jump up ^ Adams 2000, p.19.
82.^ Jump up to: a b Adams 2000, p.30.
83.^ Jump up to: a b c Martin & Grube 2000, p.43.
84.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, p.29.
85.Jump up ^ StarWars.com
86.Jump up ^ Banco de Guatemala.
87.Jump up ^ Coe 1967, 1988, p.10.
88.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Coe 1999, p.123.
89.Jump up ^ Drew 1999, p.183.
90.^ Jump up to: a b Drew 1999, p.186.
91.Jump up ^ Puleston, Dennis E.; Callender, Donald W. (1967). "Defensive Earthworks at Tikal". Expedition: 40–48.
92.Jump up ^ Martínez et al 2004, pp.639-640.
93.^ Jump up to: a b c Hammond 2000, p.227.
94.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Kelly 1996, p.138.
95.^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, p.24.
96.Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.302.
97.Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.304.
98.^ Jump up to: a b Coe 1967, 1988, pp.90-91.
99.^ Jump up to: a b Martin and Grube 2000, p.28.
100.Jump up ^ Martin and Grube 2000, p.29. Sharer and Traxler 2006, p.321.
101.^ Jump up to: a b Martin and Grube 2000, p.29.
102.^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, p.51.
103.^ Jump up to: a b Kelly 1996, p.133.
104.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, pl.15.
105.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, p.27.
106.^ Jump up to: a b Miller 1999, p.78.
107.^ Jump up to: a b Kelly 1996, p.134.
108.^ Jump up to: a b c Kelly 1996, p.136.
109.^ Jump up to: a b c d Miller 1999, p.32.
110.^ Jump up to: a b c Kelly 1996, p.137.
111.Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.303-304.
112.Jump up ^ Coe 1967, 1988, p.92. Valdés & Fahsen 2005, p.142.
113.^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, p.36.
114.Jump up ^ Coe 1967, 1988, p.46. Berlin 1967, p.241.
115.^ Jump up to: a b Schele & Mathews 1999, p.72.
116.Jump up ^ Schele & Mathews 1999, p.71.
117.Jump up ^ Schele & Mathews 1999, pp.72-3.
118.Jump up ^ Schele & Mathews 1999, pp.70-1.
119.^ Jump up to: a b c Hammond 2000, p.228.
120.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, p.30.
121.Jump up ^ Coe 1967, 1988, p.90.
122.Jump up ^ Kelly 1996, p.130.
123.^ Jump up to: a b Drew 1999, p.188.
124.Jump up ^ Hammond 2000, pp.227-8.
125.Jump up ^ Kelly 1996, p.135.
126.Jump up ^ Kelly 1996, pp.130, 136.
127.Jump up ^ Kelly 1996, pp. 136-7.
128.Jump up ^ Webster 2002, pl.14.
129.^ Jump up to: a b Miller 1999, p.130.
130.^ Jump up to: a b Morales et al 2008, p.422.
131.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, p.13.
132.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, pp.130-1.
133.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, p.131.
134.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, p.153.
135.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, p.94.
136.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, p.95.
137.^ Jump up to: a b Miller 1999, p.97.
138.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Miller 1999, p.129.
139.^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, p.38.
140.Jump up ^ Martin & Grube 2000, p.39.
141.Jump up ^ Martin and Grube 2000, pp. 33-34.
142.Jump up ^ Coe 1967, 1988, p. 45.
143.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, p.91.
144.Jump up ^ Drew 1999, pp.187-8.
145.Jump up ^ Coe 1999, pp.91-2.
146.^ Jump up to: a b Miller 1999, p.96.
147.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, p.98.
148.Jump up ^ Martin & Grube 2000, p.31.
149.Jump up ^ Martin & Grube 2000, p.37.
150.Jump up ^ Martin & Grube 2000, p.33.
151.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, pp.193-4.
152.Jump up ^ Drew 1999, p.197.
153.^ Jump up to: a b Coe 1999, p.91.
154.Jump up ^ Coe 1999, pp.75-6.
155.^ Jump up to: a b Coe 1999, p.76.
156.Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.397-399.
157.Jump up ^ Martin & Grube 2000, p.41.
158.Jump up ^ Miller 1999, p.216.
References[edit]
Adams, Richard E.W. (2000). "Introduction to a Survey of the Native Prehistoric Cultures of Mesoamerica". In Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–44. ISBN 0-521-35165-0. OCLC 33359444.Andrews, E. Wyllys; and William L. Fash (2005). "Issues in Copán Archaeology". In E. Wyllys Andrews and William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 395–425. ISBN 0-85255-981-X. OCLC 56194789.Banco de Guatemala. "Monedas". Banco de Guatemala. Retrieved 2009-11-13. ‹See Tfd›(Spanish)Berlin , Heinrich (April 1967). "The Destruction of Structure 5D-33-1st at Tikal". American Antiquity (Washington, D. C., USA: Society for American Archaeology) 32 (2): 241–242. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 277915. OCLC 754651089. Retrieved 06-05-13. (subscription required)Coe, Michael D. (1999). The Maya. Ancient peoples and places series (6th edition, fully revised and expanded ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28066-5. OCLC 59432778.Coe, William R. (1967, 1988). Tikal: Guía de las Antiguas Ruinas Mayas. Guatemala: Piedra Santa. ISBN 84-8377-246-9. ‹See Tfd›(Spanish)Drew,David (1999). The Lost Chronicles of the Mayan Kings. Los Angeles: University of California Press.Fash, William L.; and Ricardo Agurcia Fasquelle (2005). "Contributions and Controversies in the Archaeology and History of Copán". In E. Wyllys Andrews and William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 3–32. ISBN 0-85255-981-X. OCLC 56194789.Gill, Richardson B. (2000). The Great Maya Droughts: Water, Life, and Death. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-2194-1. OCLC 43567384.Hammond, Norman (2000). "The Maya Lowlands: Pioneer Farmers to Merchant Princes". In Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 197–249. ISBN 0-521-35165-0. OCLC 33359444.Harrison, Peter D. (2006). "Maya Architecture at Tikal". In Nikolai Grube (ed.). Maya: Divine Kings of the Rain Forest. Eva Eggebrecht and Matthias Seidel (assistant eds.). Köln: Könemann. pp. 218–231. ISBN 3-8331-1957-8. OCLC 71165439.Jones, Grant D. (1998). The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804735223. OCLC 9780804735223.Kelly, Joyce (1996). An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2858-5. OCLC 34658843.Kerr, Justin (n.d.). "A Precolumbian Portfolio" (online database). FAMSI Research Materials. Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. Retrieved 2007-06-13.Looper, Matthew G. (1999). "New Perspectives on the Late Classic Political History of Quirigua, Guatemala". Ancient Mesoamerica (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press) 10 (2): 263–280. doi:10.1017/S0956536199101135. ISSN 0956-5361. OCLC 86542758.Looper, Matthew G. (2003). Lightning Warrior: Maya Art and Kingship at Quirigua. Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70556-5. OCLC 52208614.Martin, Simon; and Nikolai Grube (2000). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05103-8. OCLC 47358325.Martin, Simon; and Nikolai Grube (2008). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya (2nd edn (revised) ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28726-2. OCLC 191753193.Martínez, Horacio; David Webster; Jay Silverstein; Timothy Murtha; Kirk Straight and Irinna Montepeque (2004). "Reconocimiento en la periferia de Tikal: Los Terraplenes Norte, Oeste y Este, nuevas exploraciones y perspectivas" (PDF online publication). XVII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2003 (edited by J.P. Laporte, B. Arroyo, H. Escobedo and H. Mejía). Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala. pp. 635–641. Retrieved 2009-06-24. ‹See Tfd›(Spanish)Means, Philip Ainsworth (1917). History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University VII. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. OCLC 681599.Miller, Mary Ellen (1999). Maya Art and Architecture. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20327-X. OCLC 41659173.Miller, Mary; and Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05068-6. OCLC 27667317.Morales, Tirso; Benito Burgos; Miguel Acosta; Sergio Pinelo; Marco Tulio Castellanos; Leopoldo González; Francisco Castañeda; Edy Barrios; Rudy Larios and Cruz Jau (2008). "Trabajos realizados por la Unidad de Arqueología del Parque Nacional Tikal, 2006-2007." (PDF). XXI Simposio de Arqueología en Guatemala, 2007 (edited by J.P. Laporte, B. Arroyo and H. Mejía) (Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología): 413–436. Retrieved 2011-06-21. ‹See Tfd›(Spanish)Salisbury, David; Mimi Koumenalis, and Barbara Moffett (19 September 2002). "Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world" (PDF online publication). Exploration: the online research journal of Vanderbilt University (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Office of Science and Research Communications). OCLC 50324967. Retrieved 2009-09-22.Schele, Linda; and Peter Mathews (1999). The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-85209-6. OCLC 41423034.Sharer, Robert J.; with Loa P. Traxler (2006). The Ancient Maya (6th, fully revised ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4817-9. OCLC 57577446.Silverstein, Jay; with David Webster, Horacio Martinez, and Alvaro Soto (2009). Rethinking the Earthworks of Tikal: A Hydraulic Hypothesis for the Classic Maya Polity. Ancient Mesoamerican 20(1),Cambridge Journals.StarWars.com. "Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope". Lucasfilm Ltd. Archived from the original on 2009-12-29. Retrieved 2009-11-13.Torres, Estuardo. "Parque Nacional Tikal". Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. Retrieved 2009-11-14. ‹See Tfd›(Spanish)UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Tikal National Park". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2009-11-13.Valdés, Juan Antonio; and Fahsen, Federico (2005). "Disaster in Sight: The Terminal Classic at Tikal and Uaxactun". In Arthur A. Demarest, Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.). The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands: Collapse, transition, and transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. pp. 162–194. ISBN 0-87081-822-8. OCLC 61719499.Webster, David L. (2002). The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05113-5. OCLC 48753878.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tikal.
Information at www.tikalpark.com
Official site, Ministry of Culture and Sports of Guatemala ‹See Tfd›(Spanish)
Tikal Digital Media Archive at CyArk



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This is a good article. Click here for more information.
Coordinates: 17°13′19.54″N 89°37′25.01″W
 

Categories: Maya sites
Tikal
Maya sites in Petén Department
National parks of Guatemala
World Heritage Sites in Guatemala
Archaeological sites in Guatemala
Former populated places in Guatemala
Classic period in Mesoamerica




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Yuma Desert

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

The Yuma Desert is a lower-elevation section of the Sonoran Desert in the southwestern United States and the northwest of Mexico. It is in the Salton basin. The desert contains areas of sparse vegetation and has notable areas of sand dunes. With an average rainfall less than 8 inches (200 mm) each year, this is among the harshest deserts in North America. Human presence is sparse throughout, the largest city being Yuma, Arizona, on the Colorado River and the border of California.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Overview
2 Flora
3 Fauna
4 View
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Overview[edit]
The desert includes the lower-elevation parts of the southwestern corner of Arizona, extending west to the Colorado River. On the other side of the river, in California, is the Colorado Desert region of the Sonoran Desert, also referred to as the Low Desert. Though the two regions are separated only by the Colorado River, there are numerous species of plant and animals that live only on one side or the other, such as saguaro cactus, which occurs only east of the river. The Yuma Desert also includes the sandy plains of western Sonora, going all the way to the head of the Gulf of California, then an inland strip reaching into the central Sonoran interior. The most significant river in this desert is the Gila River of Arizona. Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument is located in this desert, as are the Kofa National Wildlife Refuge and Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge.
To the south of Arizona's Yuma Desert in northern Mexico, is the Pinacate volcanic field and biosphere reserve, part of the Gran Desierto de Altar, and is the southern extension of the Yuma Desert. It is on the northwestern foothills of Mexico's Sierra Madre Occidental, the western mountain cordillera.
Flora[edit]
See also: List of flora of the Sonoran Desert Region by common name
Vegetation is dominated by the creosote bush (Larrea tridentata), which is widespread. The saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea) and the ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens) are common on the bajadas, while many of the desert trees found are restricted to dry watercourses; these include paloverde (Parkinsonia), the desert willow (Chilopsis linearis), desert ironwood (Olneya tesota), and smoke trees (Psorothamnus spinosus).
Fauna[edit]
Main articles in: Category: Fauna of the Sonoran Desert
View[edit]



 The region from orbit.[1]
See also[edit]
Lechuguilla Desert
Tule Desert (Arizona)
Colorado Desert
Gran Desierto de Altar
Sonoran Desert
Chihuahuan Desert
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Salton Trough July 29, 2013
Jaeger, Edmund C. (1957). The North American Deserts. Stanford University Press. pp. 73–83.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yuma Desert.
External links[edit]
Britannica.com
Yuma Desert on Wookieepedia: a Star Wars wiki
Yuma Desert Watershed Map
Yuma Desert regional Points of Interest

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Categories: Yuma Desert
Deserts and xeric shrublands in the United States
Ecoregions of the United States
Sonoran Desert
Deserts of Mexico
Deserts of Arizona
Deserts of the Lower Colorado River Valley
Deserts of the Gran Desierto de Altar
Geography of Yuma County, Arizona
Yuma, Arizona



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Tozeur

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Tozeur
Tuzer / ⵜⵓⵣⴻⵔ / توزر

Habib Bourguiba Avenue, Tozeur


Tozeur is located in Tunisia

Tozeur
Location in Tunisia
Coordinates: 33°55′N 8°8′E
Country
Flag of Tunisia.svg Tunisia
Governorate
Tozeur Governorate
Population (2004)

 • Total
32,400
Time zone
CET (UTC1)



Sahara around Tozeur
Tozeur (Arabic: توزر‎, Berber: Tuzer / ⵜⵓⵣⴻⵔ) is an oasis and a city in south west Tunisia. The city is located North West of Chott el-Djerid, in between this Chott and the smaller Chott el-Gharsa. It is the capital of the Tozeur Governorate.
With hundreds of thousands of palm trees, Tozeur is a large oasis. The dates that are exported from Tozeur are very well known. In ancient times, before the advent of motorized vehicles, the oasis was important for the transportation through the Sahara, which took place in caravans. The name of the city in antiquity was Tusuros, it was an important Roman outpost.
In the medina (old city) of Tozeur, one can find traditional architecture, fashion and workmanship. Like elsewhere in Tunisia, the local population is generally very hospitable towards tourists, and there are also many tourist facilities. From Tozeur one can make trips on a camel, explore the Sahara Desert and get to know the Chott el-Djerid, where one can see Fata Morgana mirages.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Architecture
2 Weather
3 Transport
4 Economy
5 Banking and Money
6 Sport
7 Famous people
8 Trivia
9 External links
Architecture[edit]
Tozeur, in common with the surrounding Jerid region, is noted for its yellow/brownish brickwork as well as its fascinating patterns in simple and rich geometric designs form the façades of most buildings in the old city and the new tourist zone.



A local in traditional Berber clothing in the Medina



The unique brickwork of the old streets in the medina quarter



Another example of brick artistry in Tozeur's old city

The old town of Ouled El Hwadef is an exquisite example of the local brickwork. Mandated by the local government, the narrow streets, walls and facades were decorated with bricks, resulting in one of the most distinct and beautiful architectural styles of Tunisia. This work took more than 10 years to complete and the result is a must-see.
Weather[edit]
Although the weather is pleasant most of the year, the summer months can be extreme. Temperature can reach 45° outside. The average yearly weather is :

Month
Avg. High
Avg. Low
Avg. Precip.
January 58.5°F / 15°C 39.4°F / 4°C 0.90in / 21 mm
February 62.6°F / 17°C 41.7°F / 5.5°C 0.70in / 15 mm
March 67.5°F / 20°C 45.9°F / 8°C 0.90in / 21 mm
April 74.5°F / 24°C 51.3°F / 11°C 0.50in / 13 mm
May 83.7°F / 29°C 58.6°F / 15°C 0.50in / 13 mm
June 92.7°F / 34°C 65.7°F / 19°C 0.40in / 10 mm
July 98.2°F / 37°C 70.3°F / 21°C 0.00in / 0 mm
August 97.2°F / 36°C 70.7°F / 21.5°C 0.30in / 10 mm
September 88.9°F / 32°C 65.8°F / 19°C 0.90in / 21 mm
October 78.3°F / 26°C 57.2°F / 14°C 0.80in / 20 mm
November 67.6°F / 20°C 47.1°F / 8.5°C 0.70in / 16 mm
December 59.7°F / 15°C 40.5°F / 5°C 1.10in / 29 mm
The best time to visit the region would be in the fall or the winter, where hotels are not full and the city is the middle of its palm dates harvest. In fact the international festival of oases takes place during this time of the year (Nov/Dec.).
Transport[edit]



Tozeur–Nefta International Airport
The city is served by buses, taxis, railway, louage (shared or group taxi), and Tozeur – Nefta International Airport with national and international services from London, Paris, Rome and few other European countries (international flight services are mostly during the summer tourism season). Tozeur lies on the edge of the Sahara desert. Tourism activity is more lively in the fall and winter months with Douz Festival among others in late December
The city has plenty of car rental agencies (AVIS, HERTZ, etc...) where one can rent a car without prior reservation. Visitors are advised to plan ahead especially during the peak tourism season (Summer and Fall)
Within the city limits, there is a reasonable taxi service (24 hrs a day) that is priced reasonably. Taxis can take you anywhere if you do not feel like walking.
Otherwise walking within the city limits, the old city to the tourist zone is possible and in fact fun to see.
Economy[edit]



 Medina entrance
Although still the largest part of the local economy, dates and farming are becoming less appealing to the young, preferring the 'fun' and unstable business of tourism and contact with westerners.
Tourism is heavily developed and promoted, and Tozeur is considered a center of "desert tourism" (Arabic: السياحة الصحراوية‎). This becomes very evident if one visits the city during the "International Festival of Oases" (Arabic: المهرجان الدولي للواحات بتوزر‎) in November/December of every year.



 Tozeur market
The government initiated two large scale projects:
1.Tapping of deep aquifers by wells, this led to a series of severe problems
Depletion of most natural springs (Tozeur is very famous for these springs, which counted more than 2500 few decades ago)
 Abandonment of the traditional irrigation canals. Tozeur's oasis has been irrigated based on an open surface canal system designed in the 13th century by the famous engineer Ibn Chabbat. This traditional irrigation system is currently being replaced by an 'eyesore' system of concrete pipes. Moreover, water, that was traditionally free to farmers, is now being sold to offset the cost of these projects and pipes. It is important to note here, that the traditional system of irrigation canals supported a delicate ecological system of endemic fishes and small animals, most of them either gone now or severely endangered with no protection.
1.The second part of these local projects is the initiation of new (young) oases around town. Very poor planning, corruption, and disregard to local traditions meant a futile effort at best. These oases' productivity is very low and their future highly unstable.



Dar Cherait Museum
This situation is slowly leading to the decay of the old oasis (due to salinity, poor planning, lack of skilled workers, etc...) with productivity plummeting and the health and future of the oases questionable.
The overall region, not only Tozeur, is seeing a large influx of unemployed workers and their families (some of them native to the Tozeur area, but migrated in search of jobs decades earlier), that are migrating from the once rich Phosphate region of Metlaoui, Gafsa, Oum Lerrayess, etc... in hope of work in the Tourism sector. The phosphate mines are no longer productive and the government opted to sell them to European investors, who chose to let go of thousands of workers as the first step to rehabilitating them.
 Unfortunately this influx caused problems to Tozeur, where the unemployment rate and crimes skyrocketed.
Overall the region, and Tozeur in particular, is going through a tough time. The region is embracing the very unstable tourism economy and shying away from its traditional agricultural based economy that provided security for centuries. If history is any indication for the region, during the first Gulf War the sector suffered tremendously with a loss of large number of workers and an increase in unmployment. The same happened twice during September 11, 2001 attacks and the current Iraq war.
Banking and Money[edit]
The city is served by all Tunisian banks. One can find easily banks, ATMs, and money exchange offices. Most Western money is accepted directly (albeit not legal, one needs to exchange his money first). Most credit cards, like VISA, MasterCard, Diners Club International, are also honored in hotels, restaurants, and artisans shops.
Sport[edit]
Tozeur has a football club who plays in the Second Professional Federation Of Football in Tunisia, the team is called (LPST). In 2010/2011 season the club almost made it to the First Professional Federation of Football.
Famous people[edit]



Echebbi statue at Ras al-Ain (Tozeur)Aboul-Qacem Echebbi (Arabic: أبو القاسم الشابي‎) (b. Tozeur, February, 1909; d. October 9, 1934), is a famous Tunisian poet and known and respected throughout the Arab world for his elegant style and powerful words. The current Tunisian anthem is based on one of his poems.
Abu Yazid Mukhallad ibn Kayrâd (أبو يزيد مخلد بن كيراد), from the Berber Zenata tribe, nicknamed Saheb Al Himar (Arabic: صاحب الحمار‎) who led a mostly Berber revolution against the Fatimid ruler (Arabic: محمد القائم بأمر الله‎). The revolution, almost a success, was finally crushed (Arabic: الخليفة المنصور بالله‎). Sahib Al Himar was finally caught hiding in a cave. He was ordered executed, skinned and stuffed with cotton. His mutilated body was put on display at the southern main entrance to El Mahdia (Arabic: المهدية‎), a Tunisian coastal city. Ironically, Saheb-Alhimar started his revolution by implanting his spear in the very same door few years earlier.
Ibn Chabbat (ابن شباط) AKA Mohamed Ben Ali Ben Mohamed Ben Ali, (October 16, 1221-June 17, 1285 in Tozeur), is a writer, historian, engineer and a respected Tunisian social figure in the 13th century. Ibn Chabbat's main contribution and legacy is an open surface canals system for equitable water distribution in the oasis that is still in use nowadays.
Trivia[edit]
Tozeur was used as a filming location for the Star Wars saga and Raiders of The Lost Ark (specifically Sidi Bouhlel canyon outside the town and the salt-flats of nearby Nefta). Lucasfilm also built an entire set a few kilometers North-West of Tozeur in the middle of the desert. This set acted as Mos Espa in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. The buildings are still there and can be visited. The English Patient (9 Oscars) with Ralph Fiennes and Kristin Scott Thomas was partially filmed outside Tozeur.
In May 1984 the Italian singers Alice and Franco Battiato represented Italy in the Eurovision Song Contest with the song "I treni di Tozeur" ("The Trains of Tozeur"), whose lyrics contain several references to Tozeur, the historic train Le Lézard rouge and Tunisian history in general. This song became a chart hit throughout Continental Europe and Scandinavia and made the name of this town more famous in Europe.
External links[edit]

Portal icon Tunisia portal
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tozeur.
Lexicon of the Orient article
Arabic Atlas of Islamic History
Star Wars locations in Tunisia
Coordinates: 33°55′N 8°08′E

[show]
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 t·
 e
 
Tunisia Communes of Tunisia




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Categories: Populated places in Tozeur Governorate
Oases of Tunisia
Communes of Tunisia



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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
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Tozeur

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Tozeur
Tuzer / ⵜⵓⵣⴻⵔ / توزر

Habib Bourguiba Avenue, Tozeur


Tozeur is located in Tunisia

Tozeur
Location in Tunisia
Coordinates: 33°55′N 8°8′E
Country
Flag of Tunisia.svg Tunisia
Governorate
Tozeur Governorate
Population (2004)

 • Total
32,400
Time zone
CET (UTC1)



Sahara around Tozeur
Tozeur (Arabic: توزر‎, Berber: Tuzer / ⵜⵓⵣⴻⵔ) is an oasis and a city in south west Tunisia. The city is located North West of Chott el-Djerid, in between this Chott and the smaller Chott el-Gharsa. It is the capital of the Tozeur Governorate.
With hundreds of thousands of palm trees, Tozeur is a large oasis. The dates that are exported from Tozeur are very well known. In ancient times, before the advent of motorized vehicles, the oasis was important for the transportation through the Sahara, which took place in caravans. The name of the city in antiquity was Tusuros, it was an important Roman outpost.
In the medina (old city) of Tozeur, one can find traditional architecture, fashion and workmanship. Like elsewhere in Tunisia, the local population is generally very hospitable towards tourists, and there are also many tourist facilities. From Tozeur one can make trips on a camel, explore the Sahara Desert and get to know the Chott el-Djerid, where one can see Fata Morgana mirages.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Architecture
2 Weather
3 Transport
4 Economy
5 Banking and Money
6 Sport
7 Famous people
8 Trivia
9 External links
Architecture[edit]
Tozeur, in common with the surrounding Jerid region, is noted for its yellow/brownish brickwork as well as its fascinating patterns in simple and rich geometric designs form the façades of most buildings in the old city and the new tourist zone.



A local in traditional Berber clothing in the Medina



The unique brickwork of the old streets in the medina quarter



Another example of brick artistry in Tozeur's old city

The old town of Ouled El Hwadef is an exquisite example of the local brickwork. Mandated by the local government, the narrow streets, walls and facades were decorated with bricks, resulting in one of the most distinct and beautiful architectural styles of Tunisia. This work took more than 10 years to complete and the result is a must-see.
Weather[edit]
Although the weather is pleasant most of the year, the summer months can be extreme. Temperature can reach 45° outside. The average yearly weather is :

Month
Avg. High
Avg. Low
Avg. Precip.
January 58.5°F / 15°C 39.4°F / 4°C 0.90in / 21 mm
February 62.6°F / 17°C 41.7°F / 5.5°C 0.70in / 15 mm
March 67.5°F / 20°C 45.9°F / 8°C 0.90in / 21 mm
April 74.5°F / 24°C 51.3°F / 11°C 0.50in / 13 mm
May 83.7°F / 29°C 58.6°F / 15°C 0.50in / 13 mm
June 92.7°F / 34°C 65.7°F / 19°C 0.40in / 10 mm
July 98.2°F / 37°C 70.3°F / 21°C 0.00in / 0 mm
August 97.2°F / 36°C 70.7°F / 21.5°C 0.30in / 10 mm
September 88.9°F / 32°C 65.8°F / 19°C 0.90in / 21 mm
October 78.3°F / 26°C 57.2°F / 14°C 0.80in / 20 mm
November 67.6°F / 20°C 47.1°F / 8.5°C 0.70in / 16 mm
December 59.7°F / 15°C 40.5°F / 5°C 1.10in / 29 mm
The best time to visit the region would be in the fall or the winter, where hotels are not full and the city is the middle of its palm dates harvest. In fact the international festival of oases takes place during this time of the year (Nov/Dec.).
Transport[edit]



Tozeur–Nefta International Airport
The city is served by buses, taxis, railway, louage (shared or group taxi), and Tozeur – Nefta International Airport with national and international services from London, Paris, Rome and few other European countries (international flight services are mostly during the summer tourism season). Tozeur lies on the edge of the Sahara desert. Tourism activity is more lively in the fall and winter months with Douz Festival among others in late December
The city has plenty of car rental agencies (AVIS, HERTZ, etc...) where one can rent a car without prior reservation. Visitors are advised to plan ahead especially during the peak tourism season (Summer and Fall)
Within the city limits, there is a reasonable taxi service (24 hrs a day) that is priced reasonably. Taxis can take you anywhere if you do not feel like walking.
Otherwise walking within the city limits, the old city to the tourist zone is possible and in fact fun to see.
Economy[edit]



 Medina entrance
Although still the largest part of the local economy, dates and farming are becoming less appealing to the young, preferring the 'fun' and unstable business of tourism and contact with westerners.
Tourism is heavily developed and promoted, and Tozeur is considered a center of "desert tourism" (Arabic: السياحة الصحراوية‎). This becomes very evident if one visits the city during the "International Festival of Oases" (Arabic: المهرجان الدولي للواحات بتوزر‎) in November/December of every year.



 Tozeur market
The government initiated two large scale projects:
1.Tapping of deep aquifers by wells, this led to a series of severe problems
Depletion of most natural springs (Tozeur is very famous for these springs, which counted more than 2500 few decades ago)
 Abandonment of the traditional irrigation canals. Tozeur's oasis has been irrigated based on an open surface canal system designed in the 13th century by the famous engineer Ibn Chabbat. This traditional irrigation system is currently being replaced by an 'eyesore' system of concrete pipes. Moreover, water, that was traditionally free to farmers, is now being sold to offset the cost of these projects and pipes. It is important to note here, that the traditional system of irrigation canals supported a delicate ecological system of endemic fishes and small animals, most of them either gone now or severely endangered with no protection.
1.The second part of these local projects is the initiation of new (young) oases around town. Very poor planning, corruption, and disregard to local traditions meant a futile effort at best. These oases' productivity is very low and their future highly unstable.



Dar Cherait Museum
This situation is slowly leading to the decay of the old oasis (due to salinity, poor planning, lack of skilled workers, etc...) with productivity plummeting and the health and future of the oases questionable.
The overall region, not only Tozeur, is seeing a large influx of unemployed workers and their families (some of them native to the Tozeur area, but migrated in search of jobs decades earlier), that are migrating from the once rich Phosphate region of Metlaoui, Gafsa, Oum Lerrayess, etc... in hope of work in the Tourism sector. The phosphate mines are no longer productive and the government opted to sell them to European investors, who chose to let go of thousands of workers as the first step to rehabilitating them.
 Unfortunately this influx caused problems to Tozeur, where the unemployment rate and crimes skyrocketed.
Overall the region, and Tozeur in particular, is going through a tough time. The region is embracing the very unstable tourism economy and shying away from its traditional agricultural based economy that provided security for centuries. If history is any indication for the region, during the first Gulf War the sector suffered tremendously with a loss of large number of workers and an increase in unmployment. The same happened twice during September 11, 2001 attacks and the current Iraq war.
Banking and Money[edit]
The city is served by all Tunisian banks. One can find easily banks, ATMs, and money exchange offices. Most Western money is accepted directly (albeit not legal, one needs to exchange his money first). Most credit cards, like VISA, MasterCard, Diners Club International, are also honored in hotels, restaurants, and artisans shops.
Sport[edit]
Tozeur has a football club who plays in the Second Professional Federation Of Football in Tunisia, the team is called (LPST). In 2010/2011 season the club almost made it to the First Professional Federation of Football.
Famous people[edit]



Echebbi statue at Ras al-Ain (Tozeur)Aboul-Qacem Echebbi (Arabic: أبو القاسم الشابي‎) (b. Tozeur, February, 1909; d. October 9, 1934), is a famous Tunisian poet and known and respected throughout the Arab world for his elegant style and powerful words. The current Tunisian anthem is based on one of his poems.
Abu Yazid Mukhallad ibn Kayrâd (أبو يزيد مخلد بن كيراد), from the Berber Zenata tribe, nicknamed Saheb Al Himar (Arabic: صاحب الحمار‎) who led a mostly Berber revolution against the Fatimid ruler (Arabic: محمد القائم بأمر الله‎). The revolution, almost a success, was finally crushed (Arabic: الخليفة المنصور بالله‎). Sahib Al Himar was finally caught hiding in a cave. He was ordered executed, skinned and stuffed with cotton. His mutilated body was put on display at the southern main entrance to El Mahdia (Arabic: المهدية‎), a Tunisian coastal city. Ironically, Saheb-Alhimar started his revolution by implanting his spear in the very same door few years earlier.
Ibn Chabbat (ابن شباط) AKA Mohamed Ben Ali Ben Mohamed Ben Ali, (October 16, 1221-June 17, 1285 in Tozeur), is a writer, historian, engineer and a respected Tunisian social figure in the 13th century. Ibn Chabbat's main contribution and legacy is an open surface canals system for equitable water distribution in the oasis that is still in use nowadays.
Trivia[edit]
Tozeur was used as a filming location for the Star Wars saga and Raiders of The Lost Ark (specifically Sidi Bouhlel canyon outside the town and the salt-flats of nearby Nefta). Lucasfilm also built an entire set a few kilometers North-West of Tozeur in the middle of the desert. This set acted as Mos Espa in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. The buildings are still there and can be visited. The English Patient (9 Oscars) with Ralph Fiennes and Kristin Scott Thomas was partially filmed outside Tozeur.
In May 1984 the Italian singers Alice and Franco Battiato represented Italy in the Eurovision Song Contest with the song "I treni di Tozeur" ("The Trains of Tozeur"), whose lyrics contain several references to Tozeur, the historic train Le Lézard rouge and Tunisian history in general. This song became a chart hit throughout Continental Europe and Scandinavia and made the name of this town more famous in Europe.
External links[edit]

Portal icon Tunisia portal
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tozeur.
Lexicon of the Orient article
Arabic Atlas of Islamic History
Star Wars locations in Tunisia
Coordinates: 33°55′N 8°08′E

[show]
v·
 t·
 e
 
Tunisia Communes of Tunisia




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Categories: Populated places in Tozeur Governorate
Oases of Tunisia
Communes of Tunisia



Navigation menu


Create account
Log in


Article
Talk





Read
Edit
View history




 Search 



Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikimedia Shop

Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page

Toolbox





Print/export



Languages
العربية
Català
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Français
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
Latina
Lietuvių
Magyar
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Slovenščina
Suomi
Türkçe
Українська
中文
Edit links
This page was last modified on 10 October 2013 at 22:01.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
 Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Mobile view
Wikimedia Foundation
Powered by MediaWiki
   





Twenty-mule team

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
For information on the cleaning product, please see Twenty-Mule-Team Borax.For the film starring Wallace Beery, see 20 Mule Team (1940 film).


 Twenty-mule team in Death Valley, California
Twenty-mule teams were teams of eighteen mules and two horses attached to large wagons that ferried borax out of Death Valley from 1883 to 1889. They traveled from mines across the Mojave Desert to the nearest railroad spur, 165 miles (275 km) away in Mojave, California. The routes were from Furnace Creek, California, to Mojave, California, and from the mines at Old Borate to Mojave.
The wagons were among the largest ever pulled by draft animals, designed to carry 10 short tons (9 metric tons) of borax ore at a time.

Contents
  [hide] 1 History
2 Team
3 Promotion and fame
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]



 Twenty-mule-team wagons on display in Death Valley, California
In 1877, six years before twenty-mule teams had been introduced into Death Valley, Scientific American reported that Francis Marion Smith and his brother had shipped their company's borax in a 30-ton load using two large wagons, with a third wagon for food and water, drawn by a 24-mule team over a 160-mile stretch of desert between Teel's Marsh and Wadsworth, Nevada.
The twenty-mule-team wagons were designed to carry 10 short tons (9 metric tons) of borax ore at a time. The rear wheels measured seven feet (2.1 m) high, with tires made of one-inch-thick (25 mm) iron. The wagon beds measured 16 feet long and were 6 feet deep (4.9 m long, 1.8 m deep); constructed of solid oak, they weighed 7,800 pounds (3,500 kg) empty; when loaded with ore, the total weight of the mule train was 73,200 pounds (33.2 metric tons or 36.6 short tons).
The first wagon was the trailer, the second was "the tender" or the "back action", and the tank wagon brought up the rear.
With the mules, the caravan stretched over 180 feet (55 m). No wagon ever broke down in transit on the desert due to their construction.[1]
A 1,200-U.S.-gallon (4542.49 L) water tank was added to supply the mules with water en route.[2] There were water barrels on the wagons for the teamster and the swamper. Water supplies were refilled at springs along the way, as it was not possible to carry enough water for the entire trip. The tank water was used at dry camps and water stops.
The June 1940 issue of Desert Magazine confirms that the primary water tank was 1200 U.S. gallons. This detail is also given in "The History Behind the Scale Model".[3]
An efficient system of dispersing feed and water along the road was put in use. Teams outbound from Mojave, pulling empty wagons, hauled their own feed and supplies, which were dropped off at successive camps as the outfit traveled. The supplies would be on hand to use when a loaded wagon came back the other way, and no payload space was wasted. There was one stretch of road where a 500-gallon wagon was added to take water to a dry camp for the team that would be coming from the opposite direction. The arriving team would use the water and take the empty tank back to the spring on their haul the next day, ready for re-filling and staging by the next outbound outfit.[4]
The teams hauled more than 20 million pounds (9,000 metric tons) of borax out of Death Valley in the six years of the operation. Pacific Borax began shipping product by train in 1896.[5]
Team[edit]
Horses were the wheelers, the two closest to the wagon. They were ridden by one of the two men generally required to operate the wagons and were typically larger than their mule brethren. They had great brute strength for starting the wagons moving and could withstand the jarring of the heavy wagon tongue, but the mules were smarter and better suited to work in desert conditions. In the Proceedings Fifth Death Valley Conference on History and Prehistory, two articles discussed freight operations in the Mojave with specific details on the use of mules and horses. In "Of Myths and Men: Separating Fact from Fiction in the Twenty Mule Team Story", author Ted Fave discussed how the teams were assembled, trained, and used. "Nadeau's Freighting Teams in the Mojave", based on Remi Nadeau's historic accomplishments hauling freight throughout the desert region, gives further insight as to the superiority of mules for general use.
The teamster drove the team with a single long rein, known as a "jerk line", and the aid of a long blacksnake whip. The teamster usually rode the left wheeler, but he could also drive from the trailer seat, working the brake on steep descents. The swamper usually rode the trailer, but in hilly country, he would be on the back action available to work the brake. From the trailer, armed with a can of small rocks, he could pelt an inattentive mule and send it back to work. Both men were responsible for readying the team, feeding and watering of the mules, and any veterinary care or repairs that needed to be done. There was a mid-day stop to feed and water the mules in harness. The night stops had corrals and feed boxes for the mules. A day's travel averaged about 17 miles, varying slightly from leg to leg. It took about ten days to make a trip one way. Cabins were constructed by the company for use of drivers and swampers at the night stops.[6][7]
Promotion and fame[edit]



 "Borax Smith", borax magnate and promoter of the "twenty-mule team"
Francis Marion Smith, who came to be known as "Borax Smith", founded Pacific Borax. Cora Keagle recounted his history in an article, "Buckboard Days in Borate", published in Desert Magazine in September 1939.[8] Smith was a great promoter and sent drivers out with jerk-line teams to major U.S. cities to promote the company's laundry product with free samples. The exhibition teams were typically mules for the promotion value, but Smith explained that in actual use, wheel horses were a standard practice. Outside contractors hauling for the company typically used mixed teams.
Joe Zentner wrote of the origins of the advertising campaign on the Desert USA website in "Twenty Mule Teams on the move in Death Valley". Bill Parkinson, formerly a night watchman for the company, had to learn quickly how to drive the team when he was given the role of "Borax Bill". He was the first, but not the last, driver known by that name. The 1904 St. Louis World's Fair was the maiden appearance for the team and was such a success that Parkinson went on tour.
The team eventually made its way to New York City, parading down Broadway. After that showing, the mules were sold, and the wagons shipped back to California.[9] The mules also appeared at the Golden Gate Bridge dedication, according to "The Last Ride, the Borax Twenty Mule Team 1883 - 1999".
A short item in the June 1940 edition of Desert Magazine mentioned that two of the original borax wagons were en route to the New York World's Fair. The item followed with the note that muleskinner "Borax Bill" Parkinson[3] had driven an original wagon from Oakland, California, to New York City in 1917, spending two years on the journey.[10] The mule team also made periodic re-enactment appearances on hauls into Death Valley.
In 1958, a twenty-mule team made a symbolic haul out of the new pit at U.S. Borax, commemorating the transition from underground to open-pit mining.[11] Other appearances for twenty-mule teams included President Wilson's inauguration in 1917.[12]
Promotional team appearances ended with an outing in the January 1, 1999, Rose Parade. The team had a shakedown outing in a 1998 Boron, California, parade. The company spent $100,000, refitting the 115-year-old wagons and obtaining harness and mules for the performance. There were no plans for additional public appearances for advertising purposes, as the company no longer had a retail product line.[12]
U.S. Borax put out a paperback publication entitled The Last Ride, the Borax Twenty Mule Team 1883 - 1999 that included many details about the history of the team and the preparation for the Rose Parade outing.[13] There is a photo of Borax Bill driving the team down Broadway in New York City with bells on every animal. Most of the time, only the leaders wore bells. Another picture shows the team in San Francisco in 1917. This picture clearly shows the teamster on a horse. Another historic picture shows a working borax freight team with a mixture of horses and mules.
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ http://scvhisto.ipower.com/scvhistory/borax-20muleteam.htm
2.Jump up ^ http://www.scribd.com/doc/2095338/194006-Desert-Magazine-1940-June Desert Magazine June 1940
3.^ Jump up to: a b http://www.muleteamkits.com/fbody.html The History Behind the Scale Model
4.Jump up ^ Of Myths and Men: Separating Fact from Fiction in the Twenty Mule Team Story, by Ted Faye, Proceedings Fifth Death Valley Conference on History and Prehistory
5.Jump up ^ [1] Buckboard Days in Borate, Desert Magazine, September 1939
6.Jump up ^ http://www.scribd.com/doc/2403536/195304-Desert-Magazine-1953-April Desert Magazine, Life on the Desert, as told to Ernest K. Allen
7.Jump up ^ http://www.scribd.com/doc/2404078/197011-Desert-Magazine-1970-November Desert Magazine, "Giant Wagons of Death Valley," by Richard A. Bloomquist
8.Jump up ^ Desert Magazine, http://www.scribd.com/doc/2095190/193909-Desert-Magazine-1939-September Desert Magazine September 1939, Buckboard Days in Borate
9.Jump up ^ http://www.desertusa.com/mag05/jul/borax.html 20-Mule Borax Teams on the Move in Death Valley, DesertUSA.com
10.Jump up ^ http://www.scribd.com/doc/2095338/194006-Desert-Magazine-1940-June
11.Jump up ^ http://www.scribd.com/doc/2402801/196109-Desert-Magazine-1961-September Desert Magazine September 1961, by Lucille Weight
12.^ Jump up to: a b http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5382/is_/ai_n21436005 Borax Twenty Mule Team takes its final ride, Engineering and Mining Journal, Feb 1999
13.Jump up ^ The Last Ride, the Borax Twenty Mule Team 1883 - 1999
Proceedings Fifth Death Valley Conference on History and Prehistory: Remi Nadeau's Freighting Teams in the Southern Mining Camps; Of Myths and Men: Separating Fact from Fiction in the Twenty-Mule Team Story. Community Printing and Publishing, Bishop, California 93514. 1999. ISBN 0-912494-05-0.
The Last Ride, the Borax Twenty Mule Team 1883 - 1999. U.S. Borax. 1999.
Death Valley & The Amargosa: A Land of Illusion. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA 94720. 1986. ISBN 0-520-06356-2.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Twenty-mule team
Twenty Mule Team Museum
Santa Clara Valley History in Pictures
Days in Borate, Desert Magazine September 1939
Here and There on the Desert, p. 37 (manuscript page number), Desert Magazine June 1940
Mule Team Kits - the History Behind the Scale Model
Borax Twenty Mule Team takes its final ride, Engineering and Mining Journal, Feb 1999
20-Mule Borax Teams on the Move in Death Valley, DesertUSA.com
Desert Magazine, April 1953, Life on the Desert, as told to Ernest K. Allen

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Djerba

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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For the Persian Gulf bagpipe, see jirba.
"Jarbah" redirects here. For the village in Iran, see Jarbah, Iran.
"Jerba" redirects here. For the Syrian opposition leader, see Ahmad Jarba.

 This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2008) 
Jerba
Route djerbienne.jpg


Djerba is located in Tunisia


Djerba (Tunisia)
Geography

Location
Gulf of Gabès
Area
514 km2 (198.5 sq mi)
Country

Tunisia

Largest city
Houmt Souk (pop. 65,000)
Demographics

Population
139,544 (as of 2004 Census)
Density
271.5 /km2 (703.2 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Berber, Arabs, Jews and black African
Djerba (Tunisian Arabic: جربة‎  pronounced [ˈdʒɛrbæ]), also transliterated as Jerba or Jarbah,[1] is, at 514 square kilometres (198 sq mi), the largest island of North Africa, located in the Gulf of Gabes, off the coast of Tunisia.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Description
2 History
3 Administration and population
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Description[edit]
Djerba has a mild climate and a well cultivated soil. Its largest city is Houmt-Souk, with a population of around 65,000. The island is a popular tourist destination, particularly with French, German and Italian tourists, and is known for its beautiful beaches and dramatic sunsets. It is one of the few remaining places in Tunisia where a Berber language is still spoken. Another factor drawing some tourists to Djerba is the 1977 location of the Mos Eisley exterior scenes in the first Star Wars movie, filmed in the town of Ajim.
Djerba is noted as a center of the Islamic sect Al-Ibadhiyah and is also noted for its Jewish minority, which has dwelt on the island for more than 2,500 years, although the Jewish population has declined due to emigration to Israel and France since 1967. The El Ghriba synagogue on Djerba is over 2,000 years old and is as such the oldest and one of the most famous in the world. It was once known as the island of the Kohanim, Hebrew for the Jewish Priestly caste, a large percentage of the community being direct Patrilineal descendants of Aaron the first high priest.[2][3]
Djerba also has a sizeable minority of Maltese Catholics, who established themselves on the island as sponge-fishers.
History[edit]
Legend has it that Djerba was the island of the Lotus-Eaters where Odysseus was stranded on his voyage through the Mediterranean.
The island, called Meninx until the third century AD, included three principal towns. One of these, whose modern name is Būrgū, is found near Midoun in the center of the island. Another city, on the southeast coast of the island at Meninx, was a major producer of murex dye, cited by Pliny the Elder as second only to Tyre in this regard. A third important town was probably the ancient Haribus. The island was densely inhabited in the Roman and Byzantine periods, and probably imported much of the grain consumed by its inhabitants.



 Ghazi Mustapha Fort, Djerba, Tunisia
During the Middle Ages, it was occupied by members of the Kharejite sect, known as the Ibadites. The Christians of Sicily and Aragon disputed its possession with the Ibadites of the island. Remains from this period include numerous small mosques dating as early as the twelfth century, as well as two substantial forts.
The island was controlled twice by the Norman Kingdom of Sicily: in *1135–1158 and in *1284–1333. During the second of these periods it was organised as a feudal lordship, with the following Lords of Jerba: 1284–1305 Roger I, 1305–1307 and 1307–1310 Roger II (twice), 1310 Charles, 1310 Francis-Roger III; there were also royal governors, partially overlapping with the lordship terms: c. 1305–1308 Simon de Montolieu, 1308–1315 Raymond Montaner.
In 1503, the corsair Aruj and his brother Hayreddin Barbarossa took control of the island and turned it into their main base in the western Mediterranean, bringing it under Ottoman control. Spain launched a disastrous attempt to capture it in November, 1510. In 1513, after three years in exile in Rome, the Fregosi family returned to Genoa, Ottaviano was elected Doge, and his brother Federigo Fregosi (archbishop, later cardinal), having become his chief counsellor, was placed at the head of the army, and defended the republic against internal dangers (revolts of the Adorni and the Fieschi) and external dangers, notably suppression of the Barbary piracy: Cortogoli, a corsair from Tunis, blockaded the coast with a squadron, and within a few days had captured eighteen merchantmen; being given the command of the Genoese fleet, in which Andrea Doria was serving, Federigo surprised Cortogoli before Bizerta, effected a descent on the island of Djerba and returned to Genoa with great booty.



El Ghriba synagogue
Spanish forces returned to Djerba in 1520, and this time were successful in capturing the island. It was twice occupied by Spain, from 1521 to 1524 and from 1551 to 31 July 1560; again there were governors: 1521–1524 ..., 1560 Giovanni Andrea Doria. On May 14, 1560, the Ottoman fleet under the command of Piyale Pasha and Turgut Reis severely defeated the Holy League of Philip II at the Battle of Djerba. Djerba belonged to the Ottoman regency of Tunis until 1881, subsequently under the French colonial protectorate, which became the modern republic of Tunisia.
An archaeological field survey of Jerba, carried out under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania, the American Academy in Rome and the Tunisian Instiut National du Patrimoine between 1995 and 2000, revealed over 400 archaeological sites, including many Punic and Roman villas.[4]
In the Ghriba synagogue bombing on April 11, 2002, a truck full of explosives was detonated close to the famous synagogue, killing 21 people (14 German tourists, 5 Tunisians and 2 Frenchmen). Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility. For a time tourists ceased visiting Djerba, but normal activity has since resumed.
Administration and population[edit]
The island comprises three of the delegations within the Tunisian Département of Médenine. Named after the three towns which form their administrative centres, these delegations (with their 2004 Census populations in brackets) are Djerba Houmt Souk (64,919), Djerba Midoun (50,459) and Djerba Ajim (24,166) – the island's population at the Census thus totalling 139,544.
Gallery[edit]



Djerba topographic map.



Djerba satellite view.



Historic map of Djerba by Piri Reis.



Sunset on Djerba.



Coffeehouse.



Bassi Mosque.

See also[edit]

Portal icon Tunisia portal
Menachem Mazuz, former Israeli Attorney General, born on this island
Djerba–Zarzis Airport
References[edit]
 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.
1.Jump up ^ ^ Transliteration from http://www.uconv.com/ar.htm
2.Jump up ^ http://www.virtualtourist.com/hotels/Africa/Tunisia/Gouvernorat_de_Medenine/Ile_de_Jerba-2248304/Hotels_and_Accommodations-Ile_de_Jerba-Hotel_Meninx-BR-1.html
3.Jump up ^ http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/162940
4.Jump up ^ E. Fentress, A. Drine and R. Holod, eds. An Island through Time: Jerba Studies vol 1. The Punic and Roman Periods. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary series 71,2009.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Djerba.
Girba & Federigo Fregoso
Ajim on Wookieepedia: a Star Wars wiki
Cursory Mos Eisley location facts – From StarWars.com
WorldStatesmen – Tunisia
Coordinates: 33°47′N 10°53′E

 

Categories: Djerba
Islands of Tunisia
Mediterranean islands
Ottoman Tunisia
Titular sees in Africa
Historic Jewish communities
Medenine Governorate




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Chott el Djerid

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Chott el Djerid
Djerid3.jpg
Coordinates
33.7°N 8.43°ECoordinates: 33.7°N 8.43°E
Type
salt lake, endorheic
Primary inflows
groundwater
Primary outflows
terminal Evaporation
Basin countries
Tunisia

Surface area
7,000 km2
Surface elevation
+10-25 m

Chott el Djerid is located in Tunisia


Chott al-Djarid in Tunisia
Chott el Djerid (Arabic: شط الجريد‎ Šaṭṭ al-Ǧarīd), also spelt Shaţţ al Jarīd, Sciott Gerid, and Shott el Jerid,[1][2][3][4] is a large endorheic salt lake in southern Tunisia.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Geography
2 Surrounding area
3 Access
4 In popular culture
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Geography[edit source]
The bottom of Chott el Djerid is located between 10 and 25 meters above sea level.[5] Roughly in the shape of a tadpole, with a width of 20 km (12 mi) at its narrowest point, it reaches 250 km (160 mi) in overall length. At times, parts of it appear in various shades of white, green and purple.[6] The narrow eastward inlet of the chott is also known as Chott el Fejej.
It is the largest salt pan of the Sahara with a surface area of over 7,000 km2 (some sources state 5,000 km2). Due to the extreme climate with annual rainfall of only 100 mm and temperatures reaching 50 °C, water evaporates from the lake. In summer Chott el Djerid is almost entirely dried up, and numerous fata morganas occur.
During winter, a small tributary of water can be seen discharging into the lake.[7]
Surrounding area[edit source]
South of Chott el Djerid, the Grand Erg Oriental desert begins. The towns of Kebili and Douz are also located south of the lake.
Access[edit source]
The lake can be crossed by foot and even by car, but this is very dangerous since the salt crust is not always firm.
During winter, when the lake is full, it can be crossed by boat. Piles of salt at its edges are collected for salt production processing.[6]
In popular culture[edit source]



 The Lars Homestead set from Star Wars in Chott el Djerid.
Chott el Djerid was used as a filming location for the Star Wars series,[8] among others. It was also described in Jules Verne's last novel, Invasion of the Sea.
See also[edit source]
Chott
Sahara Sea
References[edit source]
1.Jump up ^ "Shaţţ al Jarīd: Tunisia". Geographical Names. Retrieved 2011-05-23.
2.Jump up ^ "Sciott Gerid: Tunisia". Geographical Names. Retrieved 2011-05-23.
3.Jump up ^ "Chott el Jerid: Tunisia". Geographical Names. Retrieved 2011-05-23.
4.Jump up ^ "Shott el Jerid: Tunisia". Geographical Names. Retrieved 2011-05-23.
5.Jump up ^ "Flood Maps". NASA et al. Retrieved 2011-08-20.
6.^ Jump up to: a b "البحيرة شط ايل الجريد - تونس". Tixik.com. Retrieved 2011-05-23.
7.Jump up ^ "شـط الجـريد". Al-hakawati. Retrieved 2011-05-23.
8.Jump up ^ "Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope film locations". The Worldwide Guide to Movie Locations: Exploring film locations around the world. www.movie-locations.com. Retrieved 2011-05-23.
External links[edit source]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Chott el Djerid
Chott el Djerid at Lexicorient


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Categories: Lakes of Tunisia
Endorheic lakes of Africa
Kebili Governorate
Ramsar sites in Tunisia
Salt flats
Tunisia geography stubs
Star Wars stubs



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Plaza de España (Seville)

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For other uses of Plaza de España, see Plaza de España (disambiguation).

Plaza de España
Plaza de España in the Maria Luisa Park, Seville Spain- VIII.JPG
Central building at the Plaza at sunset

General information

Architectural style
Renaissance Revival in Spanish architecture
Art Deco within Neo-Mudéjar styles
Town or city
Seville
Country
Spain
Completed
1928
Client
Alfonso XIII
Technical details

Floor area
45,932 m2 (494,410 sq ft)
Design and construction

Architect
Aníbal González
The Plaza de España ("Spain Square", in English) is a plaza located in the Parque de María Luisa (Maria Luisa Park), in Seville, Spain built in 1928 for the Ibero-American Exposition of 1929. It is a landmark example of the Renaissance Revival style in Spanish architecture.[1]

Contents
  [hide] 1 History 1.1 Maria Luisa Park
1.2 Plaza de España
2 Panoramics
3 See also
4 References
History[edit]
Maria Luisa Park[edit]



 South tower and river.
Main article: Maria Luisa Park
In 1929, Seville hosted the Ibero-American Exposition World's Fair, located in the celebrated Maria Luisa Park (Parque de María Luisa). It was designed by Jean-Claude Nicolas Forestier.[2] The entire southern end of the city was redeveloped into an expanse of gardens and grand boulevards. The centre of it is Parque de María Luisa, a 'Moorish paradisical style' with a half mile of: tiled fountains, pavilions, walls, ponds, benches, and exhedras; lush plantings of palms, orange trees, Mediterranean pines, and stylized flower beds; and with vine hidden bowers. Numerous buildings were constructed in it for the exhibition.[3]



 South wing of the building.
Plaza de España[edit]



 The tiled 'Province Alcoves' along the walls of the Plaza de España.
The Plaza de España, designed by Aníbal González, was a principal building built on the Maria Luisa Park's edge to showcase Spain's industry and technology exhibits. González combined a mix of 1920s Art Deco and 'mock Mudejar', and Neo-Mudéjar styles. The Plaza de España complex is a huge half-circle with buildings continually running around the edge accessible over the moat by numerous beautiful bridges representing the four ancient kingdoms of Spain. In the centre is the Vicente Traver fountain. By the walls of the Plaza are many tiled alcoves, each representing a different province of Spain.[4]
Today the Plaza de España mainly consists of Government buildings. The Seville Town Hall, with sensitive adaptive redesign, is located within it. The Plaza's tiled 'Alcoves of the Provinces' are backdrops for visitors portrait photographs, taken in their own home province's alcove. Towards the end of the park, the grandest mansions from the fair have been adapted as museums. The farthest contains the city's archaeology collections. The main exhibits are Roman mosaics and artefacts from nearby Italica.
The Plaza de España has been used as a filming location, including scenes for the 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia. The building was used as a location in the Star Wars movie series — Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace (1999) and Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones (2002) — in which it featured in exterior shots of the City of Theed on the Planet Naboo.[5] It also featured in the 2012 film The Dictator.
The Seville City Hall is not located at the Plaza de España. The central government departments are.
Panoramics[edit]




The pavilion buildings within the Plaza de España.




Views across the Plaza de España.




Plaza de España at dawn
See also[edit]
Spanish gardens
Paradise garden
Persian gardens
History of gardening
List of world's fairs
This square served as the palace of The Dictator in the film of the same name.
References[edit]

 
Search Wikimedia Commons
   Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Plaza de España (Sevilla) or Parque de María Luisa


1.Jump up ^ http://www.sevilla5.com/monuments/plespana.html Sevilla-Plaza de España accessed 4/08/2010
2.Jump up ^ Sevilla-Parque de Maria Luisa. accessed 4/08/2010.
3.Jump up ^ http://www.andalucia.com/cities/seville/marialuisapark.htm Maria Luisa Park, Seville accessed 4/09/2010
4.Jump up ^ http://www.andalucia.com/cities/seville/plazadeespana.htm Plaza de España, Seville accessed 4/09/2010
5.Jump up ^ Symington, Andy (2004). "Sevilla". Andalucia (4. edition. ed.). Bath: Footprint Handbooks. p. 76. ISBN 9781903471876.



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Coordinates: 37°22′37″N 5°59′13″W
 

Categories: Buildings and structures completed in 1928
Buildings and structures in Seville
Parks in Spain
Gardens in Spain
Spanish culture
Landscape design history of Spain
World's fair architecture in Spain
Visitor attractions in Seville


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Tozeur

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Tozeur
Tuzer / ⵜⵓⵣⴻⵔ / توزر

Habib Bourguiba Avenue, Tozeur


Tozeur is located in Tunisia

Tozeur
Location in Tunisia
Coordinates: 33°55′N 8°8′E
Country
Flag of Tunisia.svg Tunisia
Governorate
Tozeur Governorate
Population (2004)

 • Total
32,400
Time zone
CET (UTC1)



Sahara around Tozeur
Tozeur (Arabic: توزر‎, Berber: Tuzer / ⵜⵓⵣⴻⵔ) is an oasis and a city in south west Tunisia. The city is located North West of Chott el-Djerid, in between this Chott and the smaller Chott el-Gharsa. It is the capital of the Tozeur Governorate.
With hundreds of thousands of palm trees, Tozeur is a large oasis. The dates that are exported from Tozeur are very well known. In ancient times, before the advent of motorized vehicles, the oasis was important for the transportation through the Sahara, which took place in caravans. The name of the city in antiquity was Tusuros, it was an important Roman outpost.
In the medina (old city) of Tozeur, one can find traditional architecture, fashion and workmanship. Like elsewhere in Tunisia, the local population is generally very hospitable towards tourists, and there are also many tourist facilities. From Tozeur one can make trips on a camel, explore the Sahara Desert and get to know the Chott el-Djerid, where one can see Fata Morgana mirages.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Architecture
2 Weather
3 Transport
4 Economy
5 Banking and Money
6 Sport
7 Famous people
8 Trivia
9 External links
Architecture[edit]
Tozeur, in common with the surrounding Jerid region, is noted for its yellow/brownish brickwork as well as its fascinating patterns in simple and rich geometric designs form the façades of most buildings in the old city and the new tourist zone.



A local in traditional Berber clothing in the Medina



The unique brickwork of the old streets in the medina quarter



Another example of brick artistry in Tozeur's old city

The old town of Ouled El Hwadef is an exquisite example of the local brickwork. Mandated by the local government, the narrow streets, walls and facades were decorated with bricks, resulting in one of the most distinct and beautiful architectural styles of Tunisia. This work took more than 10 years to complete and the result is a must-see.
Weather[edit]
Although the weather is pleasant most of the year, the summer months can be extreme. Temperature can reach 45° outside. The average yearly weather is :

Month
Avg. High
Avg. Low
Avg. Precip.
January 58.5°F / 15°C 39.4°F / 4°C 0.90in / 21 mm
February 62.6°F / 17°C 41.7°F / 5.5°C 0.70in / 15 mm
March 67.5°F / 20°C 45.9°F / 8°C 0.90in / 21 mm
April 74.5°F / 24°C 51.3°F / 11°C 0.50in / 13 mm
May 83.7°F / 29°C 58.6°F / 15°C 0.50in / 13 mm
June 92.7°F / 34°C 65.7°F / 19°C 0.40in / 10 mm
July 98.2°F / 37°C 70.3°F / 21°C 0.00in / 0 mm
August 97.2°F / 36°C 70.7°F / 21.5°C 0.30in / 10 mm
September 88.9°F / 32°C 65.8°F / 19°C 0.90in / 21 mm
October 78.3°F / 26°C 57.2°F / 14°C 0.80in / 20 mm
November 67.6°F / 20°C 47.1°F / 8.5°C 0.70in / 16 mm
December 59.7°F / 15°C 40.5°F / 5°C 1.10in / 29 mm
The best time to visit the region would be in the fall or the winter, where hotels are not full and the city is the middle of its palm dates harvest. In fact the international festival of oases takes place during this time of the year (Nov/Dec.).
Transport[edit]



Tozeur–Nefta International Airport
The city is served by buses, taxis, railway, louage (shared or group taxi), and Tozeur – Nefta International Airport with national and international services from London, Paris, Rome and few other European countries (international flight services are mostly during the summer tourism season). Tozeur lies on the edge of the Sahara desert. Tourism activity is more lively in the fall and winter months with Douz Festival among others in late December
The city has plenty of car rental agencies (AVIS, HERTZ, etc...) where one can rent a car without prior reservation. Visitors are advised to plan ahead especially during the peak tourism season (Summer and Fall)
Within the city limits, there is a reasonable taxi service (24 hrs a day) that is priced reasonably. Taxis can take you anywhere if you do not feel like walking.
Otherwise walking within the city limits, the old city to the tourist zone is possible and in fact fun to see.
Economy[edit]



 Medina entrance
Although still the largest part of the local economy, dates and farming are becoming less appealing to the young, preferring the 'fun' and unstable business of tourism and contact with westerners.
Tourism is heavily developed and promoted, and Tozeur is considered a center of "desert tourism" (Arabic: السياحة الصحراوية‎). This becomes very evident if one visits the city during the "International Festival of Oases" (Arabic: المهرجان الدولي للواحات بتوزر‎) in November/December of every year.



 Tozeur market
The government initiated two large scale projects:
1.Tapping of deep aquifers by wells, this led to a series of severe problems
Depletion of most natural springs (Tozeur is very famous for these springs, which counted more than 2500 few decades ago)
 Abandonment of the traditional irrigation canals. Tozeur's oasis has been irrigated based on an open surface canal system designed in the 13th century by the famous engineer Ibn Chabbat. This traditional irrigation system is currently being replaced by an 'eyesore' system of concrete pipes. Moreover, water, that was traditionally free to farmers, is now being sold to offset the cost of these projects and pipes. It is important to note here, that the traditional system of irrigation canals supported a delicate ecological system of endemic fishes and small animals, most of them either gone now or severely endangered with no protection.
1.The second part of these local projects is the initiation of new (young) oases around town. Very poor planning, corruption, and disregard to local traditions meant a futile effort at best. These oases' productivity is very low and their future highly unstable.



Dar Cherait Museum
This situation is slowly leading to the decay of the old oasis (due to salinity, poor planning, lack of skilled workers, etc...) with productivity plummeting and the health and future of the oases questionable.
The overall region, not only Tozeur, is seeing a large influx of unemployed workers and their families (some of them native to the Tozeur area, but migrated in search of jobs decades earlier), that are migrating from the once rich Phosphate region of Metlaoui, Gafsa, Oum Lerrayess, etc... in hope of work in the Tourism sector. The phosphate mines are no longer productive and the government opted to sell them to European investors, who chose to let go of thousands of workers as the first step to rehabilitating them.
 Unfortunately this influx caused problems to Tozeur, where the unemployment rate and crimes skyrocketed.
Overall the region, and Tozeur in particular, is going through a tough time. The region is embracing the very unstable tourism economy and shying away from its traditional agricultural based economy that provided security for centuries. If history is any indication for the region, during the first Gulf War the sector suffered tremendously with a loss of large number of workers and an increase in unmployment. The same happened twice during September 11, 2001 attacks and the current Iraq war.
Banking and Money[edit]
The city is served by all Tunisian banks. One can find easily banks, ATMs, and money exchange offices. Most Western money is accepted directly (albeit not legal, one needs to exchange his money first). Most credit cards, like VISA, MasterCard, Diners Club International, are also honored in hotels, restaurants, and artisans shops.
Sport[edit]
Tozeur has a football club who plays in the Second Professional Federation Of Football in Tunisia, the team is called (LPST). In 2010/2011 season the club almost made it to the First Professional Federation of Football.
Famous people[edit]



Echebbi statue at Ras al-Ain (Tozeur)Aboul-Qacem Echebbi (Arabic: أبو القاسم الشابي‎) (b. Tozeur, February, 1909; d. October 9, 1934), is a famous Tunisian poet and known and respected throughout the Arab world for his elegant style and powerful words. The current Tunisian anthem is based on one of his poems.
Abu Yazid Mukhallad ibn Kayrâd (أبو يزيد مخلد بن كيراد), from the Berber Zenata tribe, nicknamed Saheb Al Himar (Arabic: صاحب الحمار‎) who led a mostly Berber revolution against the Fatimid ruler (Arabic: محمد القائم بأمر الله‎). The revolution, almost a success, was finally crushed (Arabic: الخليفة المنصور بالله‎). Sahib Al Himar was finally caught hiding in a cave. He was ordered executed, skinned and stuffed with cotton. His mutilated body was put on display at the southern main entrance to El Mahdia (Arabic: المهدية‎), a Tunisian coastal city. Ironically, Saheb-Alhimar started his revolution by implanting his spear in the very same door few years earlier.
Ibn Chabbat (ابن شباط) AKA Mohamed Ben Ali Ben Mohamed Ben Ali, (October 16, 1221-June 17, 1285 in Tozeur), is a writer, historian, engineer and a respected Tunisian social figure in the 13th century. Ibn Chabbat's main contribution and legacy is an open surface canals system for equitable water distribution in the oasis that is still in use nowadays.
Trivia[edit]
Tozeur was used as a filming location for the Star Wars saga and Raiders of The Lost Ark (specifically Sidi Bouhlel canyon outside the town and the salt-flats of nearby Nefta). Lucasfilm also built an entire set a few kilometers North-West of Tozeur in the middle of the desert. This set acted as Mos Espa in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. The buildings are still there and can be visited. The English Patient (9 Oscars) with Ralph Fiennes and Kristin Scott Thomas was partially filmed outside Tozeur.
In May 1984 the Italian singers Alice and Franco Battiato represented Italy in the Eurovision Song Contest with the song "I treni di Tozeur" ("The Trains of Tozeur"), whose lyrics contain several references to Tozeur, the historic train Le Lézard rouge and Tunisian history in general. This song became a chart hit throughout Continental Europe and Scandinavia and made the name of this town more famous in Europe.
External links[edit]

Portal icon Tunisia portal
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tozeur.
Lexicon of the Orient article
Arabic Atlas of Islamic History
Star Wars locations in Tunisia
Coordinates: 33°55′N 8°08′E

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Categories: Populated places in Tozeur Governorate
Oases of Tunisia
Communes of Tunisia



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Yuma Desert

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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The Yuma Desert is a lower-elevation section of the Sonoran Desert in the southwestern United States and the northwest of Mexico. It is in the Salton basin. The desert contains areas of sparse vegetation and has notable areas of sand dunes. With an average rainfall less than 8 inches (200 mm) each year, this is among the harshest deserts in North America. Human presence is sparse throughout, the largest city being Yuma, Arizona, on the Colorado River and the border of California.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Overview
2 Flora
3 Fauna
4 View
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Overview[edit]
The desert includes the lower-elevation parts of the southwestern corner of Arizona, extending west to the Colorado River. On the other side of the river, in California, is the Colorado Desert region of the Sonoran Desert, also referred to as the Low Desert. Though the two regions are separated only by the Colorado River, there are numerous species of plant and animals that live only on one side or the other, such as saguaro cactus, which occurs only east of the river. The Yuma Desert also includes the sandy plains of western Sonora, going all the way to the head of the Gulf of California, then an inland strip reaching into the central Sonoran interior. The most significant river in this desert is the Gila River of Arizona. Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument is located in this desert, as are the Kofa National Wildlife Refuge and Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge.
To the south of Arizona's Yuma Desert in northern Mexico, is the Pinacate volcanic field and biosphere reserve, part of the Gran Desierto de Altar, and is the southern extension of the Yuma Desert. It is on the northwestern foothills of Mexico's Sierra Madre Occidental, the western mountain cordillera.
Flora[edit]
See also: List of flora of the Sonoran Desert Region by common name
Vegetation is dominated by the creosote bush (Larrea tridentata), which is widespread. The saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea) and the ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens) are common on the bajadas, while many of the desert trees found are restricted to dry watercourses; these include paloverde (Parkinsonia), the desert willow (Chilopsis linearis), desert ironwood (Olneya tesota), and smoke trees (Psorothamnus spinosus).
Fauna[edit]
Main articles in: Category: Fauna of the Sonoran Desert
View[edit]



 The region from orbit.[1]
See also[edit]
Lechuguilla Desert
Tule Desert (Arizona)
Colorado Desert
Gran Desierto de Altar
Sonoran Desert
Chihuahuan Desert
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Salton Trough July 29, 2013
Jaeger, Edmund C. (1957). The North American Deserts. Stanford University Press. pp. 73–83.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yuma Desert.
External links[edit]
Britannica.com
Yuma Desert on Wookieepedia: a Star Wars wiki
Yuma Desert Watershed Map
Yuma Desert regional Points of Interest

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Categories: Yuma Desert
Deserts and xeric shrublands in the United States
Ecoregions of the United States
Sonoran Desert
Deserts of Mexico
Deserts of Arizona
Deserts of the Lower Colorado River Valley
Deserts of the Gran Desierto de Altar
Geography of Yuma County, Arizona
Yuma, Arizona



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Ksar Ouled Soltane

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 Multi-level ghorfas, as seen at Ksar Ouled Soltane in southern Tunisia.
Ksar Ouled Soltane (Arabic: قصر أولاد سلطان ‎) is a fortified granary, or ksar, located in the Tataouine district in southern Tunisia. The ksar is spread out over two courtyards, each of which has a perimeter of multi-story vaulted granary cellars, or ghorfas. Like other ksour (plural of ksar) created by North African Berber communities, Ksar Ouled Soltane is located on a hilltop, to help protect it from raiding parties in previous centuries.
Ksar Ouled Soltane is now a tourist destination, with visitors coming to see its well-preserved granary vaults. It was also featured in the film Star Wars: The Phantom Menace in some of the scenes used to represented the slave quarters of Mos Espa, where the character Anakin Skywalker lived as a boy.
source: Lonely Planet Tunisia, 3rd edition

Ksar ouled soltane 3.jpg



Ksar Ouled Soltane 01.jpg


External links[edit source]
The Real Star Wars? - Associated Press article, videos and photo gallery featuring Ksar Ouled Soltane
QuickTime VR image of Ksar Ouled Soltane

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Buildings and structures in Tunisia
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Mount Etna

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"Etna" redirects here. For other uses, see Etna (disambiguation).

Mount Etna
Mt Etna and Catania1.jpg
Etna with the city of Catania in the foreground

Elevation
3,350 m (10,991 ft)(varies)[1]
Prominence
3,329.6 m (10,924 ft)
Ranked 59th
Listing
Ultra
Location


Mount Etna is located in Sicily

Mount Etna
Sicily, Italy
Coordinates
37°45.3′N 14°59.7′ECoordinates: 37°45.3′N 14°59.7′E[1]
Geology

Type
Stratovolcano (composite type)
Age of rock
500,000 years
Last eruption
2013 (ongoing)
Climbing

Easiest route
rock climb
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List
Country
Italy
Type
Natural
Criteria
vii, viii, ix
Reference
1427
UNESCO region
Europe
Inscription history

Inscription
2013 (37th Session)
Mount Etna (Latin: Aetna, Sicilian: Mungibeddu or 'a Muntagna) is an active stratovolcano on the east coast of Sicily, Italy, close to Messina and Catania. It lies above the convergent plate margin between the African Plate and the Eurasian Plate. It is the tallest active volcano on the European continent, currently 3,329 m (10,922 ft) high, though this varies with summit eruptions. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps. Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 (459 sq mi) with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three active volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. Only Mount Teide in Tenerife surpasses it in the whole of the European–North-African region.[2] In Greek Mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under this mountain by Zeus, the god of the sky and thunder and king of gods, and the forges of Hephaestus were said to also be located underneath it.[3]
Mount Etna is one of the most active volcanoes in the world and is in an almost constant state of activity. The fertile volcanic soils support extensive agriculture, with vineyards and orchards spread across the lower slopes of the mountain and the broad Plain of Catania to the south. Due to its history of recent activity and nearby population, Mount Etna has been designated a Decade Volcano by the United Nations.[4] In June 2013, it was added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[5]

Contents
  [hide] 1 Etymology 1.1 Etymology according to Andrew Room's researches
2 History 2.1 Geological history
2.2 Eruptions 2.2.1 Historical eruptions
2.2.2 Recent eruptions
2.2.3 Smoke rings

3 Facilities
4 See also
5 Footnotes
6 References
7 External links
Etymology[edit]
According to Adrian Room’s book Place-names of the World, the name Etna originated from the Phoenician word attuna meaning "furnace" or "chimney". He dismisses the theory that Etna is from the Greek αἴθω (aitho) - meaning "I burn" - through an itacist pronunciation.[6] In Classical Greek, it is called Αἴτνη (Aítnē),[7] a name given also to Catania and the city originally known as Inessa, and in Latin it is called Aetna. Its Arabic names were Ǧabal al-burkān, Ǧabal Aṭma Ṣiqilliyya (greatest mountain/volcano of Sicily) and Ǧabal al-Nār (the Mountain of Fire).[8]
It is also known as Mungibeddu in Sicilian and Mongibello or Montebello in Italian (from the Latin mons and the Arabic ğebel - جبل -, both meaning mountain, thus "the twice mountain"[9]). The term is not in common use today, although some older people still call it this. According to another theory the term Mongibello comes from the Latin Mulciber (qui ignem mulcet - who placates the fire), one of the Latin names of the god Vulcan.
The people of the Etna sometimes use the jargon term 'a muntagna, simply "the mountain" par excellence.
Nowadays, the term Mongibello indicates the mountain's top area of the two central craters encompassing also the craters in the south-east and the north-east of the volcanic cone.
Etymology according to Andrew Room's researches[edit]
The main roots posed as etymologies for Αἴτνη are the Phoenician attuna (furnace or chimney) and the Greek αἴθω (aitho, to burn). According to Andrew Room the Phoenician one can give the word Αἴτνη.
attuna gives [ˈajtnɛː] with metathesis of the vowel-semivocalic phone [w] and shift of that to the palatal articulation [j]. [θ] in αἴθω would shift to [s] and furthermore the [n] of Αἴτνη would be some form of infix which would occur in an *ainthano form.
History[edit]
Geological history[edit]



 Mount Etna from the south with the smoking peak in the upper left and a lateral crater in the center.
Volcanic activity first took place at Etna about half a million years ago, with eruptions occurring beneath the sea off the ancient coastline of Sicily.[10] About 300,000 years ago, volcanism began occurring to the southwest of the summit (centre top of volcano) then, before activity moved towards the present centre 170,000 years ago. Eruptions at this time built up the first major volcanic edifice, forming a stratovolcano in alternating explosive and effusive eruptions. The growth of the mountain was occasionally interrupted by major eruptions, leading to the collapse of the summit to form calderas.
From about 35,000 to 15,000 years ago, Etna experienced some highly explosive eruptions, generating large pyroclastic flows, which left extensive ignimbrite deposits. Ash from these eruptions has been found as far away as south of Rome's border, 800 km (497 mi) to the north.
Thousands of years ago, the eastern flank of the mountain experienced a catastrophic collapse, generating an enormous landslide in an event similar to that seen in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. The landslide left a large depression in the side of the volcano, known as 'Valle del Bove' (Valley of the Ox). Research published in 2006 suggested this occurred around 8000 years ago, and caused a huge tsunami, which left its mark in several places in the eastern Mediterranean. It may have been the reason the settlement of Atlit Yam (Israel), now below sea level, was suddenly abandoned around that time.[11]
The steep walls of the valley have suffered subsequent collapses on numerous occasions. The strata exposed in the valley walls provide an important and easily accessible record of Etna's eruptive history.
The most recent collapse event at the summit of Etna is thought to have occurred about 2,000 years ago, forming what is known as the Piano Caldera. This caldera has been almost entirely filled by subsequent lava eruptions, but is still visible as a distinct break in the slope of the mountain near the base of the present-day summit cone.
Eruptions[edit]

Decade Volcanoes

Teide


Nyiragongo


Vesuvius


Etna


Santorini


Unzen


Sakurajima


Taal


Merapi


Ulawun


Mauna Loa


Colima


Santa María


Avachinsky


Galeras


Rainier
Mount Etna is one of the 16 Decade Volcanoes.
Historical eruptions[edit]
Eruptions of Etna follow a variety of patterns. Most occur at the summit, where there are currently (as of 2008) five distinct craters—the Northeast Crater, the Voragine, the Bocca Nuova, and the Southeast Crater Complex (2). Other eruptions occur on the flanks, which have more than 300 vents ranging in size from small holes in the ground to large craters hundreds of metres across. Summit eruptions can be highly explosive and spectacular, but rarely threaten the inhabited areas around the volcano. In contrast, flank eruptions can occur down to a few hundred metres altitude, close to or even well within the populated areas. Numerous villages and small towns lie around or on cones of past flank eruptions. Since the year AD 1600, at least 60 flank eruptions and countless summit eruptions have occurred; nearly half of these have happened since the start of the 20th century, and since 2000, Etna has had four flank eruptions—in 2001, 2002–2003, 2004–2005, and 2008-2009. Summit eruptions occurred in 2006, 2007–2008, January–April 2012, and again in July–October 2012
The first known record of eruption at Etna is that of Diodorus Siculus.
The Roman poet Virgil gave what was probably a first-hand description of an eruption in the Aeneid:[12]



 An artist's impression of 1766 eruption


 Ash from the April 2013 eruption of Mount Etna.

A spreading bay is there, impregnable
 To all invading storms; and Aetna's throat
 With roar of frightful ruin thunders nigh.
 Now to the realm of light it lifts a cloud
 Of pitch-black, whirling smoke, and fiery dust,
 Shooting out globes of flame, with monster tongues
 That lick the stars; now huge crags of itself,
 Out of the bowels of the mountain torn,
 Its maw disgorges, while the molten rock
 Rolls screaming skyward; from the nether deep
The fathomless abyss makes ebb and flow.

Portus ab accessu ventorum immotus et ingens
 ipse; sed horrificis iuxta tonat Aetna ruinis;
 interdumque atram prorumpit ad aethera nubem,
 turbine fumantem piceo et candente favilla,
 attollitque globos flammarum et sidera lambit;
 interdum scopulos avolsaque viscera montis
 erigit eructans, liquefactaque saxa sub auras
cum gemitu glomerat, fundoque exaestuat imo.
In 396 BC, an eruption of Etna reportedly thwarted the Carthaginians in their attempt to advance on Syracuse during the Second Sicilian War.
A particularly violent explosive (Plinian) summit eruption occurred in 122 BC, and caused heavy tephra falls to the southeast, including the town of Catania, where many roofs collapsed.[13] To help with reconstruction after the devastating effects of the eruption, the Roman government exempted the population of Catania from paying taxes for ten years.
During the first 1500 years AD, many eruptions have gone unreported (or records have been lost); among the more significant are: (1) an eruption in about 1030 AD near Monte Ilice on the lower southeast flank, which produced a lava flow that travelled about 10 km, reaching the sea north of Acireale; the villages of Santa Tecla and Stazzo are built on the broad delta built by this lava flow into the sea; (2) an eruption in about 1160 (or 1224), from a fissure at only 350–450 m (1,148–1,476 ft) elevation on the south-southeast flank near the village of Mascalucia, whose lava flow reached the sea just to the north of Catania, in the area now occupied by the portion of the city named Ognina.[citation needed]
Etna's most destructive eruption since 122 BC started on 11 March 1669 and produced lava flows that destroyed at least 10 villages on its southern flank before reaching the city walls of the town of Catania five weeks later, on 15 April. The lava was largely diverted by these walls into the sea to the south of the city, filling the harbour of Catania. A small portion of lava eventually broke through a fragile section of the city walls on the western side of Catania and destroyed a few buildings before stopping in the rear of the Benedictine monastery, without reaching the centre of the town. Contrary to widespread reports of up to 15,000 (or even 20,000) human fatalities caused by the lava,[14] contemporaneous accounts written both in Italian and English mention no deaths related to the 1669 eruption (but give very precise figures of the number of buildings destroyed, the area of cultivated land lost, and the economic damage), so it can be safely assumed that the enormous number of fatalities often picked up also by the news media must be a confusion with the earthquake that devastated southeast Sicily (including Catania) 24 years later, in 1693. A study on the damage and fatalities caused by eruptions of Etna in historical times reveals that only 77 human deaths are attributable with certainty to eruptions of Etna, most recently in 1987 when two tourists were killed by a sudden explosion near the summit.[15]
Recent eruptions[edit]



 Etna's 2002 eruption, photographed from the ISS.


 A wide view of Etna's 2002 eruption, photographed from the ISS.


 A lateral crater of the 2002-2003 eruption near the Torre del Filosofo, about 450 m (1,480 ft) below Etna's summit.


 House destroyed by lava on the slopes of Etna.


 Southern flank of Mount Etna showing lateral cones and flow from eruption of 2001.
Large lava flow from an eruption in 1928 led to the first (and only) destruction of a population centre since the 1669 eruption. The eruption started high on Etna's northeast flank on November 2. Then new eruptive fissures opened at ever lower elevation down the flank of the volcano. The third and most vigorous of these fissures opened late on 4 November at an unusually low elevation, approximately 1,200 m (3,937 ft) above sea-level, in a zone known as Ripe della Naca. The village of Mascali, lying down-slope of the Ripe della Naca, suffered obliteration in just two days, with the lava destroying nearly every building. Only a church and a few surrounding buildings survived in the north part of the village, called Sant'Antonino or "il quartiere". During the last days of the eruption, the flow interrupted the Messina-Catania railway line and destroyed the train station of Mascali. The event was used by Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime for propaganda purposes, with the evacuation, aid, and rebuilding operations being presented as models of fascist planning. Mascali was rebuilt on a new site, and its church contains the Italian fascist symbol of the torch, placed above the statue of Jesus Christ. In early November 2008, the town of Mascali commemorated the 80th anniversary of the eruption and destruction of the village with a number of public events where eyewitnesses shared their memories of the eruption.[citation needed]
Other major 20th-century eruptions occurred in 1949, 1971, 1981, 1983 and 1991–1993. In 1971, lava buried the Etna Observatory (built in the late 19th century), destroyed the first generation of the Etna cable-car, and seriously threatened several small villages on Etna's east flank. In March 1981, the town of Randazzo on the northwestern flank of Etna narrowly escaped destruction by unusually fast-moving lava flows. That eruption was remarkably similar to one in 1928 that destroyed Mascali. The 1991–1993 eruption saw the town of Zafferana threatened by a lava flow, but successful diversion efforts saved the town with the loss of only one building a few hundred metres from the town's margin. Initially, such efforts consisted of the construction of earth barriers built perpendicularly to the flow direction; it was hoped that the eruption would stop before the artificial basins created behind the barriers would be completely filled. Instead, the eruption continued, and lava surmounted the barriers, heading directly toward Zafferana. Engineers then decided to use explosives near the source of the lava flow, to disrupt a very efficient lava tube system through which the lava travelled for up to 7 km (4 mi) without essentially losing heat and fluidity. The main explosion on 23 May 1992 destroyed the tube and forced the lava into a new artificial channel, far from Zafferana, and it would have taken months to re-establish a long lava tube. Shortly after the blasting, the rate of lava emission dropped, and during the remainder of the eruption (until 30 March 1993) the lava never advanced close to the town again.[16]
Following six years (1995–2001) of unusually intense activity at the four summit craters of Etna, the volcano produced its first flank eruption since 1991–1993 in July–August 2001. This eruption, which involved activity from seven distinct eruptive fissures mostly on the south slope of the volcano, was a mass-media eruption, because it occurred at the height of the tourist season and numerous reporters and journalists were already in Italy to cover the G8 summit in Genoa. It also occurred close to one of the tourist areas on the volcano, and thus was easily accessible. Part of the "Etna Sud" tourist area, including the arrival station of the Etna cable car, were damaged by this eruption, which otherwise was a rather modest-sized event by Etna standards.
In 2002–2003, a much larger eruption threw up a huge column of ash that could easily be seen from space and fell as far away as Libya, 600 km (370 mi) south across the Mediterranean Sea. Seismic activity in this eruption caused the eastern flanks of the volcano to slip by up to two metres, and many houses on the flanks of the volcano experienced structural damage. The eruption also completely destroyed the tourist station Piano Provenzana, on the northeastern flank of the volcano, and part of the tourist station "Etna Sud" around the Rifugio Sapienza on the south flank. Footage from the eruptions was recorded by Lucasfilm and integrated into the landscape of the planet Mustafar in the 2005 film Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith.[17] The Rifugio Sapienza is near the site of a cable car station which had previously been destroyed in the 1983 eruption; it has now been rebuilt. Following a rather silent, slow and non-destructive lava outflow on the upper southeastern flank between September 2004 and March 2005, intense eruptions occurred at the Southeast Crater in July–December 2006. These were followed by four episodes of lava fountaining, again at the Southeast Crater, on 29 March, 11 April, 29 April and 7 May 2007. Ash emissions and Strombolian explosions started from a vent on the eastern side of the Southeast Crater in mid-August 2007.
On 4 September 2007 a spectacular episode of lava fountaining occurred from the new vent on the east side of the Southeast Crater, also producing a plume of ash and scoriae which fell over the east flank of the volcano. A lava flow travelled about 4.5 km (2.8 mi) into the uninhabited Valle del Bove. This eruption was visible far into the plains of Sicily, ending the following morning between the hours of 5 to 7 am local time. Catania-Fontanarossa Airport shut down operations during the night for safety precautions.[verification needed]
An eruption on the morning of 13 May 2008, immediately to the east of Etna's summit craters was accompanied by a swarm of more than 200 earthquakes and significant ground deformation in the summit area. The eruption continued at a slowly diminishing rate for 417 days, until 6 July 2009, making this the longest flank eruption of Etna since the 1991–1993 eruption that lasted 473 days. Previous eruptions, in 2001, 2002–2003, and 2004–2005 had lasted 3 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months, respectively. Lava flows advanced 6.5 km during the first few days of this eruption but thereafter stagnated at much minor distances from the vents; during the last months of the eruption lava rarely advanced more than 1 km downslope.
Through January 2011 to February 2012, the summit craters of Etna were the site of intense activity. Frequent eruptions and ash columns forced the authorities to shut down the Catania airport on several occasions. [18][19][20][21][22][23] The July 2011 episode also endangered the Sapienza Refuge, the main tourist hub on the volcano, but the lava flow was successfully diverted.[24]
In 2012 and 2013, activity subsided to more moderate levels, with regular but contained eruptions at Southeast Crater and Bocca Nuova.
Smoke rings[edit]
In the 1970s Etna erupted smoke rings,[25] one of the first captured events of this type, which are extremely rare. This happened again in 2000.[26] Video footage of the 8 June 2000 event was captured by a naturalist filmmaker Geoff Mackley.,[27][28] Another event occurred on 11 April 2013.[29]
Facilities[edit]



 Sapienza Refuge, the main tourist hub.
Etna is one of Sicily's main tourist attractions, with thousands of visitors every year.[30] The most common route is through the road leading to Sapienza Refuge, lying at the south of the crater at elevation of 1910 m. It hosts a large parking, several bars, a hotel, and is a starting point for the cable car.[31] From the Refuge, a cableway runs uphill to the elevation of 2500 m; from there, visitors can take a drive with special terrain vehicles, or take a long walk to the designated crater area at 2920 m.[32]
Ferrovia Circumetnea – Round-Etna railway – is a narrow-gauge railway constructed between 1889 and 1895. It runs around the volcano in a 110-km long semi-circle starting in Catania and ending in Riposto 28 km north of Catania.
There are two ski resorts on Etna: one at the Sapienza Refuge, with a chairlift and three ski lifts, and a smaller one on the north, at Piano Provenzana, with three lifts and a chairlift.[33]
See also[edit]
List of volcanoes in Italy
Volcanic Seven Summits
Genista aetnensis, the Mount Etna broom
Footnotes[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b The elevation varies with volcanic activity. It is frequently given as 3,350 m (10,990 ft), but many sources that support this concede that it is approximate. The coordinates given, which are consistent with SRTM data, are from a 2005 GPS survey. The elevation data are based on a LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) survey carried out in June 2007, see Neri, M.; et al. (2008), "The changing face of Mount Etna's summit area documented with Lidar technology", Geophysical Research Letters 35: L09305, Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3509305N, doi:10.1029/2008GL033740
2.Jump up ^ "Italy volcanoes and Volcanics". USGS.
3.Jump up ^ Aelian, Hist. An. xi. 3, referenced under Aetnaeus in William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
4.Jump up ^ "Decade Volcanoes". United States Geological Survey.
5.Jump up ^ Mount Etna Becomes a World Heritage Site, Italy Magazine, 4 May 2013
6.Jump up ^ "Volcano – Podictionary Word of the Day". Blog.oup.com. 2010-04-29. Retrieved 2011-06-02.
7.Jump up ^ "Woodhouse's English-Greek Dictionary Page Image". Artflx.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2011-06-02.
8.Jump up ^ Chevedden, Paul E. (2010), "A Crusade from the First: The Norman Conquest of Islamic Sicily, 1060-1091", Al-Masaq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean 22 (2), doi:10.1080/09503110.2010.488891
9.Jump up ^ ‹See Tfd›(Italian) "Note di toponomastica". Archived from the original on 2009-03-27. Retrieved 2011-08-20.
10.Jump up ^ Martin-Schutz, Alicia. "Mt. Etna".
11.Jump up ^ Pareschi, M. T.; Boschi, E. & Favalli, M. (2007), "Holocene tsunamis from Mount Etna and the fate of Israeli Neolithic communities", Geophysical Research Letters 34: L16317, Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3416317P, doi:10.1029/2007GL030717
12.Jump up ^ Aeneid, edition of Theodore C. Williams, ca. 1908 [book III, lines 569–579]
13.Jump up ^ Coltelli, M.; Del Carlo, P. & Vezzoli, L. (1998), "Discovery of a Plinian basaltic eruption of Roman age at Etna Volcano, Italy", Geology 26 (12): 1095–1098, Bibcode:1998Geo....26.1095C, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<1095:DOAPBE>2.3.CO;2
14.Jump up ^ "Mount Etna (volcano, Italy)". (the Encyclopædia Britannica has been wrongly cited as one source of this false information).
15.Jump up ^ "Etna and Man". Boris.vulcanoetna.it. Retrieved 2011-06-02.
16.Jump up ^ Barberi, F.; Carapezza, M. L.; Valenza, M.; Villari, L. (1993), "The control of lava flow during the 1991–1992 eruption of Mt. Etna", Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 56 (1–2): 1–34, Bibcode:1993JVGR...56....1B, doi:10.1016/0377-0273(93)90048-V
17.Jump up ^ "press_text_booklet.indd" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-06-02.
18.Jump up ^ Italy's Mt Etna erupts | WORLD News
19.Jump up ^ Ken Kremer (15 January 2011). "Spectacular Eruptions of Mt. Etna in Sicily from Space and Earth". Universetoday.com. Retrieved 2011-06-02.
20.Jump up ^ There she blows! Stunning images of Mount Etna eruption, Mirror, 9 February 2012
21.Jump up ^ Eruption of Mt. Etna closes airport in Catania, Agi.it, 23 Octobar 2011
22.Jump up ^ "INGV - Etna Observatory". Ct.ingv.it. Retrieved 2011-06-02.
23.Jump up ^ "BBC News - Footage shows Mount Etna spewing lava and ash". Bbc.co.uk. 2011-05-12. Retrieved 2011-06-02.
24.Jump up ^ Airport closed as Etna blows on, Daily Mail, 3 April 2013
25.Jump up ^ http://www.stromboli.net/etna/etna00/etna0002photovideo-en.html Smoke rings generated by eruptions of Etna volcano
26.Jump up ^ "Etna hoops it up". BBC News. 2000-03-31. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
27.Jump up ^ "Erupting Mt. Etna coughs up a smoke ring". WJLA (ABC) Storm Watch 7. 2011-08-16. Retrieved 2013-04-15.
28.Jump up ^ Geoff, Mackley. "Mt Etna - Sicily, Italy - the greatest show on earth !". Geoff Mackley. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
29.Jump up ^ "Mount Etna blows smoke rings during volcanic eruptions". NBC News. 2013-04-12. Retrieved 2013-04-15.
30.Jump up ^ Etna National Park, Italy, National Geographic Travel
31.Jump up ^ Rifugio Sapienza: who we are
32.Jump up ^ Funivia dell'Etna, Lonely Planet
33.Jump up ^ Skiing Mount Etna: Hit the slopes one day, sail the next, Telegraph, 12 March 2010
References[edit]
"Etna". Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-12-25.
Chester, D. K.; Duncan, A. M., Guest, J. E., and Kilburn, C. R. J. (1985). Mount Etna: The Anatomy of a Volcano. Chapman and Hall. pp. 412 pp. ISBN 0-8047-1308-1.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Etna.
Where Etna is monitored: Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Catania
Exhaustive coverage of Mt. Etna geology and history[dead link]
Mount Etna Live Webcams
Etna and man

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Categories: Mountains of Sicily
Volcanoes of the Mediterranean
World Heritage Sites in Italy
Volcanoes of Italy
Stratovolcanoes
Decade Volcanoes
Pleistocene volcanoes
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Locations in Greek mythology
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Wine regions of Italy
17th-century volcanic events
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Grindelwald

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Grindelwald (disambiguation).

Grindelwald

Grindelwald - Grindelwald and Wetterhorn
Grindelwald and Wetterhorn

Country
Switzerland Coat of Arms of Grindelwald
Canton
Bern
District
Interlaken-Oberhasli
46°37′N 8°02′ECoordinates: 46°37′N 8°02′E

Population
3,761 (Dec 2012)[1]
- Density
22 /km2 (57 /sq mi)
Area
171.08 km2 (66.05 sq mi)[2]
Elevation
1,034 m (3,392 ft)
Postal code
3818
SFOS number
0576
Mayor
Emanuel Schläppi
Localities
Alpiglen, Burglauenen, Grund, Itramen, Mühlebach, Schwendi, Tschingelberg, Wargistal
Surrounded by
Brienz, Brienzwiler, Fieschertal (VS), Guttannen, Innertkirchen, Iseltwald, Lauterbrunnen, Lütschental, Meiringen, Schattenhalb
Twin towns
Azumi, now Matsumoto (Japan)
Website
www.grindelwald.com
SFSO statistics


Grindelwald is located in Switzerland

Grindelwald


Location of Grindelwald[show]

Karte Gemeinde Grindelwald 2010.png

Grindelwald is a village and municipality in the Interlaken-Oberhasli administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. Besides the village of Grindelwald, the municipality also includes the settlements of Alpiglen, Burglauenen, Grund, Itramen, Mühlebach, Schwendi, Tschingelberg and Wargistal.
Grindelwald village is located at 1,034 m (3,392 ft) above sea level in the Bernese Alps.

Contents
  [hide] 1 History
2 Geography
3 Coat of arms
4 Demographics
5 Heritage sites of national significance
6 Politics
7 Economy
8 Religion
9 Climate
10 Transport
11 Winter sports
12 In the media
13 Education
14 Famous residents
15 See also
16 References
17 External links
History[edit]



Photochrom of Grindelwald between 1890 and 1905.
Grindelwald is first mentioned in 1146 as Grindelwalt.[3]
The oldest trace of a settlement in the area are scattered neolithic tools which have been discovered around Grindelwald village. Several Roman era coins have also been found in the municipality. A castle was built on the Burgbühl hill above the village during the High Middle Ages.[3]
In 1146 King Conrad III, granted estates in Grindelwald to Interlaken Abbey. In the late 12th century, the barons of the alpine valleys in what became the Berner Oberland went to war against the expansionist Duke Berthold V of Zähringen. The Duke defeated a coalition of nobles in the Grindlewald valley in 1191. His victory allowed him to expand Zähringen power into the Oberland, to expand the city of Thun and found the city of Bern. Beginning in the 13th century, Interlaken Abbey began to purchase rights and land in Grindelwald and eventually forced the local nobles out of the valley. The Abbey continued to exert influence in the village and in 1315 and again in 1332 ordered the villagers to raid Unterwalden to further the political ambitions of the Abbot's patrons. In response to the raids, in 1342, Unterwalden attacked Grindelwald. A few years later, in 1348-49, the villagers joined in an unsuccessful rebellion against ecclesiastical power. In 1528 the city of Bern adopted the Protestant Reformation and proceeded to spread the new faith in Grindelwald against the populations' wishes. Bern was able to impose its will, converted the village and secularized Interlaken Abbey and the Abbey's lands. Grindelwald became part of the bailiwick of Interlaken, under a Bernese bailiff.[3]
The first village church was a wooden building from the mid 12th century. The wooden building was replaced with the stone St. Mary's Church in 1180. This church was replaced in the 16th century and the present church was built in 1793.[3]
The tourism industry began in Grindelwald in the late 18th century as foreigners discovered the scenic town. Pictures of the vistas were widely reprinted, quickly making the village internationally famous. In the 19th century many Englishmen came to the village to climb the alpine peaks around the valley. The Finsteraarhorn (4,274 m [14,022 ft]), the Wetterhorn (3,692 m [12,113 ft]), the Eiger (3,970 m [13,020 ft]), the Schreckhorn (4,078 m [13,379 ft]) and the Gross Fiescherhorn (4,049 m [13,284 ft]) were all climbed during the 19th century. The Grindelwald road was built in 1860-72 and the Bernese Oberland railway reached the village in 1890, both of which transformed an arduous journey into a simple trip and allowed tourists to flood into the village. The first resort opened in 1888 and there were 10 hotels in 1889 and by 1914 there were 33 in Grindelwald. A rack railway was built to Kleine Scheidegg in 1893 and it was expanded to the Jungfraujoch in 1912. Numerous ski lifts, cable cars, hiking trails and alpine huts were built in the late 19th and 20th centuries to allow tourists to explore the mountains. Today, almost the entire economy of Grindelwald is based on tourism.[3]
Geography[edit]



 Grindelwald area from above
Grindelwald has an area of 171.08 km2 (66.05 sq mi).[2] Of this area, 49.47 km2 (19.10 sq mi) or 28.9% is used for agricultural purposes, while 28.02 km2 (10.82 sq mi) or 16.4% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 3.06 km2 (1.18 sq mi) or 1.8% is settled (buildings or roads), 1.37 km2 (0.53 sq mi) or 0.8% is either rivers or lakes and 89.21 km2 (34.44 sq mi) or 52.1% is unproductive land.[4]
Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 1.0% and transportation infrastructure made up 0.6%. Out of the forested land, 12.9% of the total land area is heavily forested and 2.3% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 5.1% is pastures and 23.8% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water. Of the unproductive areas, 6.6% is unproductive vegetation, 24.0% is too rocky for vegetation and 21.6% of the land is covered by glaciers.[4]
The municipality is quite large and is divided into seven mountain communities. However the municipality is dominated by the large tourist center of Grindelwald.
On 31 December 2009 Amtsbezirk Interlaken, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Interlaken-Oberhasli.[5]
Coat of arms[edit]
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Gules on a Bar Argent a Semi Chamois rampant issuant Sable between seven, 4-3, Mullets of the second.[6]
Demographics[edit]



Alphorn Festival in Grindelwald area


 New houses with buried garages in Grindelwald.
Grindelwald has a population (as of December 2012) of 3,761.[1] As of 2010, 18.0% of the population are resident foreign nationals.[7] Over the last 10 years (2000-2010) the population has changed at a rate of -1.3%. Migration accounted for 0.2%, while births and deaths accounted for -1.7%.[8]
Most of the population (as of 2000) speaks German (3,531 or 86.8%) as their first language, Portuguese is the second most common (183 or 4.5%) and French is the third (69 or 1.7%). There are 60 people who speak Italian and 4 people who speak Romansh.[9]
As of 2008, the population was 50.1% male and 49.9% female. The population was made up of 1,556 Swiss men (40.9% of the population) and 354 (9.3%) non-Swiss men. There were 1,568 Swiss women (41.2%) and 331 (8.7%) non-Swiss women.[7] Of the population in the municipality, 1,846 or about 45.4% were born in Grindelwald and lived there in 2000. There were 847 or 20.8% who were born in the same canton, while 510 or 12.5% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 679 or 16.7% were born outside of Switzerland.[9]
As of 2010, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 17.5% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 62.5% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 20%.[8]
As of 2000, there were 1,750 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 1,971 married individuals, 221 widows or widowers and 127 individuals who are divorced.[9]
As of 2000, there were 679 households that consist of only one person and 82 households with five or more people. In 2000, a total of 1,581 apartments (44.9% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 1,750 apartments (49.6%) were seasonally occupied and 194 apartments (5.5%) were empty.[10] As of 2010, the construction rate of new housing units was 13.1 new units per 1000 residents.[8]
The historical population is given in the following chart:[3][11]
Heritage sites of national significance[edit]
The Jungfraubahn, a mountain railway up the Jungfrau mountain, is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance. The land around the Kleine Scheidegg is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.[12]



Jungfraubahn Mountain Railway



Kleine Scheidegg

Politics[edit]
In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the Swiss People's Party (SVP) which received 54.2% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP) (14.8%), the FDP.The Liberals (8.8%) and the Green Party (6.9%). In the federal election, a total of 1,194 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 44.4%.[13]
Economy[edit]



 Hotels in Grindelwald. The local economy is mostly dependent on tourism.
As of 2011, Grindelwald had an unemployment rate of 1.48%. As of 2008, there were a total of 2,714 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 334 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 130 businesses involved in this sector. 393 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 51 businesses in this sector. 1,987 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 229 businesses in this sector.[8] There were 2,403 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 45.4% of the workforce.
In 2008 there were a total of 2,265 full-time equivalent jobs. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 165, of which 159 were in agriculture and 7 were in forestry or lumber production. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 365 of which 42 or (11.5%) were in manufacturing, 6 or (1.6%) were in mining and 292 (80.0%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 1,735. In the tertiary sector; 241 or 13.9% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 193 or 11.1% were in the movement and storage of goods, 1,022 or 58.9% were in a hotel or restaurant, 27 or 1.6% were the insurance or financial industry, 45 or 2.6% were technical professionals or scientists, 46 or 2.7% were in education and 58 or 3.3% were in health care.[14]
In 2000, there were 432 workers who commuted into the municipality and 265 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.6 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving.[15] Of the working population, 9.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 36.2% used a private car.[8]
Religion[edit]
From the 2000 census, 690 or 17.0% were Roman Catholic, while 2,874 or 70.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 31 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.76% of the population), there were 2 individuals (or about 0.05% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 105 individuals (or about 2.58% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There was 1 individual who was Jewish, and 32 (or about 0.79% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 14 individuals who were Buddhist and 1 individual who belonged to another church. 144 (or about 3.54% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 227 individuals (or about 5.58% of the population) did not answer the question.[9]
Climate[edit]
Between 1981 and 2010 Grindelwald had an average of 145.4 days of rain or snow per year and on average received 1,450 mm (57 in) of precipitation. The wettest month was August during which time Grindelwald received an average of 165 mm (6.5 in) of rain or snow. During this month there was precipitation for an average of 14.4 days. The month with the most days of precipitation was June, with an average of 14.8, but with only 151 mm (5.9 in) of rain or snow. The driest month of the year was February with an average of 89 mm (3.5 in) of precipitation over 9.7 days.[16]
Transport[edit]



 Grindelwald railway station
Grindelwald railway station, in the centre of Grindelwald village, is served by trains of the Berner Oberland Bahn (BOB), which run to Interlaken, and by trains of the Wengernalpbahn (WAB), which run to Kleine Scheidegg and on to Wengen and Lauterbrunnen. At Kleine Scheidegg connection can be made with the Jungfraubahn, which ascends inside the Eiger to the Jungfraujoch.[17]
Besides Grindelwald station, there are five other railway stations within the municipality of Grindelwald. These are Burglauenen and Schwendi on the BOB, and Grindelwald Grund, Brandegg and Alpiglen on the WAB.[17]
The Gondelbahn Grindelwald-Männlichen connects Grindelwald with the Männlichen and with onward travel on the Luftseilbahn Wengen-Männlichen offers an alternative route to Wengen.
The minor summit of First is accessible by ski lift from Grindelwald.
Winter sports[edit]
Long famed as a winter tourist destination with slopes for beginners, intermediates and the challenges of the Eiger glacier for the experienced, there are activities for the non-skiers, from tobogganing to groomed winter hiking tracks. It is the usual starting point for ascents of the Eiger and the Wetterhorn. Nowadays Grindelwald is also a popular summer activity resort with many miles of hiking trails across the Alps.
In the media[edit]
Many scenes of the documentary film The Alps were shot in the region of Grindelwald, particularly on the north face of the Eiger. The James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service includes a chase through a skating rink and Christmas festival in Grindelwald.[18] Grindelwald's mountains were used as the basis for the view of Alderaan in Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith.[19]
The Clint Eastwood film "The Eiger Sanction" was shot in Grindelwald and Kleine Scheidegg.
Some of the action scenes in The Golden Compass were also shot in Grindelwald.[20]
Grindelwald appears as a race course in Gran Turismo 2.
Grindelwald is also used as a character name for Gellert Grindelwald in the Harry Potter series.
In the eight leg of "The Amazing Race 3" season three, a roadblock destination and a pit stop was located in Grindelwald. In "The Amazing Race 22", (also leg eight) Grindelwald were the location of a roadblock, a switchback and a pitstop.
Education[edit]
In Grindelwald about 1,647 or (40.5%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 302 or (7.4%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 302 who completed tertiary schooling, 57.9% were Swiss men, 24.5% were Swiss women, 9.3% were non-Swiss men and 8.3% were non-Swiss women.[9]
The Canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend additional schooling or they may enter an apprenticeship.[21]
During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 341 students attending classes in Grindelwald. There were 3 kindergarten classes with a total of 55 students in the municipality. Of the kindergarten students, 27.3% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 20.0% have a different mother language than the classroom language. The municipality had 12 primary classes and 187 students. Of the primary students, 15.0% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 12.8% have a different mother language than the classroom language. During the same year, there were 6 lower secondary classes with a total of 99 students. There were 8.1% who were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 5.1% have a different mother language than the classroom language.[22]
As of 2000, there were 20 students in Grindelwald who came from another municipality, while 39 residents attended schools outside the municipality.[15]
Grindelwald is home to the Bibliothek Grindelwald library. The library has (as of 2008) 6,144 books or other media, and loaned out 10,777 items in the same year. It was open a total of 136 days with average of 6.5 hours per week during that year.[23]
Famous residents[edit]
Richard Wagner
Martina Schild, alpine skier, runner-up in the 2006 Winter Olympics women's downhill race
Hedy Schlunegger, Olympic champion 1948 in downhill skiing
Oleg Protopopov and Ludmila Belousova, 1964 and 1968 Olympic figure skating champions
See also[edit]
Swiss Alps
References[edit]
1.^ Jump up to: a b Swiss Federal Statistical Office - STAT-TAB, online database – Datenwürfel für Thema 01.2 - Bevölkerungsstand und -bewegung ‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 29 August 2013
2.^ Jump up to: a b Arealstatistik Standard - Gemeindedaten nach 4 Hauptbereichen
3.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Grindelwald in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
4.^ Jump up to: a b Swiss Federal Statistical Office-Land Use Statistics 2009 data ‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 25 March 2010
5.Jump up ^ Nomenklaturen – Amtliches Gemeindeverzeichnis der Schweiz ‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 4 April 2011
6.Jump up ^ Flags of the World.com accessed 18-March-2013
7.^ Jump up to: a b Statistical office of the Canton of Bern ‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 4 January 2012
8.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Swiss Federal Statistical Office accessed 18 March 2013
9.^ Jump up to: a b c d e STAT-TAB Datenwürfel für Thema 40.3 - 2000 ‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 2 February 2011
10.Jump up ^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office STAT-TAB - Datenwürfel für Thema 09.2 - Gebäude und Wohnungen ‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 28 January 2011
11.Jump up ^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office STAT-TAB Bevölkerungsentwicklung nach Region, 1850-2000 ‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 29 January 2011
12.Jump up ^ "Kantonsliste A-Objekte". KGS Inventar (in German). Federal Office of Civil Protection. 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
13.Jump up ^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office 2011 Election ‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 8 May 2012
14.Jump up ^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office STAT-TAB Betriebszählung: Arbeitsstätten nach Gemeinde und NOGA 2008 (Abschnitte), Sektoren 1-3 ‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 28 January 2011
15.^ Jump up to: a b Swiss Federal Statistical Office - Statweb ‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 24 June 2010
16.Jump up ^ "Norm Values Tables, 1981-2010" (in German, French, Italian). Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology - MeteoSwiss. Retrieved 22 January 2013., the Grindelwald weather station elevation is 1158 meters above sea level.
17.^ Jump up to: a b Swiss Confederation. map.geo.admin.ch (Map). Retrieved 2013-01-28.
18.Jump up ^ IMDB-On Her Majesty's Secret Service
19.Jump up ^ IMDB-Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith
20.Jump up ^ IMDB-The Golden Compass
21.Jump up ^ EDK/CDIP/IDES (2010). Kantonale Schulstrukturen in der Schweiz und im Fürstentum Liechtenstein / Structures Scolaires Cantonales en Suisse et Dans la Principauté du Liechtenstein (Report). Retrieved 24 June 2010.
22.Jump up ^ Schuljahr 2010/11 pdf document‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 4 January 2012
23.Jump up ^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office, list of libraries ‹See Tfd›(German) accessed 14 May 2010
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Grindelwald.
Grindelwald official website
Webcams
Grindelwald in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.

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Categories: Municipalities of the canton of Bern
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Villa del Balbianello

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Jump to: navigation, search



 The Villa del Balbianello
The Villa del Balbianello is a villa in the comune of Lenno (province of Como), Italy, overlooking Lake Como. It is located on the tip of a small wooded peninsula on the western shore of the south-west branch of Lake Como, not far from the Isola Comacina and is famous for its elaborate terraced gardens.
History[edit]
The villa was built in 1787 on the site of a Franciscan monastery for the Cardinal Angelo Maria Durini. The two towers which can be seen in the picture are the campanili of the convent church. After the cardinal’s death in 1796 Giuseppe Arconati Visconti bought the villa and made improvements to its gardens and the loggia.
In the nineteenth century the villa belonged to the Porro-Lambertenghi family. The writer and patriot Silvio Pellico was a visitor in 1819.
By the early twentieth century the buildings had fallen into a state of neglect when an American businessman, Butler Ames, purchased and renovated the villa and its garden. In 1974 it was bought by the explorer Guido Monzino (leader of the first Italian expedition to climb Mount Everest), who filled it with rich collections, including artifacts acquired on his expeditions. Monzino, who died in 1988, left the villa to the Fondo per l'Ambiente Italiano, the National Trust of Italy. Its grounds now form part of the Grandi Giardini Italiani.
Film appearances[edit]
A number of feature films have used the villa for location shooting, including A Month by the Lake (1995), Star Wars: Episode II Attack of the Clones (2002), and Casino Royale (2006).
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Villa Balbianello (Lenno).
Villa del Balbianello at the Italian National Trust ‹See Tfd›(English)

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Lake Como (Lago di Como, Lario)


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Coordinates: 45°57′54″N 9°12′09″E
 

Categories: 1787 establishments
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Fondo per l'Ambiente Italiano


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