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The Coral Island
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For the geographical feature, see coral island.
The Coral Island
Coral Island 1893.jpg
Title page, illustrated 1893 edition of The Coral Island

Author
R. M. Ballantyne
Language
English
Genre
Adventure novel
Publisher
T. Nelson & Sons

Publication date
 1858
Media type
Print (Hardback & paperback)
Text
The Coral Island at Wikisource
The Coral Island: A Tale of the Pacific Ocean (1858) is a novel written by Scottish author R. M. Ballantyne. One of the first works of juvenile fiction to feature exclusively juvenile heroes, the story relates the adventures of three boys marooned on a South Pacific island, the only survivors of a shipwreck.
A typical Robinsonade – a genre of fiction inspired by Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe – and one of the most popular of its type, the book first went on sale in late 1857 and has never been out of print. Among the novel's major themes are the civilising effect of Christianity, 19th-century British imperialism in the South Pacific, and the importance of hierarchy and leadership. It was the inspiration for William Golding's dystopian novel Lord of the Flies (1954), which inverted the morality of The Coral Island; in Ballantyne's story the children encounter evil, but in Lord of the Flies evil is within them.
The novel was considered a classic for elementary-school children of the early 20th century in Britain, and in the United States it was a staple of suggested reading lists for high-school students. Modern critics consider The Coral Island to feature a dated imperialist view of the world, but although it is less popular today than it once was, it was adapted into a four-part children's television drama broadcast by ITV in 2000.


Contents  [hide]
1 Background 1.1 Biographical background and publication
1.2 Literary and historical context
2 Plot summary
3 Genre and style
4 Themes
5 Critical reception
6 Influence
7 Adaptations
8 References
9 External links

Background[edit]
Biographical background and publication[edit]
Born in Edinburgh in 1825, Ballantyne was the ninth of ten children and the youngest son. He was tutored by his mother and sisters; his only formal education was a brief period at Edinburgh Academy in 1835–37. At the age of 16 he travelled to Canada, where he spent five years working for the Hudson's Bay Company, trading with the native Americans for furs.[1] He returned to Scotland in 1847 and for some years worked for the publisher Messrs Constable,[2] first as a clerk[1] and then as a partner in the business.[3] During his time in Canada he had helped to pass the time by writing long letters to his mother – to which he attributed "whatever small amount of facility in composition [he] may have acquired"[4] – and began his first book.[5] Ballantyne's Canadian experiences formed the basis of his first novel, The Young Fur Traders, published in 1856,[1] the year he decided to become a full-time writer and embarked on the adventure stories for the young with which his name is popularly associated.[2]
Ballantyne never visited the coral islands of the South Pacific, relying instead on the accounts of others that were then beginning to emerge in Britain, which he exaggerated for theatrical effect by including "plenty of gore and violence meant to titillate his juvenile readership".[6] His ignorance of the South Pacific caused him to erroneously describe coconuts as being soft and easily opened; a stickler for accuracy he resolved that in future, whenever possible, he would write only about things he had personal experience of.[7] Ballantyne wrote The Coral Island while staying in a house on the Burntisland seafront opposite Edinburgh on the Firth of Forth in Fife. According to Ballantyne biographer Eric Quayle he borrowed extensively from an 1852 novel by the American author James F. Bowman, The Island Home.[8] He also borrowed from John Williams' Narrative of Missionary Enterprises (1837), to the extent that cultural historian Rod Edmond has suggested that Ballantyne must have written one chapter of The Coral Island with Williams' book open in front of him, so similar is the text.[9] Edmond describes the novel as "a fruit cocktail of other writing about the Pacific",[10] adding that "by modern standards Ballantyne's plagiarism in The Coral Island is startling".[11]
Although the first edition is dated 1858 it was on sale in bookshops from early December 1857; dating books forward was a common practice at the time, especially during the Christmas period,[12] to "preserve their newness" into the new year.[13] The Coral Island is Ballantyne's second novel,[14][a] and has never been out of print.[15] He was an exceedingly prolific author who wrote more than 100 books in his 40-year career.[16] According to professor and author John Rennie Short, Ballantyne had a "deep religious conviction", and felt it his duty to educate Victorian middle-class boys – his target audience – in "codes of honour, decency, and religiosity".[17]
The first edition of The Coral Island was published by T. Nelson & Sons, who in common with many other publishers of the time had a policy when accepting a manuscript of buying the copyright from the author rather than paying royalties; as a result, authors generally did not receive any income from the sale of subsequent editions.[18][b] Ballantyne received between £50 and £60,[20] equivalent to about £5800 as of 2012,[c] but when the novel's popularity became evident and the number of editions increased he tried unsuccessfully to buy back the copyright. He wrote bitterly to Nelsons in 1893 about the copyrights they held on his books while he had earned nothing: "for thirty-eight years [you have] reaped the whole profits".[22]
The Coral Island – still considered a classic – was republished by Penguin Books in 1995, in their Popular Classics series.[8]
Literary and historical context[edit]
Published during the "first golden age of children's fiction",[12] The Coral Island began a trend in boys' fiction by using boys as the main characters, a device now commonplace in the genre.[23] It preserves, according to literary critic Minnie Singh, the moralizing aspects of didactic texts, but does so (and in this regard it is a "founding text") by the "congruence of subject and implied reader": the story is about boys and written retrospectively as though by a boy, for an audience of boys.[23]
According to literary critic Frank Kermode, The Coral Island "could be used as a document in the history of ideas".[24] A scientific and social background for the novel is found in Darwinism, of the natural and the social kind. For instance, Charles Darwin's 1842 The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs was one of the best-known contemporary accounts of the growth of coral.[25] Published a year before Darwin's Origin of Species (whose ideas were already being circulated and discussed widely), The Coral Island reflects the then prevalent view of evolutionary theory; the Victorian age based its imperialist ideology in part on the idea that evolution had resulted in "white, English superiority that was anchored in the notion of a civilized nation elected by God to rule inferior peoples."[12] Ballantyne had been reading books by Darwin and by his rival Alfred Russel Wallace;[12] in later publications he also acknowledged the naturalist Henry Ogg Forbes.[26] The interest in evolutionary theory was reflected in much contemporary popular literature,[27] and social Darwinism was an important factor contributing to the world view of the Victorians and their empire building.[28]
Plot summary[edit]
The story is written as a first person narrative from the perspective of 15-year-old Ralph Rover, one of three boys shipwrecked on the coral reef of a large but uninhabited Polynesian island. Ralph tells the story retrospectively, looking back on his boyhood adventure: "I was a boy when I went through the wonderful adventures herein set down. With the memory of my boyish feelings strong upon me, I present my book specially to boys, in the earnest hope that they may derive valuable information, much pleasure, great profit, and unbounded amusement from its pages."[29]

Black and white illustration

 Jack, Ralph and Peterkin after reaching the island, from an 1884 edition of the novel
The account starts briskly; only four pages are devoted to Ralph's early life and a further fourteen to his voyage to the Pacific Ocean on board the Arrow. He and his two companions – 18-year-old Jack Martin and 13-year-old Peterkin Gay – are the sole survivors of the shipwreck. The narrative is in two parts. The first describes how the boys feed themselves, what they drink, the clothing and shelter they fashion, and how they cope with having to rely on their own resources. The second half of the novel is more action-packed, featuring conflicts with pirates, fighting between the native Polynesians, and the conversion efforts of Christian missionaries.
Fruit, fish and wild pigs provide plentiful food, and at first the boys' life on the island is idyllic. They build a shelter and construct a small boat using their only possessions: a broken telescope, an iron-bound oar, and a small axe. Their first contact with other humans comes after several months when they observe two large outrigger canoes in the distance, one pursued by the other. The two groups of Polynesians disembark on the beach and engage in battle; the victors take fifteen prisoners, and kill and eat one immediately. But when they threaten to kill one of the three women captured, along with two children, the boys intervene to defeat the pursuers, earning them the gratitude of the chief, Tararo. The next morning they prevent another act of cannibalism. The natives leave, and the boys are alone once more.
More unwelcome visitors then arrive in the shape of British pirates, who make a living by trading or stealing sandalwood. The three boys hide in a cave, but Ralph is captured when he ventures out to see if the intruders have left, and is taken on board the pirate schooner. He strikes up a friendship with one of the crew, Bloody Bill, and when the ship calls at the island of Emo to trade for more wood Ralph experiences many facets of the island's culture: the popular sport of surfing, the sacrificing of babies to eel gods, rape, and cannibalism.

Black and white illustration

 Ralph and Bloody Bill making their escape on board the pirate schooner, from an 1884 edition of the novel
Rising tensions result in the inhabitants attacking the pirates, leaving only Ralph and Bloody Bill alive. The pair succeed in making their escape in the schooner, but Bill is mortally wounded. He makes a death-bed repentance for his evil life, leaving Ralph to sail back to the Coral Island alone, where he is reunited with his friends.
The three boys sail to the island of Mango, where a missionary has converted some of the population to Christianity. There they once again meet Tararo, whose daughter Avatea wishes to become a Christian against her father's wishes. The boys attempt to take Avatea in a small boat to a nearby island the chief of which has been converted, but en route they are overtaken by one of Tararo's war canoes and taken prisoner. They are released a month later after the arrival of another missionary, and Tararo's conversion to Christianity. The "false gods"[30] of Mango are consigned to the flames, and the boys set sail for home, older and wiser. They return as adults for another adventure in Ballantyne's 1861 novel The Gorilla Hunters, a sequel to The Coral Island.[31][32]
Genre and style[edit]
All Ballantyne's novels are, in his own words, "adventure stories for young folks", and The Coral Island is no exception.[17] It is a Robinsonade, a genre of fiction inspired by Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719),[33] one of the most popular of its type,[6] and one of the first works of juvenile fiction to feature exclusively juvenile heroes.[23][34] Susan Maher, professor of English, notes that in comparison to Robinson Crusoe such books generally replaced some of the original's romance with a "pedestrian realism", exemplified by works such as The Coral Island and Frederick Marryat's 1841 novel Masterman Ready, or the Wreck of the Pacific.[35] Romance, with its attention to character development, was only restored to the genre of boys' fiction with Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island argues literary critic Lisa Honaker. The Coral Island, for all its adventure, is greatly occupied with the realism of domestic fiction (the domain of the realist novel); Ballantyne devotes about a third of the book to descriptions of the boys' living arrangements.[31] The book exhibits a "light-hearted confidence" in its description of an adventure that was above all fun.[36] As Ralph says in his preface: "If there is any boy or man who loves to be melancholy and morose, and who cannot enter with kindly sympathy into the regions of fun, let me seriously advise him to shut my book and put it away. It is not meant for him."[29] Professor of English M. Daphne Kutzer has observed that "the swift movement of the story from coastal England to exotic Pacific island is similar to the swift movement from the real world to the fantastic in children's fantasy".[37]
To a modern reader Ballantyne's books can seem overly concerned with accounts of flora and fauna,[38] an "ethnographic gloss" intended to suggest that their settings are real places offering adventures to those who can reach them.[37] They can also seem "obtrusively pious",[38] but according to John Rennie Short, the moral tone of Ballantyne's writing is compensated for by his ability to tell a "cracking good yarn in an accessible and well-fashioned prose style".[17]
Themes[edit]
The major themes of the novel revolve around the influence of Christianity, the importance of social hierarchies, and the inherent superiority of civilised Europeans over the South Sea islanders; Martine Dutheil, professor of English, considers the novel "a key text mapping out colonial relations in the Victorian period".[8] The basic subject of the novel is popular and widespread: "castaway children assuming adult responsibilities without adult supervision", and The Coral Island is considered the classic example of such a book.[39]



I saw that these inhuman monsters were actually launching their canoe over the living bodies of their victims. But there was no pity in the breasts of these men. Forward they went in ruthless indifference, shouting as they went, while high above their voices rang the dying shrieks of those wretched creatures as, one after another, the ponderous canoe passed over them, burst the eyeballs from their sockets, and sent the life-blood gushing from their mouths. Oh reader, this is no fiction! I would not, for the sake of thrilling you with horror, invent so terrible a scene. It was witnessed. It is true – true as that accursed sin which has rendered the human heart capable of such diabolical enormities![40]
“
”

The supposed civilising influence of missionaries in spreading Christianity among the natives of the South Seas is an important theme of the second half of the story;[16] as Jack remarks to Peterkin, "all the natives of the South Sea Islands are fierce cannibals, and they have little respect for strangers".[41] Modern critics view this aspect of the novel less benevolently; Jerry Phillips, in a 1995 article, sees in The Coral Island the "perfect realiz[ation]" of "the official discourse of 19th century Pacific imperialism", which he argues was "obsessed with the purity of God, Trade, and the Nation."[42]
The importance of hierarchy and leadership is also a significant element. The overarching hierarchy of race is informed by Victorian concepts, influenced by the new theories of evolution proposed by Darwin and others. In morals and culture, the natives are placed lower on the evolutionary ladder than are Europeans, as is evidenced in the battle over the native woman Avatea, which pits "the forces of civilization versus the forces of cannibalism".[43] Another hierarchy is seen in the organisation of the boys. Although Jack, Ralph and Peterkin each have a say in how they should organise themselves, ultimately the younger boys defer to Jack,[44] "a natural leader",[39] particularly in a crisis, forming a natural hierarchy. The pirates also have a hierarchy, but one without democracy, and as a consequence are wiped out. The hierarchy of the natives is imposed by savagery. Ballantyne's message is that leaders should be respected by those they lead, and govern with their consent.[44] This educational message is especially appropriate considering Ballantyne's adolescent audience, "the future rulers of the world".[35]
Modern critics find darker undertones in the novel. In an essay published in College English in 2001, Martine Dutheil states that The Coral Island can be thought of as epitomising a move away from "the confidence and optimism of the early Victorian proponents of British imperialism" toward "self-consciousness and anxiety about colonial domination". She locates this anxiety in what she calls the "rhetoric of excess" that features in the descriptions of cannibalism, and especially in the accounts of Fijian savagery provided by Bloody Bill (most notably that of the sacrifice of children to the eel gods) and the missionary, a representative of the London Missionary Society, an "emblematic figure of colonial fiction".[8] Others have also linked popular boys' fiction of the period with imperialism; Joseph Bristow's Empire Boys (1991) claimed to see an "'imperialist manhood,' which shaped British attitudes towards empire and masculinity."[45] The novel's portrayal of Pacific culture and the effects of colonisation are analyzed in studies such as Brian Street's The Savage in Literature: Representations of 'Primitive' Society in English Fiction (1975)[46] and Rod Edmond's Representing the South Pacific: Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin (1998).[47][48] The domination imposed by "geographical mapping of a territory and policing of its native inhabitants" is an important theme in the novel both specifically and in general, in the topography of the island as mapped by the boys and the South Pacific's "eventual subjugation and conversion to Christianity", a topic continued in Stevenson's Treasure Island.[49]
The exploration of the relationship between nature and evangelical Christianity is another typically Victorian theme. Coral connects the two ideas. Literary critic Katharine Anderson explains that coral jewellery, popular in the period, had a "pious significance".[d] The "enchanted garden" of coral the boys discover at the bottom of their island's lagoon is suggestive of "missionary encounters with the societies of the Pacific Island".[25] In Victorian society coral had been given an "evangelical framing", and the little "coral insect" responsible for building coral reefs[e] mirrored the "child reader's productive capacity as a fundraiser for the missionary cause"; literary critic Michelle Elleray discusses numerous children's books from the early to mid-19th century, including The Coral Island, in which coral plays such an educational role.[54]
The novel's setting provides the backdrop for a meditation in the style of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who promoted an educational setting in which lessons are provided by direct interactions with the natural world rather than by books and coercive teachers.[55] Singh points out that Rousseau, in Emile, or On Education, promotes the reading and even imitation of Robinson Crusoe;[23] literary critic Fiona McCulloch argues that the unmediated knowledge the boys gain on their coral island resembles the "direct language for children" Rousseau advocates in Emile.[12]
Critical reception[edit]
The Coral Island was an almost instant success, and was translated into almost every European language within fifty years of its publication.[56] It was widely admired by its contemporary readers, although modern critics view the text as featuring "dated colonialist themes and arguably racist undertones".[6] Ballantyne's blend of blood-thirsty adventure and pious imperialism appealed not just to his target juvenile audience but also to their parents and teachers.[57] He is today mainly remembered for The Coral Island, to the exclusion of much of his other work.[58]
The novel was still considered a classic for English elementary-school children in the early 20th century.[59] In the United States it was long a staple of suggested reading lists for high-school students; such a list, discussed in a 1915 article in The English Journal, recommends the novel in the category "Stories for Boys in Easy Style".[60] A simplified adaptation of the book was recommended in the 1950s for 12–14 year olds.[61][62] Although mostly neglected by modern scholars[26] and generally considered to be dated in many aspects, in 2006 it was voted one of the top twenty Scottish novels at the 15th International World Wide Web Conference.[63]
Influence[edit]
Robert Louis Stevenson's 1882 novel Treasure Island was in part inspired by The Coral Island,[64] which he admired for its "better qualities",[6] as was J. M. Barrie's character Peter Pan; both Stevenson and Barrie had been "fervent boy readers" of the novel.[65] Novelist G. A. Henty was also influenced by Ballantyne's audience-friendly method of didactism.[23]
William Golding's 1954 novel Lord of the Flies was written as a counterpoint to (or even a parody of)[66] The Coral Island,[67] and Golding makes explicit references to it. At the end of the novel, for instance, one of the naval officers who rescues the children mentions the book, commenting on the hunt for one of their number, Ralph, as a "jolly good show. Like the Coral Island".[68] Jack also makes an appearance in The Lord of the Flies as Jack Merridew, representing the irrational nature of the boys. Indeed, Golding's three central characters – Ralph, Piggy and Jack – are caricatures of Ballantyne's heroes.[23] Despite having enjoyed The Coral Island many times as a child, Golding strongly disagreed with the views that it espoused, and in contrast Lord of the Flies depicts the English boys as savages themselves,[67] who forget more than they learn, unlike Ballantyne's boys.[16] Golding described the relationship between the two books by saying that The Coral Island "rotted to compost" in his mind, and in the compost "a new myth put down roots".[67] Neither is the idyllic nature of Ballantyne's coral island to be found on Stevenson's treasure island, which is unsuitable for settlement "but exists merely as a site from which to excavate treasure, a view consistent with the late-Victorian imperial mission" according to Honaker.[31]
Adaptations[edit]
The Coral Island was adapted into a children's television series in a joint venture between Thames Television and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation in 1980, first shown on British television in 1983.[69] It was also adapted into a four-part children's television drama by Zenith Productions, broadcast by ITV in 2000.[70]
References[edit]
Notes
a.Jump up ^ The Coral Island is Ballantyne's third book, but his first, Hudson's Bay; or, Every-day Life in the Wilds of North America (1848) is a work of non-fiction.[14]
b.Jump up ^ It was not until the 1880s that the modern system of paying authors an agreed percentage of the retail price of every book sold became commonplace in Britain.[19]
c.Jump up ^ Calculated using the Bank of England's UK price index.[21]
d.Jump up ^ The Victorian love of coral jewellery was at its height from the 1840s to the 1850s, perhaps prompted by the coral ornaments presented by her husband to his royal bride, the Duchess d'Aumale, at their wedding in Naples[50][51] in 1844.[52]
e.Jump up ^ "Coral insect" was a term commonly used in Ballantyne's time to describe the coral polyps the remains of which form the coral; they were not considered to be literally insects.[53]
Citations
1.^ Jump up to: a b c Rennie, Neil (2004), "Ballantyne, Robert Michael (1825–1894)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. (online ed.), Oxford University Press, retrieved 17 December 2013 (subscription or UK public library membership required)
2.^ Jump up to: a b "Obituary", The Times (34184), 10 February 1894: 5, retrieved 17 December 2013, (subscription required (help))
3.Jump up ^ Ballantyne (2004), p. 6
4.Jump up ^ Ballantyne (2004), p. 4
5.Jump up ^ Ballantyne (2004), p. 5
6.^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Coral Island", Children's Literature Review, January 2009, retrieved 4 May 2012  – via HighBeam (subscription required)
7.Jump up ^ Tucker (1990), pp. 167–168
8.^ Jump up to: a b c d Dutheil, Martine Hennard (2001), "The Representation of the Cannibal in Ballantyne's The Coral Island: Colonial Anxieties in Victorian Popular Fiction", College Literature 28 (1): 105–122, JSTOR 25112562, (subscription required (help))
9.Jump up ^ Edmond (1997), p. 147
10.Jump up ^ Edmond (1997), p. 146
11.Jump up ^ Edmond (1997), p. 148
12.^ Jump up to: a b c d e McCulloch, Fiona (2000), "'The Broken Telescope': Misrepresentation in The Coral Island", Children's Literature Association Quarterly 25 (3): 137–145, doi:10.1353/chq.0.1401  – via HighBeam (subscription required)
13.Jump up ^ Sammons (2004), p. xviii
14.^ Jump up to: a b Cox, Michael; Riches, Christopher (2012), "Ballantyne, R. M. [Robert Michael Ballantyne] (1825–1894) Scottish novelist", A Dictionary of Writers and their Works (online ed.), Oxford University Press, (subscription required (help))
15.Jump up ^ Jolly, Roslyn (2006), "Ebb Tide and The Coral Island", Scottish Studies Review 7: 79–91  – via HighBeam (subscription required)
16.^ Jump up to: a b c Townsend (1974), pp. 61–62
17.^ Jump up to: a b c Short (2002), p. 163
18.Jump up ^ Finkelstein & McCleery (2012), p. 76
19.Jump up ^ Finkelstein & McCleery (2012), p. 80
20.Jump up ^ Potter (2007), p. 359
21.Jump up ^ "Inflation Calculator", Bank of England, retrieved 14 January 2014
22.Jump up ^ Ward (2007), p. 410
23.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Singh, Minnie (1997), "The Government of Boys: Golding's Lord of the Flies and Ballantyne's Coral Island", Children's Literature 25: 205–213, doi:10.1353/chl.0.0478
24.Jump up ^ Kermode (1962), p. 203
25.^ Jump up to: a b Anderson, Katharine (2008), "Coral Jewellery", Victorian Review 34 (1): 47–52, JSTOR 41220397, (subscription required (help))
26.^ Jump up to: a b Miller, John (2008), "Adventures in the Volcano's Throat: Tropical Landscape and Bodily Horror in R. M. Ballantyne's Blown to Bits", Victorian Review 34 (1): 115–130, JSTOR 41220406
27.Jump up ^ Hannabuss, Stuart (1995), "Moral Islands: A Study of Robert Michael Ballantyne, Writer for Children", Scottish Literary Journal 22 (2): 29–40
28.Jump up ^ Brantlinger, Patrick (1985), "Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent", Critical Inquiry 12 (1): 166–203, doi:10.1086/448326, JSTOR 1343467
29.^ Jump up to: a b Ballantyne (1911), Preface
30.Jump up ^ Ballantyne (1911), p. 332
31.^ Jump up to: a b c Honaker, Lisa (2004), ""One Man to Rely On": Long John Silver and the Shifting Character of Victorian Boys' Fiction", Journal of Narrative Theory 34 (1): 27–53, doi:10.1353/jnt.2004.0003, JSTOR 30225794
32.Jump up ^ MacKenzie (1989), p. 158
33.Jump up ^ Mathison (2008), p. 173
34.Jump up ^ Phillips (1996), p. 36
35.^ Jump up to: a b Maher, Susan Naramore (1988), "Recasting Crusoe: Frederick Marryat, R. M. Ballantyne and the Nineteenth-Century Robinsonade", Children's Literature Association Quarterly 13 (4): 169–175, doi:10.1353/chq.0.0620
36.Jump up ^ Phillips (1996), p. 38
37.^ Jump up to: a b Kutzer (2000), p. 2
38.^ Jump up to: a b Lessing & Ousby (1993), p. 54
39.^ Jump up to: a b Niemeyer, Carl (1961), "The Coral Island Revisited", College English 22 (44): 241–245, doi:10.2307/373028, JSTOR 373028, (subscription required (help))
40.Jump up ^ Ballantyne (1911), p. 245
41.Jump up ^ Ballantyne (1911), p. 172
42.Jump up ^ Phillips, Jerry (1995), "Narrative, Adventure, and Schizophrenia: From Smollett's Roderick Random to Melville's Omoo", Journal of Narrative Technique 25 (2): 177–201, JSTOR 30225966
43.Jump up ^ Kutzer (2000), p. 6
44.^ Jump up to: a b Kutzer (2000), pp. 2–3
45.Jump up ^ August, E. R.; Brake, Laurel (1993), "Rev. of Joseph Bristow, Empire Boys: Adventures in a Man's World", Victorian Periodicals Review 26 (4): 235, JSTOR 20082717, (subscription required (help))
46.Jump up ^ Korg, Jacob (1976), "Rev. of Brian Street, The Savage in Literature: Representations of 'Primitive' Society in English Fiction, 1858–1920", Nineteenth-Century Fiction 31 (1): 118–119, doi:10.2307/2933323, JSTOR 2933323, (subscription required (help))
47.Jump up ^ Hanlon, David; Edmond, Rod (1999), "Rev. of Rod Edmond, Representing the South Pacific: Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin", American Historical Review 104 (4): 1261–1262, doi:10.2307/2649581, JSTOR 2649581, (subscription required (help))
48.Jump up ^ Kitalong, Karla Saari; Emond, Rod (1999–2000), "Rev. of Rod Emond, Representing the South Pacific: Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin", Pacific Affairs 72 (4): 623–625, doi:10.2307/2672435, JSTOR 2672435, (subscription required (help))
49.Jump up ^ Mathison (2008), p. 178
50.Jump up ^ Flower & Langley-Levy Moore (2002), p. 18
51.Jump up ^ Anderson, Katharine (Spring 2008), "Coral Jewellery", Victorian Review 34 (1): 47–52, JSTOR 41220397, (subscription required (help))
52.Jump up ^ "Marriage of the Duke D'Aumale", The Times (18787), 6 December 1844: 5, retrieved 17 January 2014, (subscription required (help))
53.Jump up ^ Darwin (2009), p. 4
54.Jump up ^ Elleray, M. (2010). "Little Builders: Coral Insects, Missionary Culture, and the Victorian Child". Victorian Literature and Culture 39: 223. doi:10.1017/S1060150310000367. edit
55.Jump up ^ Ornstein (2012), pp. 103–105
56.Jump up ^ Carpenter & Prichard (1984), p. 131
57.Jump up ^ Miller, John William (25 February 2008), "The Coral Island", The Literary Encyclopedia, retrieved 27 June 2013, (subscription required (help))
58.Jump up ^ Forman, Ross G. (1999), "When Britons Brave Brazil: British Imperialism and the Adventure Tale in Latin America, 1850–1918", Victorian Studies 42 (3): 454–487, doi:10.2979/VIC.1999.42.3.455, JSTOR 3828976, (subscription required (help))
59.Jump up ^ Marsh, Jackie (2004), "The Primary Canon: A Critical Review", British Journal of Educational Studies 52 (3): 246–262, doi:10.1111/j.1467-8527.2004.00266.x, JSTOR 1556055
60.Jump up ^ Herzberg, Max J. (1915), "Supplementary Reading for High-School Pupils", English Journal 4 (6): 373–382, doi:10.2307/801636, JSTOR 801636, (subscription required (help))
61.Jump up ^ Assuma, Daniel J. (1953), "A List of Simplified Classics", College English 42 (2): 94–96, JSTOR 808695, (subscription required (help))
62.Jump up ^ Blair, Glenn M. (1955), "Reading Materials for Pupils with Reading Disabilities", The High School Journal 39 (1): 14–21, JSTOR 40363447, (subscription required (help))
63.Jump up ^ "Top twenty Scottish novels", WWW2006, retrieved 4 May 2012
64.Jump up ^ Brantlinger (2009), p. 33
65.Jump up ^ O'Sullivan (2010), p. 37
66.Jump up ^ McNamara, Eugene (1965), "Holden as Novelist", English Journal 54 (3): 166–170, doi:10.2307/811334, JSTOR 811334, (subscription required (help))
67.^ Jump up to: a b c Kundu (2006), p. 219
68.Jump up ^ Reiff (2010), p. 93
69.Jump up ^ "Coral Island", British Film Institute, retrieved 10 September 2012
70.Jump up ^ "The Coral Island", British Film Institute, retrieved 10 September 2012
Bibliography
##Ballantyne, R. M. (1911) [1858], The Coral Island: A Tale of the Pacific Ocean, Thomas Nelson and Sons, OCLC 540728645 – via Questia, (subscription required (help))
##Ballantyne, R. M. (2004) [1893], Personal Reminiscences in Book Making, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4191-4102-7
##Brantlinger, Patrick (2009), Victorian Literature and Postcolonial Studies, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-3304-3
##Carpenter, Humphrey; Prichard, Mari (1984), The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-211582-9
##Darwin, Charles (2009) [1842], The Structure and Formation of Coral Reefs, MobileReference, ISBN 978-1-60501-648-1
##Edmond, Rod (1997), Representing the South Pacific: Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55054-3
##Finkelstein, David; McCleery, Alistair (2012), An Introduction to Book History, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-51591-0
##Flower, Margaret; Langley-Levy Moore, Doris (2002), Victorian Jewellery, Courier Dove, ISBN 978-0-486-42230-5
##Kermode, Frank (1962), "William Golding", Puzzles and Epiphanies: Essays and Reviews 1958–1961, Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp. 198–213
##Kundu, Rama (2006), New Perspectives on British Authors: From William Shakespeare to Graham Greene, Sarup & Sons, ISBN 978-81-7625-690-2
##Kutzer, M. Daphne (2000), Empire's Children: Empire and Imperialism in Classic British Children's Books, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-8153-3491-0
##Lessing, Doris; Ousby, Ian (1993), The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-44086-8
##MacKenzie, John M. (1989), "Hunting and the Natural World in Juvenile Literature", in Richards, Jeffrey, Imperialism and Juvenile Literature, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-2420-7
##Mathison, Ymitr (2008), "Maps, Pirates, and Treasure: The Commodification of Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century Boys' Adventure Fiction", in Denisoff, Dennis, The Nineteenth-Century Child and the Rise of Consumer Culture, Ashgate, pp. 173–188, ISBN 978-0-7546-6156-6
##Ornstein, Allan C. (2012), Foundations of Education (12th ed.), Cengage, ISBN 978-1-133-58985-3
##O'Sullivan, Emer (2010), Historical Dictionary of Children's Literature, Scarecrow Press, ISBN 978-0-8108-7496-1
##Phillips, Richard (1996), Mapping Men & Empire: A Geography of Adventure, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-13772-0
##Potter, Jane (2007), "Children's Books", in Finkelstein, David; McCleery, Alistair, The Edinburgh History of the Book in Scotland: Professionalism and Diversity 1880–2000 4, Edinburgh University Press, pp. 352–367, ISBN 978-0-7486-1829-3 – via Questia, (subscription required (help))
##Reiff, Raychel Haugrud (2010), William Golding: Lord of the Flies, Marshall Cavendish, ISBN 978-0-7614-4700-9
##Sammons, Jeffrey L. (2004), Friedrich Spielhagen, Verlag Max Niemeyer, ISBN 978-3-484-32117-5
##Short, John Rennie (2002), Imagined Country: Society, Culture, and Environment, Syracuse University Press, ISBN 978-0-8156-2954-2
##Townsend, John Rowe (1974), "1840–1915: Nineteenth-Century Adventures", Written for Children: An Outline of English Language Children's Literature, Viking Children's Books, ISBN 978-0-7226-5466-8
##Tucker, Nicholas (1990), The Child and the Book: A Psychological and Literary Exploration, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-39835-0
##Ward, Simon (2007), "The Economics of Authorship", in Finkelstein, David; McCleery, Alistair, The Edinburgh History of the Book in Scotland: Professionalism and Diversity 1880–2000 4, Edinburgh University Press, pp. 409–30, ISBN 978-0-7486-1829-3  – via Questia (subscription required)
External links[edit]
##The Coral Island at Project Gutenberg
##The Coral Island at LibriVox (audiobook)
##The Coral Island at Internet Archive and Google Books (scanned books original editions illustrated)
 


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Robinson Crusoe
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For other uses, see Robinson Crusoe (disambiguation).
Robinson Crusoe
Robinson Cruose 1719 1st edition.jpg
Title page from the first edition

Author
Daniel Defoe
Illustrator
Single engraving by John Clark and John Pine after design by unknown artist[1]
Country
United Kingdom
Language
English
Genre
Historical fiction
Publisher
W. Taylor

Publication date
 25 April 1719
Followed by
The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe
Robinson Crusoe /ˌrɒbɪnsən ˈkruːsoʊ/ is a novel by Daniel Defoe, first published on 25 April 1719. This first edition credited the work's fictional protagonist Robinson Crusoe as its author, leading many readers to believe he was a real person and the book a travelogue of true incidents.[2] It was published under the considerably longer original title The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, Of York, Mariner: Who lived Eight and Twenty Years, all alone in an un-inhabited Island on the Coast of America, near the Mouth of the Great River of Oroonoque; Having been cast on Shore by Shipwreck, wherein all the Men perished but himself. With An Account how he was at last as strangely deliver'd by Pyrates. Epistolary, confessional, and didactic in form, the book is a fictional autobiography of the title character (whose birth name is Robinson Kreutznaer)—a castaway who spends years on a remote tropical island near Trinidad, encountering cannibals, captives, and mutineers before being rescued.
The story is widely perceived to have been influenced by the life of Alexander Selkirk, a Scottish castaway who lived for four years on the Pacific island called "Más a Tierra" (in 1966 its name was changed to Robinson Crusoe Island), Chile. However, other possible sources have been put forward for the text. It is possible, for example, that Defoe was inspired by the Latin or English translations of Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, an earlier novel also set on a desert island.[3][4][5][6] Another source for Defoe's novel may have been Robert Knox's account of his abduction by the King of Ceylon in 1659 in "An Historical Account of the Island Ceylon," Glasgow: James MacLehose and Sons (Publishers to the University), 1911.[7] In his 2003 book In Search of Robinson Crusoe, Tim Severin contends that the account of Henry Pitman in a short book chronicling his escape from a Caribbean penal colony and subsequent shipwrecking and desert island misadventures, is the inspiration for the story. Arthur Wellesley Secord in his Studies in the narrative method of Defoe (1963: 21–111) painstakingly analyses the composition of Robinson Crusoe and gives a list of possible sources of the story, rejecting the common theory that the story of Selkirk is Defoe's only source.
Despite its simple narrative style, Robinson Crusoe was well received in the literary world and is often credited as marking the beginning of realistic fiction as a literary genre. Before the end of 1719 the book had already run through four editions, and it has gone on to become one of the most widely published books in history, spawning numerous sequels and adaptations for stage, film, and television.


Contents  [hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Reception and sequels
3 Real-life castaways
4 Interpretations
5 Legacy
6 Editions
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links

Plot summary[edit]



 Pictorial map of Crusoe's island, aka "Island of Despair," showing incidents from the book
Crusoe (the family name corrupted from the German name "Kreutznaer") sets sail from the Queen's Dock in Hull on a sea voyage in August 1651, against the wishes of his parents, who want him to pursue a career, possibly in law. After a tumultuous journey where his ship is wrecked in a storm, his lust for the sea remains so strong that he sets out to sea again. This journey, too, ends in disaster as the ship is taken over by Salé pirates (the Salé Rovers) and Crusoe is enslaved by a Moor. Two years later, he escapes in a boat with a boy named Xury; a Captain of a Portuguese ship off the west coast of Africa rescues him. The ship is en route to Brazil. With the captain's help, Crusoe procures a plantation.
Years later, Crusoe joins an expedition to bring slaves from Africa but he is shipwrecked in a storm about forty miles out to sea on an island (which he calls the Island of Despair) near the mouth of the Orinoco river on 30 September 1659. (The date was left blank in the first edition. The years added up after 1651, or, his total of years reckoned backwards from 1686 yield 1658 so the 1659 is an error. The story claims that he swam ashore on his 26th birthday.) The details of Crusoe's island were probably based on the Caribbean island of Tobago, since that island lies a short distance north of the Venezuelan coast near the mouth of the Orinoco river, in sight of Trinidad.[8] He observes the latitude as 9 degrees and 22 minutes north. He sees penguins and seals on his island. (However, there are no seals and penguins living together in the Northern Hemisphere, only around the Galapagos Islands.) As for his arrival there, only he and three animals, the captain's dog and two cats, survive the shipwreck. Overcoming his despair, he fetches arms, tools, and other supplies from the ship before it breaks apart and sinks. He builds a fenced-in habitat near a cave which he excavates. By making marks in a wooden cross, he creates a calendar. By using tools salvaged from the ship, and some he makes himself from "ironwood", he hunts, grows barley and rice, dries grapes to make raisins, learns to make pottery, and raises goats. He also adopts a small parrot. He reads the Bible and becomes religious, thanking God for his fate in which nothing is missing but human society.
More years pass and Crusoe discovers native cannibals, who occasionally visit the island to kill and eat prisoners. At first he plans to kill them for committing an abomination but later realizes he has no right to do so, as the cannibals do not knowingly commit a crime. He dreams of obtaining one or two servants by freeing some prisoners; when a prisoner escapes, Crusoe helps him, naming his new companion "Friday" after the day of the week he appeared. Crusoe then teaches him English and converts him to Christianity. After more natives arrive to partake in a cannibal feast, Crusoe and Friday kill most of the natives and save two prisoners. One is Friday's father and the other is a Spaniard, who informs Crusoe about other Spaniards shipwrecked on the mainland. A plan is devised wherein the Spaniard would return to the mainland with Friday's father and bring back the others, build a ship, and sail to a Spanish port.
Before the Spaniards return, an English ship appears; mutineers have commandeered the vessel and intend to maroon their captain on the island. Crusoe and the ship's captain strike a deal in which Crusoe helps the captain and the loyal sailors retake the ship and leave the worst mutineers on the island. Before embarking for England, Crusoe shows the mutineers how he survived on the island and states that there will be more men coming. Crusoe leaves the island 19 December 1686 and arrives in England on 11 June 1687. He learns that his family believed him dead; as a result, he was left nothing in his father's will. Crusoe departs for Lisbon to reclaim the profits of his estate in Brazil, which has granted him much wealth. In conclusion, he transports his wealth overland to England to avoid travelling by sea. Friday accompanies him and, en route, they endure one last adventure together as they fight off famished wolves while crossing the Pyrenees.
Reception and sequels[edit]



 Plaque in Queen's Gardens, Hull—the former Queen's Dock from which Crusoe sailed—showing him on his island
The book was published on 25 April 1719. Before the end of the year, this first volume had run through four editions.
By the end of the 19th century, no book in the history of Western literature had more editions, spin-offs and translations (even into languages such as Inuktitut, Coptic and Maltese) than Robinson Crusoe, with more than 700 such alternative versions, including children's versions with mainly pictures and no text.[9]
The term "Robinsonade" was coined to describe the genre of stories similar to Robinson Crusoe.
Defoe went on to write a lesser-known sequel, The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. It was intended to be the last part of his stories, according to the original title-page of its first edition but a third part, Serious Reflections During the Life & Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, With His Vision of the Angelic World, was added later; it is a mostly forgotten series of moral essays with Crusoe's name attached to give interest.
Real-life castaways[edit]


 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2013)
See also: Castaway § Real occurrences



 Book on Alexander Selkirk
There were many stories of real-life castaways in Defoe's time. Defoe's immediate inspiration for Crusoe is usually thought to be a Scottish sailor named Alexander Selkirk, who was rescued in 1709 by Woodes Rogers' expedition after four years on the uninhabited island of Más a Tierra in the Juan Fernández Islands off the Chilean coast. Rogers' "Cruising Voyage" was published in 1712, with an account of Alexander Selkirk's ordeal. However, Robinson Crusoe is far from a copy of Woodes Rogers' account: Selkirk was marooned at his own request, while Crusoe was shipwrecked; the islands are different; Selkirk lived alone for the whole time, while Crusoe found companions; while Selkirk stayed on his island for four years, not twenty-eight. Furthermore, much of the appeal of Defoe's novel is the detailed and captivating account of Crusoe's thoughts, occupations and activities which goes far beyond that of Rogers' basic descriptions of Selkirk, which account for only a few pages. However, one must not forget that Defoe considered himself as the editor of the story. He was adamant to maintain his claim that the real author Robinson Crusoe had been a person still alive in 1719-20.
Tim Severin's book Seeking Robinson Crusoe (2002) unravels a much wider and more plausible range of potential sources of inspiration, and concludes by identifying castaway surgeon Henry Pitman as the most likely. An employee of the Duke of Monmouth, Pitman played a part in the Monmouth Rebellion. His short book about his desperate escape from a Caribbean penal colony, followed by his shipwrecking and subsequent desert island misadventures, was published by J. Taylor of Paternoster Row, London, whose son William Taylor later published Defoe's novel. Severin argues that since Pitman appears to have lived in the lodgings above the father's publishing house and that Defoe himself was a mercer in the area at the time, Defoe may have met Pitman in person and learned of his experiences first-hand, or possibly through submission of a draft.[10]
Severin also discusses another publicised case of a marooned man named only as Will, of the Miskito people of Central America, who may have led to the depiction of Man Friday.[11]
Interpretations[edit]



 Crusoe standing over Friday after he frees him from the cannibals.
Novelist James Joyce noted that the true symbol of the British conquest is Robinson Crusoe: "He is the true prototype of the British colonist. ... The whole Anglo-Saxon spirit is in Crusoe: the manly independence, the unconscious cruelty, the persistence, the slow yet efficient intelligence, the sexual apathy, the calculating taciturnity."[12] In a sense Crusoe attempts to replicate his society on the island. This is achieved through the use of European technology, agriculture and even a rudimentary political hierarchy. Several times in the novel Crusoe refers to himself as the 'king' of the island, whilst the captain describes him as the 'governor' to the mutineers. At the very end of the novel the island is explicitly referred to as a 'colony'. The idealised master-servant relationship Defoe depicts between Crusoe and Friday can also be seen in terms of cultural imperialism. Crusoe represents the 'enlightened' European whilst Friday is the 'savage' who can only be redeemed from his barbarous way of life through assimilation into Crusoe's culture. Nonetheless Defoe also takes the opportunity to criticise the historic Spanish conquest of South America.
According to J.P. Hunter, Robinson is not a hero but an everyman. He begins as a wanderer, aimless on a sea he does not understand and ends as a pilgrim, crossing a final mountain to enter the promised land. The book tells the story of how Robinson becomes closer to God, not through listening to sermons in a church but through spending time alone amongst nature with only a Bible to read.
Robinson Crusoe is filled with religious aspects. Defoe was a Puritan moralist and normally worked in the guide tradition, writing books on how to be a good Puritan Christian, such as The New Family Instructor (1727) and Religious Courtship (1722). While Robinson Crusoe is far more than a guide, it shares many of the themes and theological and moral points of view. "Crusoe" may have been taken from Timothy Cruso, a classmate of Defoe's who had written guide books, including God the Guide of Youth (1695), before dying at an early age – just eight years before Defoe wrote Robinson Crusoe. Cruso would have been remembered by contemporaries and the association with guide books is clear. It has even been speculated that God the Guide of Youth inspired Robinson Crusoe because of a number of passages in that work that are closely tied to the novel.[13] A leitmotif of the novel is the Christian notion of Providence, penitence and redemption. Crusoe comes to repent of the follies of his youth. Defoe also foregrounds this theme by arranging highly significant events in the novel to occur on Crusoe's birthday. The denouement culminates not only in Crusoe's deliverance from the island, but his spiritual deliverance, his acceptance of Christian doctrine, and in his intuition of his own salvation.
When confronted with the cannibals, Crusoe wrestles with the problem of cultural relativism. Despite his disgust, he feels unjustified in holding the natives morally responsible for a practice so deeply ingrained in their culture. Nevertheless he retains his belief in an absolute standard of morality; he regards cannibalism as a 'national crime' and forbids Friday from practising it.
Main article: Robinson Crusoe economy
In classical, neoclassical and Austrian economics, Crusoe is regularly used to illustrate the theory of production and choice in the absence of trade, money and prices.[14] Crusoe must allocate effort between production and leisure and must choose between alternative production possibilities to meet his needs. The arrival of Friday is then used to illustrate the possibility of and gains from trade.
Legacy[edit]


 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2010)
The book proved so popular that the names of the two main protagonists have entered the language. During World War II, people who decided to stay and hide in the ruins of the German-occupied city of Warsaw for a period of three winter months, from October to January 1945, when they were rescued by the Red Army, were later called Robinson Crusoes of Warsaw.[15] Robinson Crusoe usually referred to his servant as "my man Friday", from which the term "Man Friday" (or "Girl Friday") originated.
Robinson Crusoe marked the beginning of realistic fiction as a literary genre.[16] Its success led to many imitators, and castaway novels became quite popular in Europe in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Most of these have fallen into obscurity, but some became established, including The Swiss Family Robinson.
Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, published seven years after Robinson Crusoe, may be read as a systematic rebuttal of Defoe's optimistic account of human capability. In The Unthinkable Swift: The Spontaneous Philosophy of a Church of England Man, Warren Montag argues that Swift was concerned about refuting the notion that the individual precedes society, as Defoe's novel seems to suggest. In Treasure Island, author Robert Louis Stevenson parodies Crusoe with the character of Ben Gunn, a friendly castaway who was marooned for many years, has a wild appearance, dresses entirely in goat skin and constantly talks about providence.
In Jean-Jacques Rousseau's treatise on education, Emile: Or, On Education, the one book the protagonist is allowed to read before the age of twelve is Robinson Crusoe. Rousseau wants Emile to identify himself as Crusoe so he can rely upon himself for all of his needs. In Rousseau's view, Emile needs to imitate Crusoe's experience, allowing necessity to determine what is to be learned and accomplished. This is one of the main themes of Rousseau's educational model.



 Robinson Crusoe Bookstore on İstiklal Avenue, Istanbul.
In The Tale of Little Pig Robinson, Beatrix Potter directs the reader to Robinson Crusoe for a detailed description of the island (the land of the Bong tree) to which her eponymous hero moves. In Wilkie Collins' most popular novel, The Moonstone, one of the chief characters and narrators, Gabriel Betteredge, has faith in all that Robinson Crusoe says and uses the book for a sort of divination. He considers The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe the finest book ever written and considers a man but poorly read if he had happened not to read the book.
French novelist Michel Tournier published Friday (French Vendredi ou les Limbes du Pacifique) in 1967. His novel explores themes including civilization versus nature, the psychology of solitude, as well as death and sexuality in a retelling of Defoe's Robinson Crusoe story. Tournier's Robinson chooses to remain on the island, rejecting civilization when offered the chance to escape 28 years after being shipwrecked. Likewise, in 1963, J. M. G. Le Clézio, winner of the 2008 Nobel Prize in literature, published the novel Le Proces-Verbal. The book's epigraph is a quote from Robinson Crusoe, and like Crusoe, Adam Pollo suffers long periods of loneliness.
"Crusoe in England", a 183-line poem by Elizabeth Bishop, imagines Crusoe near the end of his life, recalling his time of exile with a mixture of bemusement and regret. J. M. Coetzee's 1986 novel Foe recounts the tale of Robinson Crusoe from the aspect of Susan Barton, who went on to star in another of DeFoe's novels.
American novelist Thomas Berger created a modern version of the story in his 1994 novel Robert Crews, in which the protagonist is a middle-aged alcoholic who survives a plane crash at a rural lake, and eventually encounters his "Friday," a young woman fleeing an abusive marriage. In the fantasy novel World War Z, author Max Brooks refers to survivalists who remain after the zombie plague in zombie-infested cities as "Robinson Crusoes."



Classics Illustrated #10, Robinson Crusoe (c. 1957)
The story was also illustrated and published in comic book form by Classics Illustrated in 1943 and 1957. The much improved 1957 version was inked/penciled by Sam Citron, who is most well known for his contributions to the earlier issues of Superman.[17]
A pantomime version of Robinson Crusoe was staged at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in 1796, with Joseph Grimaldi as Pierrot in the harlequinade. The piece was produced again in 1798, this time starring Grimaldi as Clown. In 1815, Grimaldi played Friday in another version of Robinson Crusoe.[18]
Jacques Offenbach wrote an opéra comique called Robinson Crusoé which was first performed at the Opéra-Comique, in Paris on 23 November 1867. This was based on the British pantomime version rather than the novel itself. The libretto was by Eugène Cormon and Hector-Jonathan Crémieux.
There is a 1927 silent film titled Robinson Crusoe. The Soviet 3D film Robinzon Kruzo was produced in 1946. Luis Buñuel directed Adventures of Robinson Crusoe starring Dan O'Herlihy, released in 1954. Walt Disney later modernized the novel with Lt. Robin Crusoe, U.S.N., featuring Dick Van Dyke. Peter O'Toole and Richard Roundtree co-starred in a 1975 film Man Friday which satirically portrayed Crusoe as incapable of seeing his dark-skinned companion as anything but an inferior creature, while Friday is more enlightened and empathetic. In 1988, Aidan Quinn portrayed Robinson Crusoe in the film Crusoe. A 1997 movie entitled Robinson Crusoe starred Pierce Brosnan and received limited commercial success. Variations on the theme include the 1954 Miss Robin Crusoe, with a female castaway, played by Amanda Blake, and a female Friday, and the 1964 film Robinson Crusoe on Mars, starring Paul Mantee, with an alien Friday portrayed by Victor Lundin. The 2000 film Cast Away, with Tom Hanks as a FedEx employee stranded on an Island for many years, also borrows much from the Robinson Crusoe story.
In 1964 a French film production crew made a 13-part serial of The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. It starred Robert Hoffman. The black and white series was dubbed into English and German. In the UK, the BBC aired it on numerous occasions between 1965 and 1977. In 1981 Czechoslovakian director and animator Stanislav Látal made a version of the story under the name Dobrodružství Robinsona Crusoe, námořníka z Yorku (The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, a sailor from York) combining traditional and stop-motion animation. The movie was coproduced by regional West Germany broadcaster Sudwestfunk Baden-Baden.
In the mid-1990s there was a humorous French cartoon called Robinson Sucroe. In the cartoon, Robinson was a failed journalist for the New York Herald. Seeking a life of adventure, he desired to settle on an island and wished to write his weekly journal. After getting an okay from his boss, he sets sail and he is left on an uninhabited island (or so he thought). Robinson discovers that the island is inhabited by French and British pirates as well as the survivor of a shipwreck, who called themselves "Touléjours" (the Everydays). Robinson befriend a fellow named Mercredi (Wednesday). Robinson tries to write a colourful journal but he is incapable of doing so, instead Mercredi writes fictitious stories for him. These stories achieve much success and few suspect their authenticity.[19][20]
In 2008, a television series titled Crusoe aired for 12 episodes. It was based loosely on the novel and was not renewed for a second season.
Editions[edit]
Robinson Crusoe, Oneworld Classics 2008. ISBN 978-1-847490-12-4
Robinson Crusoe, Penguin Classics 2003. ISBN 978-0-14-143982-2
Robinson Crusoe, Oxford World's Classics 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-283342-6
Robinson Crusoe, Bantam Classics
See also[edit]
Tarzan
Lost in Space
Gilligan's Island
Notes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ "The Primitive Crusoe, 1719-1780.". Picturing the First Castaway: the Illustrations of Robinson Crusoe - Paul Wilson and Michael Eck. Retrieved 25 June 2012.
2.Jump up ^ Fiction as Authentic as Fact
3.Jump up ^ Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
4.Jump up ^ Cyril Glasse (2001), New Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0-7591-0190-6.
5.Jump up ^ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357–377 [369].
6.Jump up ^ Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts, The Guardian, 22 March 2003.
7.Jump up ^ see Alan Filreis
8.Jump up ^ Robinson Crusoe, Chapter 23.
9.Jump up ^ Ian Watt. "Robinson Crusoe as a Myth", from Essays in Criticism (April 1951). Reprinted in the Norton Critical Edition (second edition, 1994) of Robinson Crusoe.
10.Jump up ^ Severin, Tim - In search of Robinson Crusoe - New York, Basic Books, 2002 - ISBN 0-465-07698-X
11.Jump up ^ William Dampier, A New Voyage round the World, 1697 [1].
12.Jump up ^ James Joyce, "Daniel Defoe," translated from Italian manuscript and edited by Joseph Prescott, Buffalo Studies 1 (1964): 24–25
13.Jump up ^ Hunter, J. Paul (1966) The Reluctant Pilgrim. As found in Norton Critical Edition (see References).
14.Jump up ^ Varian, Hal R. (1990). Intermediate microeconomics: a modern approach. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-95924-4.
15.Jump up ^ Engelking, Barbara; Libionka, Dariusz (2009). Żydzi w Powstańczej Warszawie. Warsaw: Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów. pp. 260–293. ISBN 9788392682117.
16.Jump up ^ Kathleen Buss, Lee Karnowski (2000). Reading and Writing Literary Genres. International Reading Association. p. 7.
17.Jump up ^ Jones, William B. (15 August 2011). Classics Illustrated: A Cultural History (2 ed.). McFarland & Company. p. 203.
18.Jump up ^ Findlater, pp. 60 and 76; Grimaldi (Box edition), pp. 184–185 and 193; and McConnell Stott, p. 101
19.Jump up ^ "Robinson Sucroë" (in French). Krinein, le magazine critique de la pop culture. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
20.Jump up ^ weirdkorn (4 January 2006). "Robinson Sucroë – T'es en sucre ?". Krinein, le magazine critique de la pop culture. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
References[edit]
Boz (Charles Dickens) (1853). Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi. London: G Routledge & Co.
Findlater, Richard (1955). Grimaldi King of Clowns. London: Magibbon & Kee. OCLC 558202542.
McConnell Stott, Andrew (2009). The Pantomime Life of Joseph Grimaldi. Edinburgh: Cannongate Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84767-761-7.
Ross, Angus, ed. (1965) Robinson Crusoe. Penguin.
Secord, Arthur Wellesley (1963). Studies in the narrative method of Defoe. New York: Russell & Russell. (First published in 1924.)
Shinagel, Michael, ed. (1994). Robinson Crusoe. Norton Critical Edition. ISBN 0-393-96452-3. Includes textual annotations, contemporary and modern criticisms, bibliography.
External links[edit]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Robinson Crusoe

 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Robinson Crusoe.
Robinson Crusoe at Project Gutenberg
Robinson Crusoe (London: W. Taylor, 1719)., commented text of the first edition, free at Editions Marteau.
Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe Speaker Icon.svg - text and audio at Ciff Ciaff
Free eBook of Robinson Crusoe with illustrations by N. C. Wyeth
Free audiobook of Robinson Crusoe from Librivox
Free ebook of Robinson Crusoe for Android Phones
Robinson Crusoe, told in words of one syllable, by Lucy Aikin (aka "Mary Godolphin") (1723–1764).
[2], in-depth comparison between Defoe's novel and the account of the adventures of Henry Pitman.
Chasing Crusoe, multimedia documentary explores the novel and real life history of Selkirk.
Robinson Crusoe on Literapedia
"Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe & the Robinsonades Digital Collection" with over 200 versions of Robinson Crusoe openly and freely online with full text and zoomable page images from the Baldwin Library of Historical Children's Literature
M.A. Wetherell's Robinson Crusoe silent film, openly and freely available in three parts on www.archive.org. Part 1; Part 2; Part 3
The BBC TV series from 1965 with music, info, videos and pictures.
Edgar Allan Poe's critical article
[3], a discussion of a possible connection between Crusoe's island and Cocos Island of Costa Rica
Naso people#History regarding the Térraba or Naso people
Defoe, Daniel. The wonderful life and surprising adventures of that renowned hero, Robinson Crusoe: who lived twenty-eight years on an uninhabited island, which he afterwards colonised. London: Printed for the inhabitants of his island, and sold by T. Carnan, in St. Paul's Church Yard, [ca. 1783]. 160 p. Accessed 4 January 2014, in PDF format.


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Treasure Island
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For other uses, see Treasure Island (disambiguation).
Treasure Island
Treasure Island-Scribner's-1911.jpg
Cover illustration by N.C. Wyeth from 1911

Author
Robert Louis Stevenson
Cover artist
N.C. Wyeth
Country
United Kingdom
Language
English
Genre
Adventure
Young Adult Literature
Publisher
London: Cassell and Company

Publication date
 1883
Treasure Island is an adventure novel by Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson, narrating a tale of "buccaneers and buried gold". First published as a book on 23 May 1883, it was originally serialized in the children's magazine Young Folks between 1881 and 1882 under the title Treasure Island or, the mutiny of the Hispaniola with Stevenson adopting the pseudonym Captain George North.
Traditionally considered a coming-of-age story, Treasure Island is a tale noted for its atmosphere, characters and action, and also as a wry commentary on the ambiguity of morality – as seen in Long John Silver – unusual for children's literature. It is one of the most frequently dramatized of all novels. The influence of Treasure Island on popular perceptions of pirates is enormous, including such elements as treasure maps marked with an "X", schooners, the Black Spot, tropical islands, and one-legged seamen bearing parrots on their shoulders.[1]


Contents  [hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Background
3 Main characters 3.1 Minor characters
3.2 Time frame
4 Historical allusions 4.1 Real pirates and piracies
4.2 Other allusions
5 Possible allusions 5.1 Characters
5.2 Treasure Island
5.3 Admiral Benbow
5.4 Spyglass Tavern
5.5 Flint's death house
6 Related works 6.1 Sequels and prequels
6.2 References in other works
7 Adaptations 7.1 Film and TV
7.2 Theatre and radio
7.3 Books
7.4 Music
7.5 Software
8 Original manuscripts
9 Footnotes
10 References
11 External links

Plot summary[edit]



 Stevenson's map of Treasure Island


 Jim Hawkins sitting in the apple-barrel, listening to the pirates
An old sailor, calling himself "the captain" but really called Billy Bones, comes to lodge at the Admiral Benbow Inn on the English coast during the mid 1700s, paying the innkeeper's son, Jim Hawkins, a few pennies to keep a lookout for "seafaring men." One of these shows up, frightening Billy (who drinks far too much rum) into a stroke, and Billy tells Jim that his former shipmates covet the contents of his sea chest. After a visit from another man, Billy has another stroke and dies; Jim and his mother (his father has died only a few days before) unlock the sea chest, finding some money, a journal, and a map. The local physician, Dr. Livesey, deduces that the map is of an island where the pirate Flint buried a vast treasure. The district squire, Trelawney, proposes buying a ship and going after the treasure, taking Livesey as ship's doctor and Jim as cabin boy.
Several weeks later, Trelawney sends for Jim and Livesey and introduces them to Long John Silver, a Bristol tavern-keeper whom he has hired as ship's cook. They also meet Captain Smollett, who tells them that he does not like the crew or the voyage, which it seems everyone in Bristol knows is a search for treasure. After taking a few precautions, however, they set sail for the distant island. During the voyage the first mate, a drunkard, disappears overboard. And just before the island is sighted, Jim overhears Silver talking with two other crewmen and realizes that he and most of the others are pirates and have planned a mutiny. Jim tells the captain, Trelawney, and Livesey, and they calculate that they will be seven to nineteen against the mutineers and must pretend not to suspect anything until the treasure is found, when they can surprise their adversaries.
But after the ship is anchored, Silver and some of the others go ashore, and two men who refuse to join the mutiny are killed – one with so loud a scream that everyone realizes there can be no more pretense. Jim has impulsively joined the shore party, and now in running away from them he encounters a half-crazy Englishman, Ben Gunn, who tells him he was marooned here and can help against the mutineers in return for passage home and part of the treasure.
Meanwhile Smollett, Trelawney, and Livesey, along with Trelawney's three servants and one of the other hands, Abraham Gray, abandon the ship and come ashore to occupy a stockade. The men still on the ship, led by the coxswain Israel Hands, run up the pirate flag. One of Trelawney's servants and one of the pirates are killed in the fight to reach the stockade, and the ship's gun keeps up a barrage upon them, to no effect, until dark, when Jim finds the stockade and joins them. The next morning Silver appears under a flag of truce, offering terms that Captain Smollett refuses, and revealing that another pirate has been killed in the night (by Ben Gunn, Jim realizes, although Silver does not). At Smollett's refusal to surrender the map, Silver threatens an attack, and, within a short while, the attack on the stockade is launched. After a battle, the surviving mutineers retreat, having lost six men, but two more of the captain's group have been killed and Smollett himself is badly wounded.
When Livesey leaves in search of Ben Gunn, Jim runs away without permission and finds Gunn's homemade boat. After dark, he goes out and cuts the ship adrift. The two pirates on board, Hands and O'Brien, interrupt their drunken quarrel to run on deck, but the ship – with Jim's boat in her wake – is swept out to sea on the ebb tide. Exhausted, Jim falls asleep in the boat and wakens the next morning, bobbing along on the west coast of the island, carried by a northerly current. Eventually, he encounters the ship, which seems deserted, but getting on board, he finds O'Brien dead and Hands badly wounded. He and Hands agree that they will beach the ship at an inlet on the northern coast of the island. But as the ship is finally beached, Hands attempts to kill Jim, and Jim shoots and kills him. Then, after securing the ship as well as he can, he goes back ashore and heads for the stockade. Once there, in utter darkness, he enters the blockhouse – to be greeted by Silver and the remaining five mutineers, who have somehow taken over the stockade in his absence.
Silver and the others argue about whether to kill Jim, and Silver talks them down. He tells Jim that, when everyone found the ship was gone, the captain's party agreed to a treaty whereby they gave up the stockade and the map. In the morning Dr. Livesey arrives to treat the wounded and sick pirates, and tells Silver to look out for trouble when they find the site of the treasure. After he leaves, Silver and the others set out with the map, taking Jim along. Eventually they find the treasure cache – empty. Two of the pirates charge at Silver and Jim, but are shot down by Livesey, Gray, and Ben Gunn, from ambush. The other three run away, and Livesey explains that Gunn has long ago found the treasure and taken it to his cave.
In the next few days they load the treasure onto the ship, abandon the three remaining mutineers (with supplies and ammunition) and sail away. At their first port, where they will sign on more crew, Silver steals a bag of money and escapes. The rest sail back to Bristol and divide up the treasure. Jim says there is more left on the island, but he for one will not undertake another voyage to recover it.
Background[edit]
Stevenson conceived of the idea of Treasure Island (originally titled, "The Sea Cook: A Story for Boys") from a map of an imaginary, romantic island idly drawn by Stevenson and his stepson on a rainy day in Braemar, Scotland. Stevenson had just returned from his first stay in America, with memories of poverty, illness and adventure (including his recent marriage), and a warm reconciliation between his parents had been established. Stevenson himself said in designing the idea of the story that, "It was to be a story for boys; no need of psychology or fine writing; and I had a boy at hand to be a touchstone. Women were excluded... and then I had an idea for Long John Silver from which I promised myself funds of entertainment; to take an admired friend of mine... to deprive him of all his finer qualities and higher graces of temperament, and to leave him with nothing but his strength, his courage, his quickness, and his magnificent geniality, and to try to express these in terms of the culture of a raw tarpaulin." Completing 15 chapters in as many days, Stevenson was interrupted by illness and, after leaving Scotland, continued working on the first draft outside London. While there, his father provided additional impetus, as the two discussed points of the tale, and Stevenson's father was the one who suggested the scene of Jim in the apple barrel and the name of Walrus for Captain Flint's ship.
Two general types of sea novels were popular during the 19th century: the navy yarn, which places a capable officer in adventurous situations amid realistic settings and historical events; and the desert island romance, which features shipwrecked or marooned characters confronted by treasure-seeking pirates or angry natives. Around 1815 the latter genre became one of the most popular fictional styles in Great Britain, perhaps because of the philosophical interest in Rousseau and Chateaubriand's "noble savage." It is obvious that Treasure Island was a climax of this development. The growth of the desert island genre can be traced back to 1719, when Daniel Defoe's legendary Robinson Crusoe was published. A century later, novels such as S. H. Burney's The Shipwreck (1816), and Sir Walter Scott's The Pirate (1822) continued to expand upon the strong influence of Defoe's classic. Other authors, however, in the mid 19th-century, continued this work, including James Fenimore Cooper's The Pilot (1823). During the same period, Edgar Allan Poe wrote "MS Found in a Bottle" (1833) and the intriguing tale of buried treasure, "The Gold-Bug" (1843). All of these works influenced Stevenson's end product.
Specifically, however, Stevenson consciously borrowed material from previous authors. In a July 1884 letter to Sidney Colvin, he writes "Treasure Island came out of Kingsley's At Last, where I got the Dead Man's Chest - and that was the seed - and out of the great Captain Johnson's History of the Notorious Pirates." Stevenson also admits that he took the idea of Captain Flint's skeleton point from Poe's "The Gold-Bug," and he constructed Billy Bones' history from the pages of Washington Irving, one of his favorite writers.
One month after he conceived of "The Sea Cook," chapters began to appear in the pages of Young Folks magazine. Eventually, the entire novel ran in 17 weekly installments from October 1, 1881, through January 28, 1882. Later the book was republished as the novel Treasure Island and the book proved to be Stevenson's first financial and critical success. William Gladstone (1809-1898), the zealous Liberal politician who served four terms as British prime minister between 1868 and 1894, was one of the book's biggest fans.
Treasure Island is arguably one of the greatest works of storytelling in the English language. Stevenson created other novels, with greater depth and insight, but the highlight of Treasure Island is the combination of colorful and poetic prose that distinguishes his tale of piracy and boyhood adventure from the rest of the field of other adventure books.
Main characters[edit]
Billy Bones: The old seaman who resides at Jim’s parents’ inn. Billy, who used to be a member of Silver’s crew, is surly and rude. He hires Jim to be on the lookout for a one-legged man, thus involving the young Jim in the pirate life. Billy’s sea chest and treasure map set the whole adventure in motion. His gruff refusal to pay his hotel bills symbolizes the pirates’ general opposition to law, order, and civilization. His illness and his fondness for rum symbolize the weak and self-destructive aspects of the pirate lifestyle. He dies of a stroke as a result of a combination of drinking too much rum and the double shock of seeing Blind Pew and the realization that Long John Silver has tracked him down.
Jim Hawkins:The first-person narrator of almost the entire novel. Jim is the son of an innkeeper near Bristol, England, and is probably in his early teens. He is eager and enthusiastic to go to sea and hunt for treasure. He is a modest narrator, never boasting of the remarkable courage and heroism he consistently displays. Jim is often impulsive and impetuous, but he exhibits increasing sensitivity and wisdom.
Dr. Livesey: The local doctor. Dr. Livesey is wise and practical, and Jim respects but is not inspired by him. Livesey exhibits common sense and rational thought while on the island, and his idea to send Ben to spook the pirates reveals a deep understanding of human nature. He is fair-minded, magnanimously agreeing to treat the pirates with just as much care as his own wounded men. As his name suggests, Livesey represents the steady, modest virtues of everyday life rather than fantasy, dream, or adventure.
Long John Silver: The cook on the voyage to Treasure Island. Silver is the secret ringleader of the pirate band. His physical and emotional strength is impressive. Silver is deceitful and disloyal, greedy and visceral, and does not care about human relations. Yet he is always kind toward Jim and genuinely fond of the boy. Silver is a powerful mixture of charisma and self-destructiveness, individualism and recklessness.
Captain Smollett: The captain of the voyage to Treasure Island. Captain Smollett is savvy and is rightly suspicious of the crew Trelawney has hired. Smollett is a real professional, taking his job seriously and displaying significant skill as a negotiator. Like Livesey, Smollett is too competent and reliable to be an inspirational figure for Jim’s teenage mind. Smollett believes in rules and does not like Jim’s disobedience; he even tells Jim that he never wishes to sail with him again.
Squire Trelawney: A local Bristol nobleman. Trelawney arranges the voyage to the island to find the treasure. He is associated with civic authority and social power, as well as with the comforts of civilized country life (his name suggests both “trees” and “lawn”). Trelawney’s street smarts, however, are limited, as the ease with which the pirates trick him into hiring them as his crew demonstrates.
Minor characters[edit]
"Blind Pew" redirects here. For other uses, see Blind Pew (disambiguation).
Alan: A sailor who does not mutiny. He is killed by the mutineers for his loyalty and his dying scream is heard by several.
Allardyce: One of the six members of Flint's Crew who, after burying the treasure and silver and building the blockhouse on Treasure Island, are all killed by Flint. His body is lined up by Flint as a compass marker to the cache. According to The Adventures of Ben Gunn, his first name was Nick, he was surgeon on Flint's crew, and Ben Gunn was his servant and friend from back home.
Job Anderson: The ship's boatswain and one of the leaders of the mutiny who is killed while trying to storm the blockhouse; possibly one of Flint's old pirate hands (though this is never stated). Along with Hands and Merry tipped a "black spot" on Silver and forced Silver to start the mutiny before the treasure was found.
Mr. Arrow: The first mate of the Hispaniola. He drinks despite there being a rule about no alcohol on board and is useless as a first mate. He mysteriously disappears before they get to the island and his position is filled by Job Anderson. (Silver had secretly given him access to alcohol and he fell drunkenly overboard on a stormy night.)
Black Dog: Formerly a member of Flint's pirate crew, later one of Pew's companions who visits the Admiral Benbow. Spotted by Jim and chased by two of Silver's men, but disappears from sight. Two fingers are missing from his left hand.
Captain Flint: John Flint, the fictional pirate Captain of the Walrus. After robbing and looting towns and ships among the Spanish Main, in August 1750 he took six of his own crew onto Treasure Island. After building a stockade and burying the bulk of his looted treasure, he killed all six men. In July 1754 he died at Savannah, Georgia, of Cyanosis, caused by drinking too much rum. While dying he gives his treasure map to Billy Bones. Long John Silver's parrot is named after Captain Flint. Several members of his crew figure in the story: William "Billy" Bones, the ship's first mate; Long John Silver, the ship's quartermaster; Israel Hands, the ship's chief gunner; Allardyce, used as Flint's "pointer" to the treasure; Job Anderson, the Hispaniola boatswain and mutineer; Dirk, one of Pew's henchmen in the assault on the Admiral Benbow inn; Black Dog, another of Pew's henchmen in the assault on the Admiral Benbow inn; Benjamin Gunn, the island maroon; John, a Hispaniola mutineer, possibly one of Pew's henchmen on the assault on the Admirial Benbow inn; Tom Morgan, a Hispaniola mutineer; Blind Pew, the blind murderous beggar; and an unnamed mutineer of the Hispaniola marooned with Morgan and Johnson on Treasure Island.
Abraham Gray: A ship's carpenter on the Hispaniola. He is almost incited to mutiny, but remains loyal to the Squire's side when asked to do so by Captain Smollett. He saves Hawkins' life by killing Job Anderson during an attack on the stockade, and he helps shoot the mutineers at the rifled treasure cache. He later escapes the island together with Jim Hawkins, Dr. Livesey, Squire Trelawney, Captain Smollett, Long John Silver, and Ben Gunn. He spends his part of the treasure on his education, marries, and becomes part owner of a full-rigged ship.
Benjamin "Ben" Gunn: A former member of Flint's crew who became half insane after being marooned for three years on Treasure Island, having convinced another ship's crew that he was capable of finding Flint's treasure. Helps Jim by giving him the location of his homemade boat and kills two of the mutineers. After Dr. Livesey gives him what he most craves (cheese), Gunn reveals that he has found the treasure. In Spanish America he lets Silver escape, and in England spends his share of the treasure (£ 1,000) in 19 days, becoming a beggar until he becomes keeper at a lodge and a church singer "on Sundays and holy days".
Mr. Dance: Chief revenue officer (titled: Supervisor) who ascends with his men upon the Admiral Benbow, driving out the pirates, and saving Jim Hawkins and his mother. He then takes Hawkins to see the squire and the doctor.
Dogger: One of Mr Dance's associates, who doubles Hawkins on his horse to the squire's house.
Israel Hands: The ship's coxswain and Flint's old gunner. Killed on Hispaniola by Jim after he tries to murder Hawkins.
John: A mutineer who is injured while trying to storm the blockhouse. He is later shown with a bandaged head and ends up being killed at the rifled treasure cache.
Mr. and Mrs. Hawkins: The parents of Jim Hawkins. Mr. Hawkins dies shortly after the beginning of the story.
John Hunter: The other manservant of Squire Trelawney. He also accompanies him to the island, but is later knocked unconscious at an attack on the stockade. He dies of his injuries while unconscious.
Dick Johnson: A mutineer who has a Bible. The pirates use one of its pages to make a Black Spot. Mortally ill with malaria, Dick ends up being marooned on the island after the deaths of George Merry and John.
Richard Joyce: One of the manservants of Squire Trelawney, he accompanies him to the island. He is shot through the head and killed by a mutineer during an attack on the stockade.
George Merry: With Anderson and Hands he forces Silver to attack the blockhouse instead of waiting for the treasure to be found. Later killed at the empty cache just as he is about to kill both Silver and Hawkins.
Tom Morgan: An ex-pirate from Flint's old crew. He ends up marooned on the island.
O'Brien: A mutineer who survives the attack on the boathouse and escapes. He is later killed by Israel Hands in a drunken fight on the Hispaniola.
Pew: An evil and deadly blind beggar who is accidentally trampled to death by the horses of revenue officers riding to assist Jim Hawkins. Silver claims Pew spent his share of Flint's treasure (£ 1,200) in an entire year and that for two years until his accident at the "Admiral Benbow" he begged, stole, and murdered. Stevenson avoided predictability by making the two most fearsome characters a blind man and an amputee. In the play Admiral Guinea (1892), Stevenson gives him the full name "David Pew". Some film adaptations call him "Blind Pew". Stevenson's novel Kidnapped (1886) also features a dangerous blind man.
Tom Redruth: The gamekeeper of Squire Trelawney, he accompanies the Squire to the island but is shot and killed by the mutineers during an attack on the stockade.
Tom: An honest sailor. He starts to walk away from Silver who throws his crutch at him, breaking Tom's back. Silver kills Tom by stabbing him twice in the back.
Among other minor characters whose names are not revealed are the four pirates who were killed in an attack on the stockade along with Job Anderson; the pirate killed by the honest men minus Jim Hawkins before the attack on the stockade; the pirate shot by Squire Trelawney when aiming at Israel Hands, who later died of his injuries; and the pirate marooned on the island along with Tom Morgan and Dick.
Time frame[edit]
Stevenson deliberately leaves the exact date of the novel obscure, Hawkins writing that he takes up his pen "in the year of grace 17—." Stevenson's map of Treasure Island includes the annotations Treasure Island Aug 1 1750 J.F. and Given by above J.F. to Mr W. Bones Maste of ye Walrus Savannah this twenty July 1754 W B. The first of these two dates is likely the date at which Flint left his treasure at the island; the second, just prior to Flint's death. Flint is reliably reported to have died at least three years before the events of the novel (the length of time that Ben Gunn was marooned). Other dates mentioned include 1745, the date Dr. Livesey's served as a soldier at Fontenoy and also a date appearing in Billy Bones's log.
Historical allusions[edit]


 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2014)
Real pirates and piracies[edit]
Five real-life pirates mentioned are William Kidd (active 1696–99), Blackbeard (1716–18), Edward England (1717–20), Howell Davis (1718–19), and Bartholomew Roberts (1718–22). Kidd buried treasure on Gardiners Island, though the booty was recovered by authorities soon afterwards.[2]
The name "Israel Hands" was taken from that of a real pirate in Blackbeard's crew, whom Blackbeard maimed (by shooting him in the knee) simply to assure that his crew remained in terror of him. Allegedly Hands was taken ashore to be treated for his injury and was not at Blackbeard's last fight (the incident is depicted in Tim Powers' novel On Stranger Tides); this alone saved him from the gallows; supposedly he later became a beggar in England.
Silver refers to "three hundred and fifty thousand" pieces of eight at the "fishing up of the wrecked plate ships". This remark conflates two related events; first, the salvage of the treasure of the hurricane-wrecked 1715 Treasure Fleet off the coast of Florida, and second the seizure the following year of 350,000 salvaged pieces of eight (out of several million) by privateer Henry Jennings. This event is mentioned in the introduction to Johnson's General History of the Pyrates.
Silver refers to a ship's surgeon from Roberts' crew who amputated his leg and was later hanged at Cape Coast Castle, a British fortification on the Gold Coast of Africa. The records of the trial of Roberts' men list Peter Scudamore as the chief surgeon of Roberts' ship Royal Fortune. Scudamore was found guilty of willingly serving with Roberts' pirates and various related criminal acts, as well as attempting to lead a rebellion to escape once he had been apprehended. He was, as Silver relates, hanged, in 1722.
Stevenson refers to the Viceroy of the Indies, a ship sailing from Goa, India (then a Portuguese colony), which was taken by Edward England off Malabar while John Silver was serving aboard England's ship the Cassandra. No such exploit of England's is known, nor any ship by the name of the Viceroy of the Indies. However, in April 1721 the captain of the Cassandra, John Taylor (originally England's second in command who had marooned him for being insufficiently ruthless), together with his pirate partner, Olivier Levasseur, captured the vessel Nostra Senhora do Cabo near Réunion island in the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese galleon was returning from Goa to Lisbon with the Conde da Ericeira, the recently retired Viceroy of Portuguese India, aboard. The viceroy had much of his treasure with him, making this capture one of the richest pirate hauls ever. This is likely the event that Stevenson referred to, though his (or Silver's) memory of the event seems to be slightly confused. The Cassandra is last heard of in 1723 at Portobelo, Panama, a place that also briefly figures in Treasure Island as "Portobello".
The preceding two references are inconsistent, as the Cassandra (and presumably Silver) was in the Indian Ocean during the time that Scudamore was surgeon on board the Royal Fortune, in the Gulf of Guinea.
Other allusions[edit]



 Robert Louis Stevenson1689: A pirate whistles "Lillibullero" (1689).
1702: The Admiral Benbow Inn where Jim and his mother live is named after the real life Admiral John Benbow (1653–1702).
1733: Captain Flint died in the town of Savannah, Georgia, founded in 1733.
1745: Doctor Livesey was at the Battle of Fontenoy (1745).
1747: Squire Trelawney and Long John Silver both mention "Admiral Hawke", i.e. Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke (1705–81), promoted to Rear Admiral in 1747.
1749: The novel refers to the Bow Street Runners (1749).
Treasure Island was in part inspired by R. M. Ballantyne's The Coral Island,[3] which Stevenson admired for its "better qualities."[4] Stevenson alludes to Ballantyne in the epigraph at the beginning of Treasure Island, “To the Hesitating Purchaser", "...If studious youth no longer crave, His ancient appetites forgot, Kingston, or Ballantyne the brave, Or Cooper of the wood and wave..."
Possible allusions[edit]


 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2014)
Characters[edit]
Squire Trelawney may have been named for Edward Trelawney, Governor of Jamaica 1738–52.
Dr. Livesey may have been named for Joseph Livesey (1794–1884), a famous 19th-century temperance advocate, founder of the tee-total "Preston Pledge". In the novel, Dr. Livesey warns the drunkard Billy Bones that "the name of rum for you is death."[5][6]
Treasure Island[edit]



Dead Chest Island as viewed from Deadman's Bay, Peter Island


 View of Fidra from Yellowcraigs


 Map of Unst Island within Shetland
Various incompatible claims have been made that one island or another inspired Treasure Island:
Norman Island in the British Virgin Islands, supposedly mentioned to a young Stevenson by a sailor uncle.[7]
Dead Chest Island, a barren rock in the British Virgin Islands, which Stevenson found mentioned in Charles Kingsley's At Last: A Christmas in the West Indies;[8] and which he said "was the seed" for the phrase "Dead Man's Chest".[9][10]
Small pond in Queen Street Gardens in Edinburgh, said to have been visible from Stevenson's bedroom window in Heriot Row.[11]
The Napa Valley, California, where Stevenson spent his honeymoon in 1880, as narrated in his The Silverado Squatters (1883).
Osborn (now Nienstedt) Island, an island in the Manasquan River in Brielle, New Jersey. Stevenson supposedly visited the island in May 1888 (five years after writing Treasure Island) and christened it "Treasure Island"[12][13]
Fidra in the Firth of Forth, visible from North Berwick where Stevenson had spent many childhood holidays.[14]
Unst, one of the Shetland Islands, to which the map of Treasure Island bears a very vague resemblance.[15]
La Isla De La Juventud in Cuba is also associated by some with the book, and is supposed to have similarities with the map drawn by Stevenson, as well as historical connections with pirates. The island in the book is described as having pine trees running down to the shore and the Cuban island used to be called La Isla de Pinos, the Island of Pines.
In The Adventures of Ben Gunn, Gunn gives its real name as Kidd's Island, and identifies it as an outlying island of the Leeward and Windward Islands, south-south-west of Tobago (p. 119-120).
Admiral Benbow[edit]
The Llandoger Trow in Bristol is claimed to be the inspiration for the Admiral Benbow,[16] though the inn in the book is not supposed to be in Bristol.
An inn named Admiral Benbow in Penzance, Cornwall.[17]
Spyglass Tavern[edit]
The Hole in the Wall, Bristol is claimed to be the Spyglass Tavern.[18]
Flint's death house[edit]
The Pirate's House in Savannah, Georgia is where Captain Flint is claimed to have spent his last days,[19] and his ghost is claimed to haunt the property.[20]
Related works[edit]
Sequels and prequels[edit]


 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012)
Stevenson's play Admiral Guinea (published 1892), written with W. E. Henley, features the blind ex-pirate Pew as a character under the name of "David Pew".
In his collection Fables (1896), Stevenson wrote a vignette called "The Persons of the Tale", in which puppets Captain Smollet and Long John Silver discuss authorship.[21]
A. D. Howden Smith (1924) wrote a prequel, Porto Bello Gold, that tells the origin of the buried treasure, recasts many of Stevenson's pirates in their younger years, and gives the hidden treasure some Jacobite antecedents not mentioned in the original.
H. A. Calahan (1935) wrote a sequel Back to Treasure Island. Calahan argued in his introduction that Robert Louis Stevenson wanted to write a continuation of the story.
R. F. Delderfield (1956) wrote The Adventures of Ben Gunn, which follows Ben Gunn from parson's son to pirate and is narrated by Jim Hawkins in Gunn's words.
Heinrich Rosemann (1963) wrote a sequel Der Piratenkapitän (The Pirate Captain) published by Göttinger Jugendbücher W. Fischer in Göttingen, Germany and available only in the German language.[citation needed]
Frank Delaney (2001) wrote a sequel, The Curse of Treasure Island using the pseudonym "Francis Bryan".[citation needed]
Roger L. Johnson (2001) wrote Dead Man's Chest:The Sequel to Treasure Island.[citation needed]
Pascal Bertho and artist Tom McBurnie (2007) created a comic-book sequel Sept Pirates.[citation needed]
Xavier Dorison and artist Mathieu Lauffray started the French graphic novel in four books Long John Silver in 2007. The final books still have to be published in France.[citation needed]
Edward Chupack (2008) wrote a sequel, Silver: My Own Tale as Written by Me With a Goodly Amount of Murder.[citation needed]
John Drake (2008) wrote a prequel, Flint & Silver. Two more books followed: Pieces of Eight (2009) and Skull and Bones (2010).[22]
John O'Melveny Woods (2010) wrote a sequel, Return to Treasure Island.[23]
John Amrhein, Jr. (2011) wrote a true life prequel,Treasure Island: The Untold Story.[24]
Andrew Motion (2012), former Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, wrote a sequel Silver: Return to Treasure Island.[25]
References in other works[edit]
In the novel Peter and Wendy (1911) by J. M. Barrie, it is said that Captain Hook is the only man ever feared by the Old Sea Cook (Long John Silver); Captain Flint and the Walrus are also referenced. There are a few other references.
Long John Silver and Treasure Island make an appearance in the 1994 film The Pagemaster.
Spike Milligan wrote a parody, Treasure Island According to Spike Milligan (2000).
In the Swallows and Amazons series by Arthur Ransome the Amazons' (Blacketts') Uncle Jim has the nickname of Captain Flint and a parrot.
The Strong Winds trilogy of children's adventures by Julia Jones draws freely from events and names in Treasure Island.[26][27]
In the animated series Fox's Peter Pan and the Pirates (based in part on the original Peter Pan stories) Captain Flint is referenced in the episode "Peter on Trial", as Captain Hook is stated as being the only man that a pirate named Barbecue is stated to fear, with the following statement being that 'Even Flint feared Barbecue', referring to Captain Flint from Treasure Island. In the same episode, Flint is referenced as being the pirate who supposedly conceived of the idea of pirates putting members of their crew, or their prisoners as the case might be, on trial in an event called 'Captain's Mast'.
Adaptations[edit]
Film and TV[edit]
There have been over 50 movie and TV versions made.[28] Some of the notable ones include:
Film



 Poster for the 1934 film Treasure Island, the first talkie adaptation of the novelTreasure Island (1918), a silent version released by Fox Film Corporation and directed by Sidney Franklin[29]
Treasure Island (1920), a silent version starring Shirley Mason, released by Paramount Pictures and directed by Maurice Tourneur. Lost film.
Treasure Island (1934), starring Jackie Cooper and Wallace Beery. An MGM production, the first sound film version.
Treasure Island (ru) (1937), a loose Soviet adaptation starring Osip Abdulov and Nikolai Cherkasov, with a score by Nikita Bogoslovsky.
Treasure Island (1950), starring Bobby Driscoll and Robert Newton. Notable for being the Walt Disney Studios' first completely live action film. The first version in color. A sequel to this version was made in 1954, entitled Long John Silver.
Treasure Island (ru) (1971), a Soviet (Lithuanian) film starring Boris Andreyev, with a score by Alexei Rybnikov.
Animal Treasure Island (1971), an anime film directed by Hiroshi Ikeda and written by Takeshi Iijima and Hiroshi Ikeda with story consultation by famous animator Hayao Miyazaki. This version replaced several of the human characters with animal counterparts.
Treasure Island (1972), starring Orson Welles.
Treasure Island (1982), a Soviet film in three parts; almost entirely faithful to the text of the novel. Featuring Oleg Borisov as Long John Silver.
L'Île au trésor (1985), a Chilean-French adaptation starring Vic Tayback as Long John Silver.
Il Pianeta Del Tesoro - Treasure Planet (1987), Italian/German science-fiction adaptation, also known as Treasure Island in Outer Space, starring Anthony Quinn as Long John Silver.
Treasure Island (1988), a critically acclaimed Soviet animation film in two parts. Released in the USA (1992) as Return to Treasure Island.
Treasure Island (1990), starring Christian Bale, Charlton Heston, Christopher Lee and Pete Postlethwaite. A made-for-TV film written, produced and directed by Heston's son, Fraser C. Heston.
Treasure Island (1995), a made-for-TV movie directed by Ken Russell and starring Hetty Baynes as Long Jane Silver.
Muppet Treasure Island (1996), a Jim Henson version released by Disney and starring the Muppets, including Kermit the Frog as Captain Smollett, Miss Piggy as a female Benjamin Gunn, appropriately named Benjamina Gunn, Fozzie Bear as Squire Trelawney, Dr. Bunsen Honeydew as Dr. Livesey, and Sam the Eagle as Mr. Samuel Arrow. The Great Gonzo and Rizzo the Rat, thanks to their success of narrating The Muppet Christmas Carol, have their own roles in the film as themselves, being best friends to Jim Hawkins. The human performers include Tim Curry as Long John Silver, Billy Connolly as Billy Bones, Jennifer Saunders as Mrs. Bluberidge, and newcomer Kevin Bishop as Jim Hawkins.
Treasure Island (1999), starring Kevin Zegers and Jack Palance.
Treasure Planet (2002), a Disney animated version set in space, with Long John Silver as a cyborg and many of the original characters re-imagined as aliens and robots, except for Jim and his mother, who are human.
Pirates of Treasure Island (2006), a direct-to-DVD film by The Asylum, which was released one month before Dead Man's Chest.
Die Schatzinsel (2007), a loosely adapted version in German, starring German and Austrian actors, of the original novel.
TV
The Adventures of Long John Silver (1955), 26 episodes shot at Pagewood Studios, Sydney, Australia filmed in full colour and starring Robert Newton.
Mr. Magoo's Treasure Island (1964), a two-part episode of the cartoon series The Famous Adventures of Mr. Magoo, was based on the novel, with Mr. Magoo in the role of Long John Silver.
Die Schatzinsel (de) (1966), a German-French co-production for German television station ZDF.
Treasure Island (1968), a BBC series of nine 25-minute episodes starring Peter Vaughn.
Treasure Island (1977), a BBC adaptation Starring Ashley Knight and Alfred Burke.
Treasure Island (Takarajima) (1978), a Japanese animated series adapted from the novel.
Treasure Island (1988), an episode of Alvin and the Chipmunks starring Alvin as Jim Hawkins, Dave as Long John Silver, Simon as Dr. Livesey, Theodore as Squire Trelawney, and Brittany as Mrs. Hawkins.
The Legends of Treasure Island (1993), an animated series loosely based on the novel, with the characters as animals.
In the Wishbone episode "Salty Dog", Wishbone explores the story in a children's adapted version.
Treasure Island (2012), two-part mini-series shown on Sky1 (United Kingdom) from 1–2 January.
Black Sails (2014), a prequel drama series to be premiered in 2014 on Starz (United States of America).
A number of Return to Treasure Island sequels have been produced, including a 1986 Disney mini-series, a 1992 animation version, and a 1996 and 1998 TV version.
Theatre and radio[edit]
There have been over 24 major stage and radio adaptations made.[30] The number of minor adaptations remains countless.
Orson Welles broadcast a radio adaptation via The Mercury Theatre on the Air on July 1938; half in England, half on the Island; omits "My Sea Adventure"; music by Bernard Herrmann; Available online.
In 1947, a production was mounted at the St. James's Theatre in London, starring Harry Welchman as Long John Silver and John Clark as Jim Hawkins.
For a time, in London there was an annual production at the Mermaid Theatre, originally under the direction of Bernard Miles, who played Long John Silver, a part he also played in a television version. Comedian Spike Milligan would often play Ben Gunn in these productions, and in 1981 Tom Baker played Long John Silver.
Pieces of Eight, a musical adaptation by Jule Styne, premiered in Edmonton, Alberta, in 1985.
The Henegar Center for the Arts in downtown historic Melbourne, Florida ran an adaptation in August 2009.
The story is also a popular plot and setting for a traditional pantomime where Mrs. Hawkins, Jim's mother is the dame.
On 18 February 2011, a play adaptation by Richard Rose opened at Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia.
In 2011, Tom Hewitt starred in B.H. Barry and Vernon Morris’s stage adaptation of the novel, which officially opened March 5 at the Irondale Center in Brooklyn.[31]
In July 2011, Bristol Old Vic staged a large-scale outdoor production of Treasure Island outside the theatre on King Street, Bristol directed by Sally Cookson, with music by Benji Bower.
In late 2012 Big Finish Productions announced that they were producing an audio-book adaption of Treasure Island, written and directed by Barnaby Edwards and starring Tom Baker as Long John Silver, Nicholas Farrell as the Narrator and Edward Holtom as the story's main protagonist, Jim Hawkins. The audio-book is scheduled for release in March 2013.
From October 2013 to 2014 Mind the Gap Theatre Company, the UK's leading theatre company working with actors with learning disabilities embarks on a national tour of Treasure Island, retold with a twist by Olivier award-winning writer Mike Kenny.
In 2013, YouthPlays published Long Joan Silver by Arthur M. Jolly, an adaptation where all of the pirates are women.
Books[edit]
Charles Sheffield's 1993 novel Godspeed was a science-fictional retelling of Treasure Island, recasting the search for pirate treasure as the search for lost faster-than-light drive technology.
Music[edit]
The Ben Gunn Society album released in 2003 presents the story centered around the character of Ben Gunn, based primarily on Chapter XV "Man of the Island" and other relevant parts of the book.
Treasure Island song from Running Wild's album named Pile of Skulls (1992). This song tells the novel's story.
The Goo Goo Dolls frontman John Rzeznik performed the songs "I'm Still Here (Jim's Theme)" and "Always Know Where You Are" for Disney's animated film Treasure Planet, .
Software[edit]
A computer game based loosely on the novel was issued by Commodore in the mid-1980s for the Plus/4 home computer, written by Greg Duddley. A graphical adventure game, the player takes the part of Jim Hawkins travelling around the island dispatching pirates with cutlasses before getting the treasure and being chased back to the ship by Long John Silver.
A game based on the book is also available for the ZX Spectrum. It was released in 1984 by Mr. Micro Ltd.
In 1985 another adventure game was named Treasure Island and based upon the novel. It was published by Windham Classics.[32]
Disney has released various video games based on the animated film Treasure Planet, including Treasure Planet: Battle at Procyon.
Treasure Island (2010) is a hidden objects game launched by French publisher Anuman Interactive.[33]
Original manuscripts[edit]
Half of Stevenson's original manuscripts are lost, including those of Treasure Island, The Black Arrow and The Master of Ballantrae. Stevenson's heirs sold Stevenson's papers during World War I; many of Stevenson's documents were auctioned off in 1918.[34]
Footnotes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Cordingly, David (1995) Under the Black Flag: the romance and reality of life among the pirates; p. 7
2.Jump up ^ Adams, Cecil The Straight Dope: Did pirates bury their treasure? Did pirates really make maps where "X marks the spot"? 5 October 2007
3.Jump up ^ Brantlinger, Patrick (2009), Victorian Literature and Postcolonial Studies, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-3304-3, p 33
4.Jump up ^ "The Coral Island", Children's Literature Review, January 2009, retrieved 4 May 2012 – via HighBeam (subscription required)
5.Jump up ^ Reed, Thomas L. (2006). The Transforming Draught: Jekyll and Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson, and the Victorian Alcohol Debate mustache. Pages 71-73.
6.Jump up ^ Hothersall, Barbara. "Joseph Livesey". Retrieved 24 December 2009.[dead link]
7.Jump up ^ "Where's Where" (1974) (Eyre Methuen, London) ISBN 0-413-32290-4
8.Jump up ^ At Last: A Christmas in the West Indies (1871)
9.Jump up ^ David Cordingly. Under the Black Flag: The Romance and the Reality of Life Among the Pirates. ISBN 0-679-42560-8.
10.Jump up ^ Robert Louis Stevenson. "To Sidney Colvin. Late May 1884", in Selected Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson. Page 263.
11.Jump up ^ "Brilliance of 'World's Child' will come alive at storytelling event", (Scotsman, 20 October 2005).
12.Jump up ^ Richard Harding Davis (1916). Adventures and Letters of Richard Harding Davis. See page 5[dead link] from Project Gutenberg.
13.Jump up ^ [1][dead link] History of Brielle
14.Jump up ^ "Fidra". Gazetteer for Scotland. Retrieved 18 June 2008.
15.Jump up ^ Unst island website
16.Jump up ^ "Bristol's history". Visit Bristol. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
17.Jump up ^ "Admiral Benbow in Penzance, Mousehole, Land's End Peninsula, Pubs". Intocornwall.com. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
18.Jump up ^ Townsend (9 December 2007). "Hole in the Wall Queen Square Bristol". Flickr. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
19.Jump up ^ "The Pirates House history". Thepirateshouse.com. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
20.Jump up ^ "Ghost of Captain Flint". CNN. 31 October 2003. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
21.Jump up ^ Stevenson, Robert Louis. Fables.
22.Jump up ^ John Drake books at WorldCat
23.Jump up ^ Return to Treasure Island at WorldCat
24.Jump up ^ "Treasure Island: The Untold Story or The Real Treasure Island". New Maritima Press. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
25.Jump up ^ Silver: Return to Treasure Island by Andrew Motion – review by Ian Sansom in The Guardian, 30 March 2012
26.Jump up ^ "Strong Winds Trilogy: The Salt-Stained Book by Julia Jones and Claudia Myatt". The Bookbag. June 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2012.
27.Jump up ^ "Characters develop nicely in book two". Otago Daily Times. 18 February 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
28.Jump up ^ Dury, Richard. Film adaptations of Treasure Island.
29.Jump up ^ "SilentEra entry". Silentera.com. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
30.Jump up ^ Dury, Richard. Stage and Radio adaptations of Treasure Island.
31.Jump up ^ "Tom Hewitt Is Long John Silver in Treasure Island, Opening March 5 in Brooklyn". Playbill. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
32.Jump up ^ Treasure Island at MobyGames; Treasure Island at GameFAQs; Sol Guber: Treasure Island, Antic Vol. 5 Nr.1, 5/1986, p.81.
33.Jump up ^ http://www.mcvuk.com/press-releases/read/anuman-interactive-announces-the-signing-of-a-distribution-agreement-with-nobilis/087169
34.Jump up ^ "Bid to trace lost Robert Louis Stevenson manuscripts". BBC News. 9 July 2010.
References[edit]
Cordingly, David (1995). Under the Black Flag: The Romance and Reality of Life Among the Pirates. ISBN 0-679-42560-8
Letley, Emma, ed. (1998). Treasure Island (Oxford World's Classics). ISBN 0-19-283380-4
Pietsch, Roland (2010). The Real Jim Hawkins: Ships' Boys in the Georgian Navy. ISBN 978-1-84832-036-9
Reed, Thomas L. (2006). The Transforming Draught: Jekyll and Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson, and the Victorian Alcohol Debate. ISBN 0-7864-2648-9
Watson, Harold (1969). Coasts of Treasure Island;: A study of the backgrounds and sources for Robert Louis Stevenson's romance of the sea. ISBN 0-8111-0282-3
External links[edit]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Treasure Island

 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Treasure Island.
Editions
Treasure Island at Project Gutenberg
Treasure Island, scanned and illustrated books at Internet Archive. Notable editions include: Treasure Island, 1911 Scribner's, illustrated by N. C. Wyeth. See also alternate edition (better quality scan, some images missing).
Treasure Island, 1915 Harpers, illustrated by Louis Rhead.
Treasure Island, 1912 Scribner's "Biographical Edition", includes essays by Mr and Mrs Stevenson.
Treasure Island, 1911 Ginn and Company, lengthy introduction and notes by Frank Wilson Cheney Hersey (Harvard University).
Treasure Island, with an Introduction and notes by Franklin T Baker (Columbia University, 1909). Fully annotated online.
Treasure Island, free audiobook from Archive.org.
Treasure Island, audiobook from Librivox
Treasure Island - Full text and audio website.
Treasure Island, A.L. Burt Company, 1890.


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The Old Man and the Sea
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For other uses, see The Old Man and the Sea (disambiguation).
The Old Man and the Sea
Original book cover
Author
Ernest Hemingway
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Novel[1]
Publisher
Charles Scribner's Sons

Publication date
 1952
Media type
Print (hardcover and paperback)
Pages
127
ISBN
0-684-80122-1
The Old Man and the Sea is a novel[2] written by the American author Ernest Hemingway in 1951 in Cuba, and published in 1952. It was the last major work of fiction to be produced by Hemingway and published in his lifetime. One of his most famous works, it centers upon Santiago, an aging fisherman who struggles with a giant marlin far out in the Gulf Stream.[3] The Old Man and the Sea was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1953 and was cited by the Nobel Committee as contributing to the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Literature to Hemingway in 1954.


Contents  [hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Background and publication
3 Literary significance and criticism 3.1 Santiago as a Spaniard
3.2 Religion as a motif
3.3 An unrealistic novel
4 References 4.1 Sources
5 Further reading
6 External links

Plot summary[edit]
The Old Man and the Sea is the story of a battle between an old, experienced fisherman and a large marlin. The novel opens with the explanation that the fisherman, who is named Santiago, has gone 84 days without catching a fish. Santiago is considered "salao", the worst form of unluckiness. In fact, he is so unlucky that his young apprentice, Manolin, has been forbidden by his parents to sail with the old man and been ordered to fish with more successful fishermen. Still dedicated to the old man, however, the boy visits Santiago's shack each night, hauling back his fishing gear, getting him food and discussing American baseball and his favorite player Joe DiMaggio. Santiago tells Manolin that on the next day, he will venture far out into the Gulf Stream, north of Cuba in the Straits of Florida to fish, confident that his unlucky streak is near its end.
Thus on the eighty-fifth day, Santiago sets out alone, taking his skiff far onto the Gulf Stream. He sets his lines and, by noon of the first day, a big fish that he is sure is a marlin takes his bait. Unable to pull in the great marlin, Santiago instead finds the fish pulling his skiff. Two days and two nights pass in this manner, during which the old man bears the tension of the line with his body. Though he is wounded by the struggle and in pain, Santiago expresses a compassionate appreciation for his adversary, often referring to him as a brother. He also determines that because of the fish's great dignity, no one will be worthy of eating the marlin. On the third day of the ordeal, the fish begins to circle the skiff, indicating his tiredness to the old man. Santiago, now completely worn out and almost in delirium, uses all the strength he has left in him to pull the fish onto its side and stab the marlin with a harpoon, ending the long battle between the old man and the tenacious fish. Santiago straps the marlin to the side of his skiff and heads home, thinking about the high price the fish will bring him at the market and how many people he will feed.
While Santiago continues his journey back to the shore, sharks are attracted to the trail of blood left by the marlin in the water. The first, a great mako shark, Santiago kills with his harpoon, losing that weapon in the process. He makes a new harpoon by strapping his knife to the end of an oar to help ward off the next line of sharks; in total, five sharks are slain and many others are driven away. But the sharks keep coming, and by nightfall the sharks have almost devoured the marlin's entire carcass, leaving a skeleton consisting mostly of its backbone, its tail and its head. Finally reaching the shore before dawn on the next day, Santiago struggles on the way to his shack, carrying the heavy mast on his shoulder. Once home, he slumps onto his bed and falls into a deep sleep.
A group of fishermen gather the next day around the boat where the fish's skeleton is still attached. One of the fishermen measures it to be 18 feet (5.5 m) from nose to tail. Tourists at the nearby café mistakenly take it for a shark. Manolin, worried during the old man's endeavor, cries upon finding him safe asleep. The boy brings him newspapers and coffee. When the old man wakes, they promise to fish together once again. Upon his return to sleep, Santiago dreams of his youth—of lions on an African beach.
Background and publication[edit]
Written in 1951, and published in 1952, The Old Man and the Sea is Hemingway's final work published during his lifetime. The book, dedicated to Hemingway's literary editor Maxwell Perkins,[4] was featured in Life magazine on September 1, 1952, and five million copies of the magazine were sold in two days.[5] The Old Man and the Sea also became a Book of the Month Club selection, and made Hemingway a celebrity.[6] Published in book form on September 1, 1952, the first edition print run was 50,000 copies.[7] The illustrated edition featured black and white illustrations by Charles Tunnicliffe and Raymond Sheppard. The novel received the Pulitzer Prize in May, 1953,[8] and was specifically cited when he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954.[9][10] The success of The Old Man and the Sea made Hemingway an international celebrity.[6] The Old Man and the Sea is taught at schools around the world and continues to earn foreign royalties.[11]



No good book has ever been written that has in it symbols arrived at beforehand and stuck in. ... I tried to make a real old man, a real boy, a real sea and a real fish and real sharks. But if I made them good and true enough they would mean many things.
Ernest Hemingway in 1954[12]
Hemingway wanted to use the story of the old man, Santiago, to show the honor in struggle and to draw biblical parallels to life in his modern world. Possibly based on the character of Gregorio Fuentes, Hemingway had initially planned to use Santiago's story, which became The Old Man and the Sea, as part of an intimacy between mother and son and also the fact of relationships that cover most of the book relate to the Bible, which he referred to as "The Sea Book." (He also referred to the Bible as the "Sea of Knowledge" and other such things.) Some aspects of it did appear in the posthumously published Islands in the Stream. Hemingway mentions the real life experience of an old fisherman almost identical to that of Santiago and his marlin in On the Blue Water: A Gulf Stream Letter (Esquire, April 1936).[13][14]
Literary significance and criticism[edit]
The Old Man and the Sea served to reinvigorate Hemingway's literary reputation and prompted a reexamination of his entire body of work. The novel was initially received with much popularity; it restored many readers' confidence in Hemingway's capability as an author. Its publisher, Scribner's, on an early dust jacket, called the novel a "new classic," and many critics favorably compared it with such works as William Faulkner's "The Bear" and Herman Melville's Moby-Dick.
Santiago as a Spaniard[edit]
"'Eyes the Same Color of the Sea': Santiago's Expatriation from Spain and Ethnic Otherness in Hemingway's The Old Man and the Sea"[15] focuses on the old man's national identity. Using baseball references, the article points out that Santiago was at least 22 years old when he moved from Spain to Cuba. "Born in Spain’s Canary Islands, Santiago moved to Cuba as a young man; this circumstance has a significant impact on his social condition."[16] Santiago was old enough to have a Spanish identity when he immigrated, and the article examined how being a foreigner (and from a country that colonized Cuba) would influence his life on the island. Because Santiago was too poor to move back to Spain—many Spaniards moved to Cuba and then back to Spain at that time—he adopted Cuban culture like religious ceremonies, Cuban Spanish, and fishing in skiffs in order to acculturate in the new country.
Gregorio Fuentes, who many critics believe was an inspiration for Santiago, was a blue-eyed man born on Lanzarote in the Canary Islands. After going to sea at age ten on ships that called in African ports, he migrated permanently to Cuba when he was 22. After 82 years in Cuba, Fuentes attempted to reclaim his Spanish citizenship in 2001.[17]
Religion as a motif[edit]
Joseph Waldmeir's essay "Confiteor Hominem: Ernest Hemingway's Religion of Man" is a favorable critical reading of the novel—and one which has defined analytical considerations since. Perhaps the most memorable claim therein is Waldmeir's answer to the question—What is the book's message?
"The answer assumes a third level on which The Old Man and the Sea must be read—as a sort of allegorical commentary on all his previous work, by means of which it may be established that the religious overtones of The Old Man and the Sea are not peculiar to that book among Hemingway's works, and that Hemingway has finally taken the decisive step in elevating what might be called his philosophy of Manhood to the level of a religion."[18]
Waldmeir was one of the most prominent critics to wholly consider the function of the novel's Christian imagery, made most evident through Hemingway's obvious reference to the crucifixion of Christ following Santiago's sighting of the sharks that reads:
"‘Ay,′ he said aloud. There is no translation for this word and perhaps it is just a noise such as a man might make, involuntarily, feeling the nail go through his hands and into the wood."[19]
An unrealistic novel[edit]



 Ernest Hemingway and Henry ("Mike") Strater with the remaining 500 lbs of an estimated 1000 lb marlin that was half-eaten by sharks before it could be landed in the Bahamas in 1935. See Pilar for details of this episode.
One of the most outspoken critics of The Old Man and the Sea is Robert P. Weeks. His 1962 piece "Fakery in The Old Man and the Sea" presents his claim that the novel is a weak and unexpected divergence from the typical, realistic Hemingway (referring to the rest of Hemingway's body of work as "earlier glories").[20] In juxtaposing this novel against Hemingway's previous works, Weeks contends:
"The difference, however, in the effectiveness with which Hemingway employs this characteristic device in his best work and in The Old Man and the Sea is illuminating. The work of fiction in which Hemingway devoted the most attention to natural objects, The Old Man and the Sea, is pieced out with an extraordinary quantity of fakery, extraordinary because one would expect to find no inexactness, no romanticizing of natural objects in a writer who loathed W.H. Hudson, could not read Thoreau, deplored Melville's rhetoric in Moby Dick, and who was himself criticized by other writers, notably Faulkner, for his devotion to the facts and his unwillingness to 'invent.'"[20]
Some critics suggest "The Old Man and the Sea" was Hemingway's reaction towards the criticism of his most recent work, Across the River and into the Trees.[21] The negative reviews for Across the River and into the Trees distressed him, and may have been a catalyst to his writing of The Old Man and the Sea.
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Life (Time Inc) 33 (8). 25 August 1952. ISSN 0024-3019. "Hemingway's work is a 27,000-word novel called The Old Man and the Sea."
2.Jump up ^ Time Inc (25 August 1952). LIFE. Time Inc. pp. 124–. ISSN 00243019. Retrieved 7 May 2013. "Hemingway's work is a 27,000-word novel called The Old Man and the Sea."
3.Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved January 31, 2005.
4.Jump up ^ Perkins, Maxwell (2004). Bruccoli, Matthew J.; Baughman, Judith, eds. The sons of Maxwell Perkins: letters of F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, Thomas Wolfe, and their editor. University of South Carolina Press. p. xxvii. ISBN 1-57003-548-2.
5.Jump up ^ "A Hemingway timeline Any man's life, told truly, is a novel". The Kansas City Star (KansasCity.com). June 27, 1999. Retrieved 2009-08-29.
6.^ Jump up to: a b Desnoyers, p. 13
7.Jump up ^ Oliver 1999, p. 247
8.Jump up ^ Meyers 1985, p. 489
9.Jump up ^ "Heroes:Life with Papa". TIME. November 8, 1954. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
10.Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved October 4, 2009.
11.Jump up ^ Meyers 1985, p. 485
12.Jump up ^ "Books: An American Storyteller". TIME. December 13, 1954. Retrieved February 1, 2011.
13.Jump up ^ Old Man and the Sea. Introduction: The Ripening of a Masterpiece. Simon and Schuster. Retrieved September 29, 2012.
14.Jump up ^ Hemingway, Ernest (edited by William White) (1967). By-Line: Ernest Hemingway. Selected articles and dispatches of four decades. New York: Scribner's.
15.Jump up ^ "Eyes the Same Color as the Sea and the heart and soul of foul animals.". Retrieved August 28, 2013.
16.Jump up ^ Herlihy, Jeffrey (2009). "Eyes the same color as the Sea: Santiago's Expatriation from Spain and Ethnic Otherness in Hemingway's The Old Man and the Sea". The Hemingway Review. XXVIII: 25–44. doi:10.1353/hem.0.0030.
17.Jump up ^ "El pescador que inspiró a Hemingway ‘El viejo y el mar’ recupera la nacionalidad española". Retrieved June 7, 2013.
18.Jump up ^ *Joseph Waldmeir (1957). "Confiteor Hominem: Ernest Hemingway's Religion of Man". Papers of the Michigan Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters XLII: 349–356.
19.Jump up ^ Hemingway, Ernest (0000). The Old Man and the Sea. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.  hardcover: ISBN 0-684-83049-3, paperback: ISBN 0-684-80122-1
20.^ Jump up to: a b Robert P. Weeks (1962). "Fakery in The Old Man and the Sea". College English XXIV: 188–192. doi:10.2307/373283.
21.Jump up ^ Meyers 1985, p. 440
Sources[edit]
Baker, Carlos (1972). Hemingway: The Writer as Artist (4th ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01305-5.
Desnoyers, Megan Floyd. "Ernest Hemingway: A Storyteller's Legacy". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library Online Resources. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Retrieved December 9, 2011.
Meyers, Jeffrey (1985). Hemingway: A Biography. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-42126-4.
Mellow, James R. (1992). Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-37777-3.
Oliver, Charles M. (1999). Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work. New York: Checkmark. ISBN 0-8160-3467-2.
Further reading[edit]
Young, Philip (1952). Ernest Hemingway. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. ISBN 0-8166-0191-7.
Jobes, Katharine T., ed. (1968). Twentieth Century Interpretations of The Old Man and the Sea. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-633917-4.
External links[edit]
Read Online at Classic Literature
Hemingway Archives, John F. Kennedy Library
The Old Man and the Sea—slideshow by Life magazine
Rare, Unseen: Hemingway in Cuba—slideshow by Life magazine
"Hemingway's fisherman the Old Man of the Sea dies"—BBC News
"Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure: Cuba". PBS. Retrieved January 21, 2006.

Awards and achievements
Preceded by
Winston Churchill
 1953 Nobel Prize in Literature
 1954 Succeeded by
Halldór Laxness
 1955


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Categories: 1952 novels
American novels adapted into films
20th-century American novels
Books by Ernest Hemingway
Charles Scribner's Sons books
Novels about animals
Novels by Ernest Hemingway
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction winning works
Fish in popular culture






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